MRD-102: Rural Development Programmes

Comprehensive Study Notes (Based on PYQ 2010–2023)

IGNOU | MA (Rural Development) / PG Diploma / CRD

Exam Pattern: 5 Questions | Q1 & Q2 = 20 marks (800 words) | Q3 = 10 marks each (400 words) | Q4 = 5 marks each (200 words) |
Q5 = 4 marks each (100 words)

UNIT 1: POVERTY ALLEVIATION & SELF-HELP GROUPS

Approaches to Poverty Alleviation (Frequently asked: 2010, 2013, 2014, 2018)

● Pre-1991 approach: Growth with redistribution; focus on trickle-down theory

● Direct attack approach: Targeted programmes for the poor (IRDP, TRYSEM)
● Basic Needs approach: Providing minimum needs — food, shelter, health, education
● Asset-based approach: Transfer of productive assets to the poor
● Employment-based approach: Wage and self-employment schemes (NREP, SGRY)
● Participatory approach: Involving communities through SHGs and PRIs
● Post-1991: Liberalisation; shift towards micro-finance and market-based solutions
● Impact: Poverty ratio declined from ~55% (1973) to ~22% (2011-12) but rural-urban gap persists

Concept of Basic Needs (Asked: 2010, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017)

● Concept developed by ILO in 1976 World Employment Conference

● Two categories:
○ Minimum private consumption: Food, shelter, clothing
○ Essential public services: Safe water, sanitation, education, health care, public transport
● Basic Needs Strategy aims at eliminating mass poverty within a generation
● India's Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) is rooted in this concept

Self-Help Groups (SHGs) (Most frequently asked: 2010, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2021, 2022)

● Definition: Small homogeneous groups (10–20 members), usually women, who save regularly and access credit
● Stages of Evolution:
1. Pre-SHG phase (pre-1970s): Informal savings groups; chit funds; nidhis
2. Experimentation phase (1970s–80s): SEWA in Gujarat; Grameen Bank model in Bangladesh
3. Linkage Banking phase (1992): NABARD launches SHG-Bank Linkage Programme
4. Scaling up (1999 onwards): Integration into SGSY; massive government support
5. Current phase: SHGs linked with markets, federations and digital platforms
● Key features: Regular savings, internal lending, group collateral, peer pressure, financial discipline
● NABARD role: Provided refinance; by 2020, over 10 million SHGs linked with banks
● SGSY integration: SHGs became primary delivery vehicle for self-employment in SGSY

UNIT 2: RURAL EMPLOYMENT PROGRAMMES

Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) (Asked: 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017)

● Launched: 1978–79; expanded nationally in 1980

● Genesis: Grew out of Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Project (PIREP) of 1972
● Objective: Raise income of poorest rural households above poverty line through productive assets
● Target group: BPL families; priority to SCs/STs, women, disabled
● Key features:
○ Bank-linked subsidy and loan-based programme
○ Assets provided: milch animals, bullocks, tools, equipment, land
○ Subsidy: 25–33% for general; 50% for SC/ST
● Administrative structure: Block Development Officer at field level; DRDA at district
● Criticism: Asset quality poor; leakages; duplication; mismatch between asset and skill
● Merged into SGSY in 1999

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) (Asked: 2010, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017)

● Launched: 2001 — merged Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) and Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)
● Objectives:
○ Provide wage employment and food security
○ Create durable community assets
○ Improve nutritional levels in rural areas
● Target group: All rural poor, with preference to SC/ST, parents of child labour, women
● Key features:
○ 50% wages paid in foodgrains; 50% in cash
○ 22.5% funds reserved for SC/ST; 3% for disabled
○ Implemented through PRIs (Gram Panchayat)
● Planning: Annual Action Plan prepared at block level; funds released by Central and State

Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) (Most frequently asked)

