CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE:

(ENGINE COMPONENTS)
The following is a list of major components found in most reciprocating internal
combustion engines (see Fig. 1-15).

Fig.1-15: Cross-section of
4-stroke cycle S1 engine
showing engine components

(A) Block
(B) Camshaft,
(C) Combustion chamber,
(D) Connecting rod,
(E) Crankcase,
(F) Crankshaft,
(G) Cylinder,
(H) Exhaust manifold,
(I) Cylinder head,
(J) Intake manifold,
(K) Oil pan,
(L) Piston,
(M) Piston rings,
(N) Push rod,
(0) Spark plug,
(P) Valve,
(Q) Water jacket.

Block : Body of engine containing the cylinders, made of cast iron or aluminum. In
many older engines, the valves and valve ports were contained in the block. The
block of water-cooled engines includes a water jacket cast around the cylinders. On
air-cooled engines, the exterior surface of the block has cooling fins.

Cylinders: The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the pistons reciprocate
back and forth. The walls of the cylinder have highly polished hard surfaces. The
cylinder is usually made of high-grade cast iron. In some cases, to give greater
strength and wear resistance with less weight, chromium, nickel and molybdenum are

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added to the cast iron. Cylinders may be machined directly in the engine block, or a
hard metal (drawn steel) sleeve may be pressed into the softer metal block. Sleeves
may be dry sleeves, which do not contact the liquid in the water jacket, or wet
sleeves, which form part of the water jacket. In a few engines, the cylinder walls are
given a knurled surface to help hold a lubricant film on the walls. In some very rare
cases, the cross section of the cylinder is not round.

Fig.1-12: Poppet valve is

spring loaded closed, and
pushed open by cam
action at proper time in
cycle. Most automobile
engines and other
reciprocating engines use
poppet valves. Much less
common are sleeve valves
and rotary valves.
Components include:
(A) Valve seat,
(B) Cylinder head,
(C) Stem,
(D) Guide,
(E) Spring,
(F) Cam shaft,
(G) Manifold.

Cylinder Head: The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually containing
part of the clearance volume of the combustion chamber. The head is usually cast
iron or aluminum, and bolts to the engine block. In some less common engines, the
head is one piece with the block. The head contains the spark plugs in SI engines and
the fuel injectors in CI engines and some SI engines. Most modern engines have the
valves in the head, and many have the camshaft(s) positioned there also (overhead
valves and overhead cam).

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Cylinder Head Gasket: Gasket which serves as a sealant between the engine block
and head where they bolt together. They are usually made in sandwich construction
of metal and composite materials. Some engines use liquid head gaskets.

Combustion Chamber: The end of the cylinder between the cylinder head and the
piston face where combustion occurs. The size of the combustion chamber
continuously changes from a minimum volume when the piston is at TDC to a
maximum when the piston is at BDC. The term "cylinder" is sometimes synonymous
with "combustion chamber" (e.g., "the engine was firing on all cylinders"). Some
engines have open combustion chambers which consist of one chamber for each
cylinder. Other engines have divided chambers which consist of dual chambers on
each cylinder connected by an orifice passage.

Piston: The cylindrical-shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the cylinder,
transmitting the pressure forces in the combustion chamber to the rotating crankshaft.
The piston is closed at one end and open on the other end to permit direct attachment
of the connecting rod and its free action. The top of the piston is called the crown and
the sides are called the skirt. The face on the crown makes up one wall of the
combustion chamber and may be a flat or highly contoured surface. Some pistons
contain an indented bowl in the crown, which makes up a large percent of the
clearance volume. Pistons are made of cast iron, steel, or aluminum. Iron and steel
pistons can have sharper corners because of their higher strength. They also have
lower thermal expansion, which allows for tighter tolerances and less crevice volume.
Aluminum pistons are lighter and have less mass inertia. Sometimes synthetic or
composite materials are used for the body of the piston, with only the crown made of
metal. Some pistons have a ceramic coating on the face.

