Chapter 1: Units and Measurement:

Need for measurement ,Units of measurement; systems of units; SI units, fundamental and
derived units. significant figures. Determining the uncertainty in result , Dimensions of
physical quantities, dimensional analysis and its applications.

Measurement
Physics is an exact science which gives an accurate knowledge about the nature and the natural
phenomena. For a precise description of any such phenomenon, measurement of quantities
involved is essential.
The comparison of any physical quantity with its standard unit is called measurement.
Need
As measurements are important, rules are set in place to ensure that measuring is consistent.
Measurement is not arbitrary however: it is based on units.
• Scientists measure and create things to meet standards and measurements to extreme accuracy so
that measurements can be found out precisely.
• Without the ability to measure, it would be difficult for scientists to conduct experiments or form
theories.
• The word “measurement” comes from the Greek word “metron,” which means “limited
proportion.”.
Physical quantities:
All the quantities in terms of which laws of physics are described and which are measurable are
called physical quantities.
Unit :
A definite amount of a physical quantity is taken as its standard unit.
To express the measurement of a physical quantity we need to know two things :
• The unit in which the quantity is measured
• The numerical value or the magnitude of the quantity i.e. the number of times that unit is contained
in the given physical quantity.
• Measure of physical quantity = (Numerical value of the quantity) x (size of the unit )
Q = nu
e.g. length of a table = 5 m = 500 cm
Clearly smaller the size of the unit, larger is the numerical value associated with the physical quantity.
Thus the numerical value (n) is inversely proportional to the size (u) of the unit.
!
n∝"
⇒ nu = constant
If n1 and n2 are numerical values of a physical quantity corresponding to the units u1 and u2, then
n1u1 = n2u2
As seen in the example 5m = 500 cm
Standard Unit:
• The standard amount of a physical quantity chosen to measure the physical quantity of the same
kind is called a physical unit.
• Characteristics of a Standard Unit (Physical Unit) :
• It should be well defined
• It should be of convenient size.
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 • It should not change with time.
• It should be easily reproducible.
• It should be imperishable or indestructible.
• It should be internationally accepted.
• It should be easily accessible.
Several systems of units have been employed for describing measurements of
various physical quantities.
(i) cgs System: It is known as Gaussian system and is based on ‘centimeter’(cm), ‘gram’(g) and
‘second’(s) as fundamental units of length, mass and time respectively.
(ii) fps System: It is the British system which used ‘foot’ (ft), ‘pound’ (lb) and ‘second’(s) as
fundamental units of length, mass and time respectively.
(iii) mks System: It uses ‘metre’(m), ‘kilogram’(kg) and ‘second’ (s) as fundamental units of length, mass
and time respectively. It is also known as metric system.
(iv) SI System: It is the International System of units. SI is the abbreviation of ‘Systeme Internationale d’
Unites’ which is the French equivalent for ‘International System of Units’. It is the modernized and
extended form of the metric system. This was adopted by eleventh General Conference of Weights
and Measures in 1960.
Fundamental Units:
The units of fundamental quantities are called fundamental units or base units.
These can neither be derived from one another, nor they can be further resolved into more simpler
units.

Physical Quantity Unit Symbol Definition

Length : length is the metre m The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is
measurement of the defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the
distance between two speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458 when
points or the endpoints expressed in the unit m s–1, where the second is defined
of an object. in terms of the caesium frequency ∆νcs
Mass: the kilogram kg The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is
amount of matter defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the
in an object Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10–34 when
expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s –1,
where the metre and the second are defined in terms of
c and ∆νcs.
Time: Duration of an second s The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is
event defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the
caesium frequency ∆νcs, the unperturbed groundstate
hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133
atom, to be 9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz,
which is equal to s–1 .
Electric current: Rate ampere A The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric
of flow of charge current. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical
through any cross- value of the elementary charge e to be
section of conductor 1.602176634×10–19 when expressed in the unit C,