● Launched: April 1999 — replaced IRDP, TRYSEM, DWCRA, SITRA, GKY, MWS
● Objective: Bring assisted BPL families above poverty line through self-employment
● Key features:
○ Holistic programme: credit + subsidy + infrastructure + training + marketing
○ Activity clusters; group approach through SHGs
○ Subsidy: 30% (max ₹7,500) for individuals; 50% (max ₹1.25 lakh) for groups
○ 50% of swarozgaris to be women; 50% from SC/ST
● Implementation mechanism:
○ District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) as nodal agency
○ Key Activity selection through participatory planning
○ Bank credit as primary financing; subsidy as back-end
● Fund allocation: Centre:State = 75:25
● Replaced by NRLM (Aajeevika) in 2011

Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) (Asked: 2012, 2015, 2016)

● Launched 1989; merged NREP and RLEGP

● Objective: Generate supplementary wage employment for rural unemployed
● 80% funds to Gram Panchayats; 30% reserved for women
● Aim: 90-100 days employment per household
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) (Asked: 2012, 2015, 2017, 2022)

● Launched: 1993–94 in 1752 backward blocks

● Main features:
○ 100 days wage employment per year to rural poor (18–60 years)
○ Employment during lean agricultural season
○ Creation of durable community assets (roads, irrigation)
○ Preference to women (minimum 30%)
● Merged into SGRY in 2001

Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP) (Asked: 2016, 2019, 2021, 2022, 2023)

● Implemented by Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)

● Objective: Create self-employment in rural non-farm sector
● Key features:
○ Covers micro-enterprises in rural and semi-urban areas
○ Provides margin money assistance (loans with subsidy)
○ Promotes traditional crafts and industries
○ Targets artisans, SC/ST, women

Prime Minister's Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) (Asked: 2011)

● Launched: 1993 — aimed at educated unemployed youth

● Target: Individuals 18–35 years; educated to 8th standard minimum
● Features:
○ Loans up to ₹1 lakh for business; ₹2 lakh for industry
○ Subsidy of 15% (max ₹7,500)
○ Preference to women, SC/ST, ex-servicemen
○ Training before project implementation

TRYSEM (Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment) (Frequently asked)

● Launched: 1979 as a sub-programme of IRDP

● Objectives: Provide technical skills to rural youth (18–35 years) from BPL families
● Strategy:
○ Training in local occupations and traditional skills
○ Partnership with ITIs, NGOs, master craftsmen
○ Post-training credit linkage through banks
○ 40% seats for women; 50% for SC/ST
● Organizational framework: DRDA at district; training institutions as implementing agencies
● Performance: Mixed — dropout rates high; credit linkage poor; absorbed into SGSY in 1999

UNIT 3: FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) (Most frequently asked)

● Established: 1982 as apex bank for rural credit

● Role and Functions:
○ Provides refinance to cooperative banks, RRBs, commercial banks for agricultural credit
 ○ Supervises cooperative banks and RRBs
○ Promotes SHG-Bank Linkage Programme
○ Funds rural infrastructure through RIDF (Rural Infrastructure Development Fund)
○ RIDF: Created in 1995–96; funds rural roads, bridges, irrigation projects
● Micro-credit initiatives:
○ Launched SHG-Bank Linkage in 1992
○ Provides loans to MFIs for on-lending to rural poor
○ Revolving fund for SHGs
● Contribution to rural finance:
○ Long-term credit for agricultural investment
○ Short-term credit for crop production
○ Technology upgradation loans

SIDBI (Small Industries Development Bank of India) (Asked: 2014, 2018)

● Provides finance for small, micro and medium enterprises in rural areas
● Supports rural artisans, village industries, agro-industries
● Refinances banks and financial institutions lending to SSIs
● Partners with KVIC for rural enterprise development

Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) (Frequently asked: 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020, 2021)