Piston Rings: Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around the piston and
form a sliding surface against the cylinder walls. These are made of cast iron on
account of their ability to retain bearing qualities and elasticity indefinitely. The
primary function of the piston rings is to retain compression and at the same time
reduce the cylinder wall and piston wall contact area to a minimum, thus reducing
friction losses and excessive wear. The other important functions of piston rings are
the control of the lubricating oil, cylinder lubrication, and transmission of heat away
from the piston and from the cylinder walls. Piston rings are classed as compression
rings and oil rings depending on their function and location on the piston.

Near the top of the piston usually two or more compression rings made of highly
polished hard chrome steel. The purpose of these is to form a seal between the piston
and cylinder walls and to restrict the high-pressure gases in the combustion chamber
from leaking past the piston into the crankcase (blowby). Below the compression
rings on the piston is at least one oil ring, which assists in lubricating the cylinder
walls and scrapes away excess oil to reduce oil consumption. Oil rings are grooved or

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slotted and are located either in the lowest groove above the piston pin or in a groove
near the piston skirt.

Bore and stroke of a cylinder

Connecting Rod: Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft, usually
made of steel or alloy forging in most engines but may be aluminum in some small
engines. The end connecting the piston is known as small end and the other end is
known as big end. The big end has two halves of a bearing bolted together. The
connecting rod is made of drop forged steel and the section is of the I-beam type.

Piston Pin (Wrist pin): Pin fastening the connecting rod to the piston (also called the
piston pin). It is made of case hardened alloy steel with precision finish. There are
three different methods to connect the piston to the connecting rod.

Connecting Rod Bearing: Bearing where connecting rod fastens to crankshaft.

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Crank Shaft: This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and
converts the linear motion of the piston into the rotational motion of the flywheel.
Also, this is rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to external
systems. The journals of the crankshaft are supported on main bearings, housed in the
crankcase. Counter-weights and the flywheel bolted to the crankshaft help in the
smooth running of the engine. The crankshaft is connected to the engine block with
the main bearings. It is rotated by the reciprocating pistons through connecting rods
connected to the crankshaft, offset from the axis of rotation. This offset is sometimes
called crank throw or crank radius. Most crankshafts are made of forged steel, while
some are made of cast iron.

Crank Case: Part of the engine block surrounding the rotating crankshaft. In many
engines, the oil pan makes up part of the crankcase housing.

Cam Shaft: Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in the engine
cycle, either directly or through mechanical or hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker
arms, tappets). Most modern automobile engines have one or more camshafts
mounted in the engine head (overhead cam). Most older engines had camshafts in the
crankcase. Camshafts are generally made of forged steel or cast iron and are driven
off the crankshaft by means of a belt or chain (timing chain). To reduce weight, some
cams are made from a hollow shaft with the cam lobes press-fit on. In four-stroke
cycle engines, the camshaft rotates at half engine speed.

Push Rods: Mechanical linkage between the camshaft and valves on overhead valve
engines with the camshaft in the crankcase. Many push rods have oil passages
through their length as part of a pressurized lubrication system.

Engine Bearings: The crankshaft and camshaft are supported on anti-friction

bearings. These bearings must be capable of with standing high speed, heavy load
and high temperatures. Normally, cadmium, silver or copper lead is coated on a steel
back to give the above characteristics. For single cylinder vertical/horizontal engines,
the present trend is to use ball bearings in place of main bearings of the thin shell
type.

Valves: To allow the air to enter into the cylinder or the exhaust, gases to escape
from the cylinder, valves are provided, known as inlet and exhaust valves
respectively. The valves are mounted either on the cylinder head or on the cylinder
block.

Fly Wheel: Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to the crankshaft
of the engine. This is usually made of cast iron and its primary function is to maintain
uniform engine speed by carrying the crankshaft through the intervals when it is not
receiving power from a piston. The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and

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furnish a large angular momentum that keeps the engine rotating between power
strokes and smoothes out engine operation. The size of the flywheel varies with the
number of cylinders and the type and size of the engine. It also helps in balancing
rotating masses

On some aircraft engines the propeller serves as the flywheel, as does the rotating
blade on many lawn mowers.

