Quick Revision Notes
Dozers & Construction Methods | Contract Payment & Site Prep
PART 1 – DOZERS
1. What is a Dozer?
• Self-contained tractor providing tractive (pulling/pushing) power
• Low centre of gravity → better stability and force transfer
• Larger gap between drive force and resistance = less efficient
2. Typical Uses
• Land clearing (trees, stumps, brush)
• Dozing – pushing earth/rock (best under 300 ft / ~90 m)
• Ripping – tearing hard ground or weak rock
• Towing other equipment
• Assisting scrapers in loading
3. Types of Dozers
• Crawler (Track) Tractor – best for high traction, heavy work
• Wheel Tractor – faster; single-axle or two-axle (single/two-axle drive)
4. Performance & Traction
• Usable force is limited by traction, not just engine power
Usable Force = Coefficient of Traction × Weight on Drive Wheels
• Crawler tracks generally have higher traction than rubber tyres on soft/clay soils
• Wider tyres → more contact area → better flotation
• Larger tyres reduce developed rimpull
Coefficient of Traction – Quick Reference
<b>Surface</b> <b>Rubber Tyres</b> <b>Crawler Tracks</b>
Dry rough concrete 0.80–1.00 0.45
Dry clay loam 0.50–0.70 0.90
Wet clay loam 0.40–0.50 0.70
Wet sand & gravel 0.30–0.40 0.35
Loose dry sand 0.20–0.30 0.30
Dry snow 0.20 0.15–0.35
Ice 0.10 0.10–0.25
Example 1 – Dry clay loam: Track (45,560 lb × 0.90 = 41,004 lb) vs Wheel (45,370 lb × 0.60 = 27,222 lb). Track gives ~1.5×
more usable pull.
5. Blades
• Basic blade is C-shaped (curved vertically) with hard-steel cutting edge bolted to bottom
• Must be matched to the work task
• Straight/angle blade - pushes forward (or to one side if angled)
• Universal blade – has side wings to hold more material
Blade Adjustments
<b>Adjustment</b> <b>What it does</b>
Tilt Raises/lowers one end of blade → concentrates cutting force
Pitch Tilts top of blade toward/away from tractor → changes attack angle
Angle Rotates blade off-perpendicular → pushes material to one side (side casting)
• hp/ft of cutting edge → blade's ability to penetrate (higher = more aggressive)
• hp/lcy → blade's ability to push load (higher = faster pushing)
6. Dozer Production Estimating
• No fixed bowl/hopper – load depends on what stays in front of blade
• Three controlling factors: blade type, material type & condition, cycle time
Blade load formulas (SAE J1265):
Straight/Angle blade: Vs = 0.8 × W × H2 (lcy)
Universal blade: Vu = Vs + Z×H×(W–Z)×tan(x°) (lcy)
W = blade width (yd), H = blade height (yd), Z = wing length (yd), x = wing angle
Field measurement method:
Blade load (lcy) = 0.0139 × H × W × L (measurements in feet)
Average H1&H2; and W1&W2; L = greatest pile length
Example 2: H=5.05 ft, W=6.95 ft, L=12.6 ft → 0.0139×5.05×6.95×12.6 = 6.15 lcy
Cycle time & production:
• Push speed ≈ 1.5–2 mph | Return speed = max gear achievable
• Distances < 100 ft → can't get past 2nd gear on return
Production (lcy/hr) = (60 min × Blade Load) ÷ (Push + Return + Maneuver time)
Example 3: 6.15 lcy blade, 90 ft push @ 2 mph, return @ 4 mph → 424 lcy/hr
IH (International Harvester) rule-of-thumb formula:
Production (lcy) = (net hp × 330) ÷ (D + 50) D = push distance (ft)
Example 5: 200 hp, 90 ft → (200×330)÷140 = 471 lcy
Converting lcy → bcy (bank cubic yards):
Production (bcy/hr) = [lcy/hr ÷ (1 + Swell)] × Efficiency
Example 4: 424 lcy/hr, swell 25%, E=0.833 → 424/1.25×0.833 = 283 bcy/hr
7. Caterpillar Production Curves
• Published in Caterpillar Performance Handbook
• Based on ideal conditions: 100% efficiency, power-shift, soil 2,300 lb/lcy, traction ≥ 0.5 (track) or ≥ 0.4 (wheel)
Actual production = Curve value × Total correction factor
Key Correction Factors (Table 1):
<b>Factor</b> <b>Track</b> <b>Wheel</b>