● Established: 1993 under Ministry of Women and Child Development

● Objectives:
○ Provide credit to poor women outside formal banking system
○ Facilitate economic and developmental activities of women
● Functions:
○ Provides loans to NGOs/SHGs for on-lending to women
○ Does NOT lend directly to individual women
● Main Loan Scheme:
○ Loans at concessional rates (4% to intermediaries)
○ Intermediaries (NGOs) lend to women at up to 12%
○ No collateral required at beneficiary level
● Promotional measures:
○ Capacity building of intermediary NGOs
○ Training for credit management
○ Loan Promotion Scheme and Food Credit Scheme

National Scheduled Caste Finance and Development Corporation (Asked: 2015, 2016, 2017, 2021)

● Provides financial assistance to SC/ST for economic development

● Concessional loans for education, livelihood, micro-enterprise
● Works through State Channelising Agencies (SCAs)

UNIT 4: WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT & LAND MANAGEMENT

Watershed Development (Frequently asked: 2014, 2018)

● Watershed: A land area that drains into a common point (river/lake); natural hydrological unit
● Components of watershed development:
○ Soil and water conservation
○ Afforestation and horticulture
○ Pasture development
○ Minor irrigation works
○ Drainage line treatment
○ Village infrastructure development
● Major activities in a watershed project:
○ Contour bunds, check dams, farm ponds
○ Gully plugging, terracing
○ Plantation on common/degraded lands
○ Livestock development
○ Income generation activities for landless

Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP) (Asked: 2015, 2017, 2020, 2021)

● Objective: Development of wastelands on watershed basis to improve productivity

● Guiding principles:
○ Community participation and people's ownership
○ Watershed as unit of development
○ Integration of all land use systems
○ Equity — attention to landless and women
● Important features:
○ Project period: 5 years
○ Full cost met by Central Government
○ Gram Sabha and Watershed Committee manage implementation
○ Post-project maintenance by community

Criteria for Selection of Watersheds (Asked: 2015, 2017)

● Degree of land degradation (high priority to severely degraded)

● Presence of BPL population (poverty concentration)
● Potential for development (soil type, rainfall)
● Contiguity — forming a complete micro-watershed
● Community willingness to participate
● Availability of drinking water sources

Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) (Asked: 2013, 2015, 2017, 2020)

● Launched: 1973; covers most drought-prone districts

● Objectives: Restore ecological balance; reduce adverse effects of drought
● Key features:
○ Water harvesting, groundwater recharge
○ Afforestation and pasture development
○ Drought-resistant crops promotion
○ Employment generation during drought years
● Monitoring: By State DPAP Committees and District Collectors

Joint Forest Management (JFM) (Frequently asked: 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016)
● Definition: Partnership between state forest department and local communities for forest protection and management
● Role of Panchayati Raj Institutions:
○ Village Forest Protection Committees (VFPCs) operate under gram sabha oversight
○ PRIs help resolve conflicts over forest use
○ Gram Panchayat provides administrative support
● Key features:
○ Communities share benefits (usufruct rights)
○ Joint patrolling and protection
○ Degraded forest lands allocated to communities
● Difference from Social Forestry:
○ Social Forestry: Planting trees on non-forest lands (farm boundary, roadside)
○ JFM: Management of existing government forest land jointly with communities
● Types of Social Forestry: Farm forestry, Agro-forestry, Community woodlots, Strip plantation

UNIT 5: EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) (Asked: 2012, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2022, 2023)

● Launched: 5th Five Year Plan (1974–79)

● Components:
1. Elementary education
2. Rural health
3. Rural water supply
4. Rural roads
5. Rural electrification
6. Rural housing (Indira Awas Yojana)
7. Environmental improvement of urban slums
8. Nutrition
9. Rural sanitation
● Progress: Mixed; education and water supply improved; rural sanitation lagged
● Significance: First systematic attempt to deliver basic services to rural poor

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) (Asked: 2010, 2011, 2012, 2018)

● Launched: 2000–01; flagship programme for Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE)