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 which is equal to A s, where the second is defined in
terms of ∆νcs.
Temperature / kelvin K The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic
Thermodynamic temperature. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical
Temperature: Degree value of the Boltzmann constant k to be 1.380649×10–
23
of hotness or coldness when expressed in the unit J K–1, which is equal to
of a body kg m2 s –2 k –1, where the kilogram, metre and second
are defined in terms of h, c and ∆νcs
Amount of substance: mole mol The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of
the number of particles substance. One mole contains exactly
or elementary entities in
6.02214076×1023 elementary entities. This number is
a sample
the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant,
NA , when expressed in the unit mol–1 and is called the
Avogadro number. The amount of substance, symbol n,
of a system is a measure of the number of specified
elementary entities. An elementary entity may be an
atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, any other particle
or specified group of particles.
Luminous Intensity: a candela cd The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous
measure of the amount intensity in given direction. It is defined by taking the
of visible light emitted fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of
by a light source in a monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz,
particular direction per Kcd, to be 683 when expressed in the unit lm W–1,
unit solid angle. which is equal to cd sr W–1, or cd sr kg–1m–2s 3 , where
the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of
h, c and ∆νcs

Supplementary Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Plane angle: the space between two intersecting lines or Radian rad
surfaces at or close to the point where they meet.

Solid angle: a three-dimensional analogue of an angle, such Steradian sr

as that subtended by a cone

Derived Units:
All the other units which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental or base units are called derived
units.
e.g. Area = length x breadth
Unit of Area = unit of length x unit of breadth = m x m = m2
Thus the unit of area is derived unit as it has been expressed in terms of fundamental unit of length.
Table for the Prefixes of 10

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 Prefix Abbreviation Power

femto f 10−15

pico p 10−12

nano n 10−9

micro μ 10−6

milli m 10−3

centi c 10−2

deci d 10−1

kilo k 103

mega M 106

giga G 109

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES(DIGITS)
Definition : The significant figures are normally those digits in a measured quantity which are known
reliably or about which we have confidence in our measurement plus one additional digit that is
uncertain.
The rules for determining the significant figures are
i)All non- zero digits are significant figure.
e.g. 123 has three significant figures,
1234 has four significant figures
(ii) All zero between two non-zero digits are significant.
e.g. 12305 has five significant figures.
(iii) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal point are not
significant.
e.g. 86400 has three significant digits
e.g. 2400 has significant figures = 2
(iv) All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non zero digit are not significant
e.g. 0.123 and 0.00123 m has three significant digits
(v) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are significant.
e.g. 45600.00 m has seven significant figures.
(vi) The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant.
Example : 4.330 has four significant figures.

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 433.00 has five significant figures.
343.000 has six significant figures.
(vii) In exponential notation, the numerical portion gives the number of significant figures.
Example : 1.32 ´ 10–2 has three significant figures.
2.23´ 1023 has three significant figures.
viii) The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units.
e.g. 12.3 cm , 0.123 m and 0.000123 km all have three significant figures.
When you are going from one system of units into another it is always better to convert in terms of
power of 10
5 km = 5x 103 m = 5 x 105 cm
So now all the three measurements have same number of significant figures i.e. ONE
Write the number of significant figures in the following
(a) 0.007 m2 (b) 2.64 × 1024 kg (c) 0.2370 g cm–3
(d) 6.320 J (e) 6.032 N m–2 (f) 0.0006032 m2
(g) 0.002040 (h) 0.998005 (i) 100.00210

ROUNDING OFF
The result of computation with approximate numbers, which contain more than one uncertain digit,
should be rounded off.
• If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
e.g. 12.345 rounded upto 3 sf = 12.3
• If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by 1
e.g. 1234.56 rounded upto 5 sf = 1234.6
• If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by a non zero digit then the preceding digit is
increased by 1
e.g. 123.451 rounded upto 4 sf = 123.5
• If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by zero then the preceding digit is left unchanged if
it is even and increased by 1 if it is odd
e.g. 123.45 rounded off upto 4 sf = 123.4
123.35 rounded off upto 4 sf = 123.4