Operator – excellent 1.00 1.00
Operator – average 0.75 0.75
Operator – poor 0.60 0.50
Loose stockpile material 1.20 1.20
Hard to cut (with tilt cyl.) 0.80 0.75
Dry non-cohesive / sticky 0.80 0.80
Rock (ripped/blasted) 0.60–0.80 –
Slot dozing 1.20 1.20
Side-by-side dozing 1.15–1.25 1.15–1.25
Poor visibility 0.80 0.80
Job efficiency 50 min/hr 0.83 0.83
Job efficiency 40 min/hr 0.67 0.67
Direct drive (0.1 min fixed) 0.80 –
Also apply: material weight correction = 2300 ÷ actual lb/lcy
Grade factor from graph: downhill (-%) raises factor; uphill (+%) lowers it
Example 6: D7G, 300 ft, slot dozing, -10% grade, average operator, 50 min/hr → total CF = 0.652 → 111 lcy/hr → 99 bcy/hr
→ $0.44/bcy
8. Land Clearing
• Crawler tractors 140–350 hp used for timber clearing
• Clear before earthmoving – organic material in fill causes future settlement
• 5 clearing operations: (1) remove trees/stumps/roots, (2) remove above-ground vegetation only, (3) stack &
burn, (4) knock down & crush/burn, (5) cut roots below surface
• Rakes used to remove roots after felling
Clearing production (constant speed, light vegetation):
Production (acre/hr) = (Width ft × Speed mph) ÷ 10 [ASAE, E=0.825]
Example 7: 8 ft width, 0.9 mph → 0.72 acre/hr → 12 acres ÷ 0.72 = 16.7 hours
9. Ripping Rock
• Rippers tear hard ground, weak rock, old pavement
• Uses crawler tractors – best for high tractive force required
• Can cost up to 50% less than drill-blast-load-haul method
• Ripper effectiveness depends on: (1) down pressure at tip, (2) tractor power/weight/traction, (3) material
properties (layered, faulted, weathered)
Rippability of Rock:
• Determined by seismic wave velocity through the rock
• Low velocity = rippable | High velocity = not rippable
• Igneous rocks lack layering → hardest to rip
• Rippability charts from Caterpillar show rippable/marginal/non-rippable zones by rock type
Ripping production estimation:
• Best: field test section → record time and weight of material
• Alternative: use manufacturer's production charts (based on seismic velocity)
• Caterpillar: increase O&O cost by 30–40% for ripping applications
• Adjusted production = chart value × (efficiency factor)
Example 8: Shale, 7,000 fps → 370 hp tractor → ideal 560 bcy/hr → adjusted (45 min) = 420 bcy/hr → cost = $0.30/bcy
PART 2 – CONTRACT PAYMENT METHODS
1. Introduction – Method of Payment
• Defines how and when the contractor gets paid
• Common methods: (a) monthly progress payments minus holdback, (b) lump sums at milestones, (c) full
payment on delivery & acceptance
2. Payment Timing
• Customers prefer to pay on final acceptance; contractors prefer advance payment
• Typical: payment within 30 days of invoice
• Watch for clauses tying payment to acceptance of invoice (not receipt) → can delay payment by
weeks/months
3. Invoicing Process
• Define exact invoice format in contract (customer format or contractor's own)
• Invoice must typically include: date, claim/invoice number, project codes, file numbers, holdbacks, amounts
billed to date, certifications, % completed, signatures from both parties
• Clearly state: name & address of person to receive invoice + number of copies required
4. Substantiating Documents
• Contract must define what supporting documents are needed per claim
• Best practice: keep documents on file at contractor's office; allow customer inspection on request
• Attaching all support docs to every invoice is time-consuming and causes payment delays
5. Holdbacks
• A holdback = portion of payment withheld until certain conditions are met
• Clarify in contract: when and how holdbacks are released
• For long contracts: consider releasing accumulated holdbacks at major milestones