● Objectives:
○ All children 6–14 years in school by 2003
○ All children complete 5 years of schooling by 2007
○ Bridging all gender and social gaps by 2010
● Key features:
○ Community ownership through Village Education Committees
○ Special focus on girls, SC/ST, disabled children
○ Teacher training, school construction, free textbooks
○ Bridge courses and back-to-school camps for out-of-school children
● Progress assessment:
○ Gross enrolment ratio increased significantly
○ But dropout and learning outcomes remained concerns
○ Made constitutional via RTE Act 2009
National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 (Asked: 2016, 2019, 2020, 2022)

● Major thrust areas:

○ Operation Blackboard: Improve physical facilities in all primary schools
○ Restructuring of curriculum based on child-centred, activity-based learning
○ Non-Formal Education for out-of-school children, working children, girls
○ Navodaya Vidyalayas: Residential schools for gifted rural students
○ District Primary Education Programme (DPEP): For universalisation in backward districts
○ Vocational education from Class IX onwards
○ Adult and continuing education — National Literacy Mission

National Literacy Mission (NLM) / Adult Education (Asked repeatedly)

● Launched: 1988 — to make 80 million illiterates (15–35 years) literate by 1995

● Total Literacy Campaign (TLC): District-based campaign; volunteers teach adults
● Features:
○ Functional literacy: reading, writing, numeracy, awareness
○ 60% target for women and weaker sections
○ Post-literacy and continuing education phases
● Saakshar Bharat: Successor programme (2009); focused on women's literacy

UNIT 6: HEALTH & FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMMES

Evolution of Health Care in India (Asked: 2016, 2018, 2022)

● Pre-Independence: Only curative, urban-focused hospitals

● Bhore Committee (1946): Recommended primary health care for villages
● Post-Independence: Three-tier system — PHC, CHC, District Hospital
● Alma Ata Declaration (1978): Health for All by 2000; PHC approach adopted
● National Health Policy 1983: Universal coverage; preventive and promotive care
● 2002 NHP: Focus on decentralisation; public-private partnership
● National Health Mission (2013): NRHM + NUHM

National Health Policy 1983 (Asked: 2012, 2015, 2017, 2018)

● Primary Health Care as main strategy

● Achieve Health for All by 2000 AD
● Emphasis on preventive and promotive health
● Training of community health workers (CHWs) and ANMs
● Integration of Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy (AYUSH)
● Decentralization of health services

Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) Programme (Asked: 2012, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020)

● Launched: 1997 — replaced earlier family welfare programmes

● Components:
○ Maternal health (ANC, safe delivery, postnatal care)
○ Child health (immunization, nutrition, ORS for diarrhoea)
 ○ Family planning (spacing methods, sterilisation)
○ RTI/STI management
○ Adolescent health services
● Key indicators: IMR, MMR, TFR, contraceptive prevalence rate

National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) (Asked: 2012, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2021, 2023)

● Launched: 1995 — provides social protection to BPL households

● Components:
○ NOAPS (National Old Age Pension Scheme): Monthly pension to destitute aged 60+ BPL; ₹200–500/month
○ NFBS (National Family Benefit Scheme): Lump sum ₹20,000 on death of primary breadwinner
○ National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS): ₹500 per child (first two live births) to BPL women
● Implementation: Through State Governments and PRIs; list maintained by Gram Panchayat

UNIT 7: FOOD SECURITY & PUBLIC DISTRIBUTION

Regional/National Food Security (Asked: 2014, 2019, 2021, 2022, 2023)

● Food security dimensions: Availability, access, utilisation, stability

● Measures to stabilise food grain prices:
○ Buffer stock maintenance by FCI
○ MSP (Minimum Support Price) procurement
○ Open market operations (release during price rise)
○ Import/export management
○ PDS for subsidised supply to poor
● Regional food security challenges: Production variability, poor storage, high transport costs, climate change

Public Distribution System (PDS) (Frequently asked)