Round off the following numbers using rules stated above:

(i) 18.35 upto 3 sf digits
(ii) 18.45 upto 3 sf digits
(iii) 148.351 upto 4 sf digits
(iv) 148.451 upto 4 sf digits
(v) 18957 upto 2 sf digits
(vi) 18.663 upto 3 sf digits
(vii) 318.33 upto 4 sf digits
(viii) 104.55 x 103 upto 4 sf digits
(ix) 104.65 x10-5 upto 4 sf digits
(x) 248337 upto 3 sf digits
Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures
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 Addition or subtraction :-
In addition or subtraction , the result should be reported to the same number of decimal places as
that of the number with minimum number of decimal places.
For ex: Add 334.5 kg and 23.43 kg
then Sum =334.5 kg + 23.43 kg = 357.93 kg
The result wrt proper significant figures is 357.9 kg
Rounding off the result upto ONE decimal digit.
Multiplication or division:-
The result should be reported to the same number of significant figures as that of the number with
minimum of significant figures.
e.g. Each side of a cube is 7.203 m. What is the volume of the cube with respect to s.f.?
Solution : Volume of cube = (side)3
= (7.203)3
= 373.714754 m3
= 373.7 m3
Rounding of the result upto four significant figures as in the original number.
e.g. Multiply 2.5 m x 1.50 m x 5.00 m
Solution : (2.5 x1.50 x 5.00 ) m3 = 18.75 m3
= 19 m3
Rules for Determining the Uncertainty in the Results of Arithmetic Calculations
1. Absolute Errors (Uncertainty) are always added when the quantiles are being added/ subtracted/
multiplied/ divided.
2. Relative Errors are always added when the quantiles are being multiplied/ divided
3. If a set of experimental data is specified to n significant figures, a result obtained by combining the
data will also be valid to n significant figures. But if the data is added or subtracted then the number
of significant figures can reduce. (Result is rounded off to smallest number of decimal places rather
than the number of significant figures in any of the number added or subtracted).
4. The relative error of a value of number specified to significant figures depends not only on n but also
on the number itself.
5. Intermediate results in a multi-step computation should be calculated to one more significant figure in
every measurement than the number of digits in the least precise measurement.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensions of any physical quantity are those powers which are raised on fundamental units to
express its unit.
Dimensional formula: The expression which shows how and which of the base quantities represent
the dimensions of a physical quantity, is called the dimensional formula.
e.g. The dimensional formula of the mass is [M1 L0 T0] and that of volume is
[M0 L3 T0]
Dimensional Equation: The equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional
formula is called dimensional equation.
e.g. [F] = [M1 L1 T-2] or [M L T-2]
[P] = [M1 L-1 T-2] or [M L-1 T-2]
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S. NO. PHYSICAL QUANTITY FORMULA DIMENSIONAL
FORMULA
1 Mass Fundamental quantity [M! L# T # ]

2 Length, distance, Fundamental quantity [ M # L! T # ]

displacement, radius of
gyration, radius,
wavelength
3 Time Fundamental quantity [ M # L# T! ]

4 Current Fundamental quantity [A M # L# T # ]

5 Temperature Fundamental quantity [K M # L# T # ]

6 Luminous Intensity Fundamental quantity [ M! L$ T %& ] or

[Cd M # L# T # ]

7 Amount of substance Fundamental quantity [ mol M # L# T # ]

8 Area length × breadth [M # L$ T # ]

9 Volume length × breadth × height [M # L& T # ]

10 Density Mass [ML%& T # ]

Volume

11 Relative density or specific Density of substance [ M # L# T # ]

gravity Density of water at 4# C

12 Velocity or speed or speed '()*+,-./.01 (45 6()1,0-.) [ M # L! T %! ]

of light 80(1 1(/.