6. Interest Charges
• Contract should state when interest applies on late payments
• Specify the interest rate clearly in the contract
PART 3 – GATED (PHASE-GATE) WORK PROCESS
1. What is it?
• Project divided into distinct phases separated by decision points (gates)
• At each gate: manager/committee decides → Go / Kill / Hold / Recycle / Conditional Go
• Decision based on: business case, risk analysis, resource availability
2. Standard 5-Phase Process
Phase 1 Scoping – initial assessment of idea
Phase 2 Build Business Case – detailed justification
Phase 3 Development – design and build
Phase 4 Testing & Validation – verify it works
Phase 5 Launch – release/implement
Before Phase 1: Ideation/Discovery. After Phase 5: Post-launch review.
Moderate risk → 3-phase; Simple changes → 2-phase (light) process.
3. Gate Structure
• 3 gate questions: (1) Was the previous step done well? (2) Is the project still viable? (3) Is the action plan
sound?
• Gate inputs: deliverables decided at previous gate
• Gate criteria: questions/metrics to judge the project
• Gate outputs: decision (go/kill/hold/recycle) + approved action plan + list of next deliverables
PART 4 – ESTIMATING FUNDAMENTALS
1. Responsibility
• Estimating usually falls on the salesperson (combined role = fewer errors, lower overhead)
• Separate estimator + salesperson = duplication of effort
2. Stick Estimating (Traditional – Avoid)
• List every part → estimate hours for each → list materials, subs, permits/rentals → price each item →
second-party check
• Problem: very time-consuming; rarely done carefully; material take-off not needed until job is sold
3. Unit Cost Estimating (Preferred)
• Much faster (up to 2× quicker) and just as accurate
• 3 steps: (1) List all line items/assemblies, (2) Attach unit cost to each, (3) Total and have checked
• Target: quote back to customer in 3–7 days (large jobs max 10 days)
4. Estimating Books
• Useful but often regional; may not match local build methods
• Prices may be publisher's best guess – not always accurate locally
• Calibration tip: after each job, compare book price to actual invoices; update book. In 90 days your book will
be locally accurate.
5. Computerised Estimating
• Essential today – hand estimates are slow, error-prone, outdated
• Customers expect quotes fast; manual estimates cannot keep up
• Any salesperson/estimator should be competent in estimating software
PART 5 – SITE PREPARATION
1. Site Clearing
• First task of site prep
• Remove trees, demolish old buildings, remove underground infrastructure and all obstacles
2. Site Surveying
• Verifies exact building location – required for most zoning and permits
• Surveyor sets physical markers (lathes, pins, stakes) to mark horizontal position
• Markers also show required cut or fill depth to reach design elevation
• Contractors use surveyor marks to verify horizontal and vertical location against plans
3. Soil Testing
• Done before purchasing the site
• Tests: soil composition, load-bearing capacity, water absorption
• If soil is unsuitable → consider a different site
4. Site Plan Design
• After soil testing and drainage/septic installation → update design accordingly
• Records all underground infrastructure permanently
• Shows: access roads for construction vehicles, temporary storage areas, final building position
• Site plan is a living document – updated in the field, revised in office by consultants
Compiled from ENCE 420 – Construction Equipment & Methods (Dr. Assakkaf) and BCM 208 – Contract Payment Methods. For revision use
only.