● History: Rationing system during WWII; formalised post-independence

● Restructuring — Targeted PDS (TPDS, 1997):
○ BPL families: subsidised rice/wheat at ₹2–3/kg
○ APL families: near-economic cost
○ Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY, 2000): Poorest of poor — 35 kg/month at ₹2–3/kg
● Challenges: Ghost beneficiaries, diversion, poor quality, non-coverage of genuine poor
● Buffer Stock: Maintained by FCI for price stabilisation and TPDS supply; minimum buffer norms set

Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (Asked: 2010, 2016, 2020, 2023)

● Objective: Safe drinking water to all rural habitations

● Programmes under it:
○ Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP)
○ Minimum Needs Programme water component
○ Swajal Project (hand-pump, community maintained)
● Target standards: 40 lpcd (litres per capita per day) within 1.6 km
● Problem habitations: Classified as NP (Not Problem), PC (Partially Covered), NC (Not Covered)

Swajal Project (Asked: 2014, 2018, 2019)

● Community-managed rural water supply scheme
● Community contributes 10% of capital cost + full O&M
● Gram Panchayat or Water User Committee manages
● Policy: Demand-driven; community decides technology and location
● Promotes sustainability through community ownership

UNIT 8: RURAL HOUSING, ROADS & INFRASTRUCTURE

Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) (Asked: 2012, 2014, 2015, 2017)

● Launched: 1985 as part of RLEGP; independent scheme from 1996

● Objective: Provide pucca houses to BPL SC/ST and freed bonded labourers
● Key features:
○ Grant (not loan): ₹70,000 in plains; ₹75,000 in hilly/difficult areas (revised upward over years)
○ 60% for SC/ST; 15% for minorities; 3% for disabled
○ Beneficiary identified by Gram Sabha; constructed by beneficiary
● Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin replaced IAY in 2016

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) (Asked: 2014, 2018, 2021)

● Launched: 2000 — connect unconnected habitations with all-weather roads

● Main features:
○ Habitations with 500+ population (250+ in hill/tribal areas) to be connected
○ All-weather paved roads only (no gravel/kuccha)
○ Planning and execution through District Rural Road Plans
○ Maintenance of roads is mandatory under programme
● Fund: 100% Central Government funding

Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY) (Asked: 2010, 2013, 2020)

● Launched: 2000–01 — umbrella scheme for village-level development

● Components:
○ Grameen Awas (rural housing) — features: housing unit grant, priority to BPL SC/ST
○ Gramin Peyjal (rural drinking water)
○ Primary health care
○ Primary education
○ Rural roads
○ Nutrition

Rural Electrification (Asked repeatedly)

● Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY): Launch 2005; free connections to BPL
● Accelerated Rural Electrification Programme: Extending electrification to unelectrified villages
● Renewable energy: Solar, biogas, wind for off-grid villages
UNIT 9: SANITATION, ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT

Rural Sanitation (Asked: 2012, 2015, 2018, 2022, 2023)

● Strategies to improve rural sanitation:

○ Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC/Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan): Demand-driven; incentive to BPL
○ Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS): Triggering community to stop open defecation
○ Incentive: ₹12,000 per household toilet for BPL (under Swachh Bharat Mission)
○ School sanitation and hygiene education
○ Construction of community sanitary complexes
● Key issues: Open defecation, poor maintenance of toilets, low usage, water scarcity

Non-Conventional Energy / Renewable Energy (Asked: 2014, 2016, 2019)

● IREDA (Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency): Finance for solar, wind, biomass
● Types for rural areas:
○ Biogas plants (family and community level)
○ Solar home lighting and pumps
○ Improved chulhas (smoke-free cookstoves) — reduce indoor air pollution
○ Micro-hydel plants for hilly areas
○ Wind pumps for irrigation
● Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP): Comprehensive energy planning at district level

UNIT 10: TECHNOLOGY IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Science and Technology in Rural Development (Asked: 2013, 2014, 2019)

