PROJECT REPORT
Classification of Living Beings
Modern Graded Science and Technology | Class 8
Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778)
Carolus Linnaeus was a Swedish scientist known as the Father of Taxonomy. He developed a simple
and scientific way to name and classify living organisms. This work helped scientists all over the world
to study plants and animals easily.
Linnaeus introduced the system of binomial nomenclature, in which each organism is given a two-part
scientific name (genus and species). His famous book Systema Naturae laid the foundation of modern
biological classification.
Inspiration: Linnaeus showed that careful observation and simple ideas can change the way the world
understands nature.
Fig. 1: Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) — Father of Taxonomy
Classification of Living Beings
All living organisms on Earth are classified into groups based on their characteristics. Carolus Linnaeus
proposed the Two-kingdom system (Plantae and Animalia). Later, R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed the
Five-kingdom system — Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
Fig. 2: Classification of Living Beings — Two-kingdom and Five-kingdom systems
3.3.1 Two-kingdom System of Classification
A. Kingdom: Plantae
Includes all green plants, mosses, ferns, colourless unicellular organisms, moulds, fungi, lichens,
bacteria and multicellular seaweeds.
• Immobile — they do not move.
• Growth is irregular and continues throughout life.
• Autotrophs — prepare food by photosynthesis.
• Reserve food in the form of starch.
• Rigid cellulosic cell wall outside the cell membrane.
• No nervous system or excretory system.
• Reproduction: vegetative, asexual and sexual.
B. Kingdom: Animalia
Includes unicellular protozoans and multicellular animals — sponges, worms, insects, frogs, birds,
mammals, etc.
• Can move or locomote.
• Growth is definite and limited to a certain period.
• No cell wall in cells.
• Heterotrophs — depend on other organisms for food.
• Well-defined nervous and excretory systems.
• Respond to a stimulus.
• Sexual reproduction — fusion of male and female gametes (zygote).
Shortcomings of Two-kingdom System
1. Euglena has characteristics of both plants and animals.
2. Fungi are heterotrophic yet were placed in Plantae.
3. Lichens do not belong to either kingdom.
4. Diatoms and Chlamydomonas could not be placed properly.
5. Absorption type of nutrition was not recognized.
3.3.2 Five-kingdom System of Classification
R.H. Whittaker, an American ecologist, proposed the five-kingdom classification in 1969 to show the
phylogenetic relationships among organisms. The five kingdoms are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae
and Animalia.
These kingdoms are formed on the basis of: complexity of cell structure, body organisation, mode and
source of nutrition, ecological role, and evolutionary characters.
Fig. 3: Phylogenetic Relationship of Five Kingdoms (Whittaker, 1969)
Table: Five-kingdom Classification — Comparative Criteria
Criteria Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
1. Complexity of Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
cell
2. Body Mostly Unicellular Multicellular Multicellular Multicellular
organisation unicellular (Tissue/organ (Tissue/organ/
) organ system)
3. Cell wall Peptidoglycan Cellulose (if Chitin Cellulose Absent
present)
4. Nutrition Autotrophic or Autotrophic or Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
Heterotrophic Heterotrophic (Holozoic)
5. Motility Motile or non- Motile/non- Non-motile Usually non- Usually motile
motile motile motile
6. Mode of Producers/ Producers/ Decomposers Producers Consumers
lifestyle Decomposers Consumers/
Decomposers
Examples Bacteria, Protozoans, Mushroom, Fern, Algae, Sponge,
Cyanobacteri Diatoms Yeast Mustard Earthworm,
a Sparrow
Thus, the five kingdoms classified by Whittaker are:
6. Monera: Prokaryotes e.g., bacteria, blue-green algae
7. Protista: Unicellular eukaryotes e.g., protozoan
8. Fungi: Multicellular eukaryotes, decomposers e.g., mushroom
9. Plantae: Multicellular eukaryotes, producers e.g., plants, algae
10. Animalia: Multicellular eukaryotes, consumers e.g., animals
Kingdom Monera
Kingdom Monera is the most primitive and simplest of all five kingdoms. It includes all prokaryotic
organisms — organisms whose cells lack a true membrane-bound nucleus. They are the most ancient
life forms on Earth, appearing about 3.5 billion years ago.
General Characteristics
• Prokaryotic — no true membrane-bound nucleus; DNA floats in cytoplasm as a nucleoid.
• Mostly unicellular; some form colonies or filaments.
• Cell wall made of peptidoglycan — unique to this kingdom.
• No membrane-bound organelles (no mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc.).
• Ribosomes (70S type) present for protein synthesis.
• Nutrition: autotrophic (photosynthesis/chemosynthesis) or heterotrophic.
• Reproduction mainly by binary fission (asexual); some by conjugation.
• Found in almost every habitat — soil, water, hot springs, deep seas, inside organisms.
Fig. 4: Structure of a Bacterial Cell (Kingdom Monera) — Labeled Diagram
Types of Bacteria Based on Shape
11. Coccus — spherical/oval (e.g., Streptococcus, Staphylococcus)
12. Bacillus — rod-shaped (e.g., E. coli, Lactobacillus)
13. Spirillum — spiral/corkscrew (e.g., Spirillum volutans, Helicobacter)
14. Vibrio — comma-shaped (e.g., Vibrio cholerae — causes Cholera)
Fig. 5: Types of Bacteria Based on Shape — Coccus, Bacillus, Spirillum, Vibrio
Nutrition in Monera
• Autotrophic (Photosynthetic): Use sunlight — e.g., Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).
• Autotrophic (Chemosynthetic): Use chemical energy — e.g., Nitrosomonas.
• Heterotrophic (Saprophytic): Feed on dead organic matter.
• Heterotrophic (Parasitic): Feed on a living host.
• Symbiotic: Live in partnership — e.g., Rhizobium fixes nitrogen in legume root nodules.
Importance of Monera
Beneficial Roles:
• Decomposers — break down dead matter, recycle nutrients in ecosystems.
• Nitrogen fixation — Rhizobium makes nitrogen available for plant growth.
• Food industry — Lactobacillus used in curd, cheese, and butter production.
• Medicine — Streptomyces produces antibiotics like Streptomycin.
• Biotechnology — used to produce insulin and in genetic engineering.
Harmful Roles:
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis — causes Tuberculosis (TB).
• Vibrio cholerae — causes Cholera.
• Salmonella typhi — causes Typhoid.
• Clostridium tetani — causes Tetanus.
• Food spoilage and toxin production.
Examples of Kingdom Monera
Fig. 6: Examples of Kingdom Monera — Cyanobacteria, Archaebacteria, Eubacteria (Binary Fission)
• Bacteria — E. coli, Lactobacillus, Mycobacterium, Rhizobium
• Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae) — Anabaena, Nostoc
• Mycoplasma — smallest free-living organisms; no cell wall
• Archaebacteria — live in extreme environments (hot springs, salty lakes, deep-sea vents)
— End of Project Report —