13 Linear momentum p=mv [M! L! T %! ]

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 14 Acceleration or acceleration Change in velocity [ M # L! T %$ ]
due to gravity time

15 Force, Tension, Buoyancy, F=ma [M! L! T %$ ]

restoring force

16 Universal constant of G= /
95! [M %! L& T %$ ]
gravitation(G) " /!

17 Pressure , stress P= :
9 [M! L%! T %$ ]

18 Surface Tension T=
9 M! L# T %$
+

19 Work , Energy FS [M! L$ T %$ ]

20 Surface energy Surface tension× [M! L$ T %$ ]

increase in area
21 Kinetic Energy mv $ [M! L$ T %$ ]
2
22 Potential Energy mgh [M! L$ T %$ ]

23 Power work [M! L$ T %& ]

time
24 Velocity gradient velocity [M # L# T %! ]
distance
25 Pressure gradient pressure [M! L%$ T %$ ]
distance
26 Angle , angular ;.0<1= 4> :5- [M # L# T # ]
displacement 5,6(8)

27 Frequency 1 [M # L# T %! ]
υ=
T
28 Sinθ , cosθ, tanθ…. angle [M # L# T # ]

29 Efficiency ?81*81 *4@.5 [M # L# T # ]

A0*81 *4@.5

30 Refractive Index c/v [M # L# T # ]

31 Charge Q= I× t [M # L# A T! ]

32 Angular frequency ω ,0<8+,5 6()*+,-./.01 ϴ [MoLoT-1]

1(/.

33 Angular acceleration α ,0<8+,5 B.+4-(1C [MoLoT-2]

1(/.

34 Moment of Inertia I mr2 [ML2T0]

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35 Angular momentum L mvr [ML2T-1]

36 Torque F× [ML2T-2]
perpendicular distance
37 Moment of Inertia I mr2 [ML2T0]

38 Strain Change in dimension [M # L# T # ]

original dimension
39 Moduli of elasticity Stress [M! L%! T %$ ]
Strain
40 Coefficient of viscosity Stress [M! L%! T %! ]
Strain rate
41 Plank’s constant Energy [M! L$ T %! ]
h=
frequency
42 Specific heat S, entropy Heat energy [M! L$ T %$ K %! ]
temperature
43 Specific heat capacity s Heat energy [M # L$ T %$ K %! ]
mass × temperature
44 Latent heat Heat energy [M # L$ T %$ ]
mass
45 Universal gas constant R Pressure × Volume [M! L$ T %$ K %! mol%! ]
mol temperature

Homogeneity Principle : If the dimensions of left hand side of an equation are equal to the dimensions
of right hand side of the equation, then the equation is dimensionally correct. This is known as
homogeneity principle. Mathematically
Dim of [LHS] = Dim of [RHS]
Example [L] +[L] = [L]
[L] - [L] = [L]
Length can be added to a quantity with same dimensions and length can be subtracted from a quantity
with same dimensions.
We cannot add mass and length or length and time. No two quantities can be added with different
dimensions. Also one quantity can be subtracted from other only if they have same dimensions.

CATEGORIES PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

• Dimensional Constants: These are the quantities which possess dimensions and have a fixed
value.
Ex: Gravitational Constant
• Dimensional Variables: These are the quantities which possess dimensions and do not have a
fixed value
For ex: velocity, acceleration etc.
• Dimensionless Constants: These are the quantities which do not possess dimensions and have a
fixed value.
For ex: π etc.
• Dimensionless Variables: These are the quantities which are dimensionless and do not have a
fixed value.
For ex: Strain, Specific Gravity etc.

Yogita Nagpal 9
 Applications
1. Checking Dimensional Consistency of equations
A dimensionally correct equation must have same dimensions on both sides of the equation.
A dimensionally correct equation need not be a correct equation but a dimensionally incorrect
equation is always wrong. It can test dimensional validity but not find exact relationship
between the physical quantities.
Example1 : Check the accuracy(correctness) of the equation
x = x0 + v0t + (1/2) at2
Here, x – Distance travelled in time t, x0 – starting position,
v0 - initial velocity, a – uniform acceleration.
Dimensionally, [L] = [L] + [LT ][T] + [LT-2][T2] = [L]
-1

Dimensions on both sides will be [L] as [T] gets cancelled out.