● Significance:
○ Increases agricultural productivity (HYV seeds, irrigation technology)
○ Improves health outcomes (vaccines, diagnostics)
○ Enhances rural connectivity (telecom, internet)
○ Supports skill development and entrepreneurship
● Applications:
○ Appropriate technology: Low-cost, locally repairable, environment-friendly
○ Remote Sensing (RS): Crop monitoring, land use mapping, disaster assessment
○ GIS (Geographic Information System): Planning rural infrastructure, watershed delineation
○ GPS (Global Positioning System): Land surveys, road alignment, disaster management
● Factors limiting use: Low awareness, lack of skilled manpower, infrastructure gaps, high cost

Remote Sensing & GIS (Asked repeatedly)

● Remote Sensing: Acquiring information about earth's surface without physical contact; satellites like IRS-1A/1B
○ Uses: Land use mapping, drought monitoring, flood assessment, watershed planning
● GIS: Computer system for capturing, storing, analysing spatial data
○ Uses: Village resource planning, road routing, beneficiary targeting, water source identification
● GPS: Determines exact location using satellite signals; used in land surveys, PMGSY road alignment
QUICK-REFERENCE: HIGH-FREQUENCY TOPICS (PYQ 2010–2023)

Topic Years Asked

SGSY / Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana 2010–2022 (almost every year)
Self-Help Groups 2010, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2021, 2022
Minimum Needs Programme 2012, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2022, 2023
NABARD 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020
Poverty Alleviation approaches 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2018
TRYSEM 2010, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
IRDP 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2019
Watershed / IWDP 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2021
RMK (Rashtriya Mahila Kosh) 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020, 2021
NSAP / NOAPS / NFBS 2012, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2021, 2023
Food Security / PDS 2012, 2014, 2019, 2021, 2022
SSA / Education 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2018
Health / RCH 2012, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020
JFM / Social Forestry 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016
PMGSY / Rural Roads 2014, 2018, 2021
GIS / GPS / Remote Sensing 2011–2022 (almost every year in Q5)

IMPORTANT SHORT-NOTE TOPICS (Q5 – 100 words each)

Micro-Finance

● Provision of small loans, savings, insurance to poor excluded from formal banking
● Delivered through SHGs, MFIs (Micro-Finance Institutions), NGOs
● Key benefits: No collateral; group guarantee; credit at doorstep
● NABARD's SHG-Bank Linkage largest micro-finance initiative in the world

Agro-Forestry / Farm Forestry

● Agro-forestry: Growing trees and crops/livestock on same land (complementary)

● Farm forestry: Farmers grow trees on their own land for commercial/fuel purpose
● Benefits: Income diversification, soil conservation, fodder, fuel, carbon sequestration

Village Eco-Development

● Sustainable development of village ecosystem

● Components: Organic farming, rainwater harvesting, waste management, renewable energy
● Promotes biodiversity conservation and livelihood from natural resources

Buffer Stock

● Stock of foodgrains (rice and wheat) maintained by FCI

● Used for: Price stabilisation (release when prices rise); PDS supply; drought/crisis relief
● Minimum buffer norms set by Government; actual stocks often exceed minimum

DWCRA (Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas)

● Sub-programme of IRDP; launched 1982–83

● Formed women's groups for self-employment and income generation
● Convergence of services: health, nutrition, education for children
● Merged into SGSY in 1999
Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP)

● Comprehensive energy planning at district/block level

● Promotes all renewable sources: biogas, solar, improved chulhas, micro-hydel
● Reduces dependence on firewood; reduces women's drudgery

Panchayati Raj System

● Three-tier: Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti (Block), Zila Parishad (District)

● 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992): Statutory status; 1/3 reservation for women
● Decentralisation of rural development: 29 subjects transferred to PRIs
● Key role in implementing MGNREGA, PMAY-G, Swachh Bharat Mission

These notes are compiled from IGNOU MRD-102 PYQs (June 2010 – June 2023). For the exam, focus on topics that appear in at least 4
exam years. Always structure long answers with Introduction → Key Points → Conclusion.