Hence Dimensions of LHS = Dimensions of RHS
Therefore according to principle of homogeneity of dimensions the equation is dimensionally
correct equation.
Check whether the given equation is dimensionally correct.
W = 1/2 mv2 – mgh
where W stands for work done, m means mass, g stands for gravity, v for velocity and h for
height.
To check the above equation as dimensionally correct, we first write dimensions of all the
physical quantities mentioned in the equation.
W = Work done = Force × Displacement
Dim of LHS = [MLT-2] × [L] = [ML2T-2]
Dim of RHS = 1/2 mv2 = Kinetic Energy = [M] × [L2T-2] = [ML2T-2]
mgh = Potential Energy = [M] × [LT-2] × [L] = [ML2T-2]
Dimensionally, 1/2 mv2 + mgh = [ML2T-2] + [ML2T-2] = [ML2T-2]
Hence Dim of LHS = Dim of RHS
Since all the dimensions on left and right sides are equal according to principle of
homogeneity of dimensions it is a dimensionally correct equation.
2. Dimensional analysis is also used in obtaining the value of the physical
quantity in another system.
A physical quantity has two parts; one is the numerical or magnitude part and the other part
is the unit part. Suppose there’s a physical quantity X, which has unit “U” and magnitude
“N”, then it will be expressed as:
Q = NU
To convert a physical quantity from one unit to another we use below relation:
N1 U1 = N2 U2
where N1 and N2 are numerical parts and U1 and U2 are dimensions or units of both
quantities.
Example:
Convert force of unit newton into dyne.
Let N1 and U1 be numerical value and unit of force in S.I system (Newton) and N2 and U2 be
numerical value of force in CGS system (Dyne)

Yogita Nagpal 10
 N1[M1aL1bT1c] = N2[M2aL2bT2c]
since [F] = [MLT-2] so a = 1 , b = 1 and c = -2 , N1 = 1 , N2 = ?Also 1N = 1kg x 1 m x
1s-2
M1 = 1kg, L1= 1m, T1 = 1s and M2=1gm, L2= 1cm , T2=1s
N2 = N1[M1/M2]a [L1/L2]b [T1/T2]c
N2 = [1 kg/1gm] × [1m/1cm ]× (1s/1s)-2]
N2 = [ 1000g/1g ]× [100cm/1cm] × [(1 s/ 1 s)-2]
N2 = [ 105]
Hence from the equation N1U1=N2U2
1 newton = 10 dyne or 1 N = 105 dynes
5

3: To derive the formula

If we know the dependance of a given quantity over other physical quantities then we can derive
its formula using dimensional analysis.
Example:
If dimensions of length are expressed as Gx Cy hz where G, C and h are universal gravitational
constant,speed of light and plank’s constant. What are the values of x, y & z? Given E = hv
𝑙 ∝ 𝐺 D 𝑐E ℎF
𝑙 = 𝐾𝐺 D 𝑐 E ℎ F
[ 𝑀# 𝐿! 𝑇 # ] = 1 [𝑀%! 𝐿& 𝑇 %$ ]G [𝐿! 𝑇 %! ]H [𝑀! 𝐿$ 𝑇 %! ]I
[ 𝑀# 𝐿! 𝑇 # ] = 1 = [𝑀%GJI 𝐿&GJ$IJH 𝑇 %$G%H%I ]
Comparing the dimensions of LHS and RHS
-a+c = 0 a=c
3a+2c+b = 1 5a+b=1……………..(i)
-2a-b-c = 0 -3a-b=0 …………….(ii)
Adding these two, we get: 2a = 1 a= 1/2
C = 1/2
5a+b=1
=5/2+b=1
B= -3/2
𝑙 = 𝐾𝐺 !/$ 𝑐 %&/$ ℎ!/$
Limitations of Dimensional Analysis:
Although dimensional analysis is very useful it cannot lead us too far as,
i. If dimensions are given, physical quantity may not be unique as many physical quantities have
same dimensions. For example if the dimensional formula of a physical quantity is [ML2T-2] it
may be work or energy or torque.
ii. Numerical constant having no dimensions such as (1/2), 1 or 2 etc. cannot be deduced by the
methods of dimensions.
iii. The method of dimensions can not be used to derive relations other than product of power
functions. For example,

Yogita Nagpal 11
 !
S= ut + $ 𝑎 𝑡 $

cannot be derived by using this theory (try if you can). However, the dimensional correctness of
these can be checked.
iv. The method of dimensions cannot be applied to derive formula if in mechanics a physical
quantity depends on more than 3 physical quantities as then there will be less number (= 3) of
equations than the unknowns (>3). However still we can check correctness of the given equation
dimensionally.
v. Even if a physical quantity depends on 3 physical quantities, out of which two have
same dimensions, the formula cannot be derived by theory of dimensions, example, volume of a
cylinder= πr2h.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Write down the number of significant figures in the following:
(i) 6.0023 g/cm3 (ii) 1.0023 x 107
2. Multiply 312.65 and 26.4 with due regards of significant figures.
3. Solve with regards to significant figures. 4.0 x 10-1 - 2.5 x 10-5
4. How many significant figures are there in the following results for quantities measured in the
laboratory?
(i) 2.927920 x 108 m/s (ii) 8.0120 sec.
5. A car travels a distance of 68km in 2.0137 hours. What is the average speed? Express the time
of travel for the car in minutes. ( 34km/h, 120.82 min)
6. Can a quantity have units but still be dimensionless?
7. Name the physical quantity having the dimensions:
i) [M L2T-2] ii) [M L2T-1] iii) [M L2T-3] iv) [M T-2]
8. Deduce the dimensional formulae for the following physical quantities:
i) Young's Modulus of Elasticity ii) Planck's Constant
iii)Angular acceleration iv) Power
9. The distance covered by a body in time 't' is given by x= a+bt+ct2+dt3, find the dimensions of
a,b,c and d.
$LM
10. The escape velocity from the surface of earth is given by V = Z N
, where M is mass and R
is radius of earth, G is gravitational constant. Check the correctness of the relation.
11. In Vander Waal’s equation,
(P + a/V2) (V-b) =RT
What are the dimensions of a and b?
Here, P-pressure, V-volume, T-Temperature and R -Gas constant
12. Find the value of 100 J on a system which has 20 cm,250g and half minute as fundamental
units.
13. If the unit of force were kiloNewton, that of time millisecond and that of power kilowatt, what
wopuld be the units of mass and length?

Yogita Nagpal 12
14. The velocity v of a particle depends upon the time ‘t’ according to the equation

Determine the units of a, b, c and d. What physical quantities they represent.? All have SI units
15. Case Based
Answer questions number a) to e) on the basis of your understanding of the following paragraph
and the related studied concepts.
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic arbitrarily chosen
and internationally accepted reference standard called unit. The unit for the fundamental or base
quantities are called fundamental or base units. The units of all other physical quantities can be
expressed in terms of fundamental units and are thus named as derived units . In SI system units of
seven base quantities are taken as the fundamental units .
The nature of the physical quantity is described by its dimensions. All the physical quantities can
be expressed in terms of some combination of seven fundamental [Link] dimensions of a
physical quantity are thus the powers to which the base quantities are raised to represent that
quantity. If a given physical quantity depends on a’th power of Mass b’th power of length c’th
power of time, then the dimensions are expressed as [𝑀G 𝐿H 𝑇 I ] .
a) Name the seven base quantities in SI system of units.
b) Write the dimensional formula of force and energy.
c) Can a quantity have units but still be dimensionless if yes give example.
d) Do you know some quantity which has dimensions but no units?
e) What is a dimensionless constant?

Yogita Nagpal 13