Starter (Marsh): Several methods are used to start IC engines. Most are started by
use of an electric motor (starter) geared to the engine flywheel. Energy is supplied
from an electric battery.

On some very large engines, such as those found in large tractors and construction
equipment, electric starters have inadequate power, and small IC engines are used as
starters for the large IC engines. First the small engine is started with the normal
electric motor, and then the small engine engages gearing on the flywheel of the large
engine, turning it until the large engine starts.

Early aircraft engines were often started by hand spinning the propeller, which also
served as the engine flywheel. Many small engines on lawn mowers and similar
equipment are hand started by pulling a rope wrapped around a pulley connected to
the crankshaft.

Compressed air is used to start some large engines. Cylinder release valves are
opened, which keeps the pressure from increasing in the compression strokes.
Compressed air is then introduced into the cylinders, which rotates the engine in a
free-wheeling mode. When rotating inertia is established, the release valves are
closed and the engine is fired.

Carburetor: Venturi flow device which meters the proper amount of fuel into the air
flow by means of a pressure differential. For many decades it was the basic fuel
metering system on all automobile (and other) engines. It is still used on low cost
small engines like lawn mowers, but is uncommon on new automobiles.

Spark plug: Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI engine by creating

a high-voltage discharge across an electrode gap. Spark plugs are usually made of
metal surrounded with ceramic insulation. Some modern spark plugs have built-in
pressure sensors which supply one of the inputs into engine control.

Intake Air System

Intake manifold: Piping system which delivers incoming air to the cylinders usually
made of cast metal, plastic, or composite material. In most SI engines, fuel is added
to the air in the intake manifold system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor.
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Some intake manifolds are heated to enhance fuel evaporation. The individual pipe to
a single cylinder is called a runner.

Supercharger: Mechanical compressor powered off of the crankshaft, used to

compress incoming air of the engine.

Throttle Butterfly Valve: mounted at the upstream end of the intake system, used to
control the amount of air flow into an SI engine. Some small engines and stationary
constant-speed engines have no throttle.

Turbocharger: Turbine-compressor used to compress incoming air into the engine.

The turbine is powered by the exhaust flow of the engine and thus takes very little
useful work from the engine.

Fig. : Schematic of a turbocharged engine cylinder

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 How Turbocharger Works

Valves used to allow flow into and out of the cylinder at the proper time in the cycle.
Most engines use poppet valves, which are spring loaded closed and pushed open by
camshaft action (Fig. 1-12). Valves are mostly made of forged steel. Surfaces against
which valves close are called valve seats and are made of hardened steel or ceramic.

Rotary Valves: and sleeve valves are sometimes used, but are much less common.
Many two-stroke cycle engines have ports (slots) in the side of the cylinder walls
instead of mechanical valves.

Exhaust System
Exhaust Manifold: Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from the engine
cylinders, usually made of cast iron.

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Exhaust System: Flow system for removing exhaust gases from the cylinders,
treating them, and exhausting them to the surroundings. It consists of an exhaust
manifold which carries the exhaust gases away from the engine, a thermal or catalytic
converter to reduce emissions, a muffler to reduce engine noise, and a tailpipe to
carry the exhaust gases away from the passenger compartment.

Catalytic Converter:Chamber mounted in exhaust flow containing catalytic material

that promotes reduction of emissions by chemical reaction.

Fuel System of
Compression Ignition Engine (Diesel)
Fuel Pump: Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply fuel from the fuel
tank (reservoir) to the engine. Many modern automobiles have an electric fuel pump
mounted submerged in the fuel tank. Some small engines and early automobiles had
no fuel pump, relying on gravity feed.

Fuel Injector: A pressurized nozzle which, sprays fuel into the incoming air on S.I.
engines or into the cylinder on CI engines. On SI engines, fuel injectors are located at
the intake valve ports on multipoint port injector systems and upstream at the intake
manifold inlet on throttle body injector systems. In a few SI engines, injectors spray
directly into the combustion chamber.

Glow Plug: Small electrical resistance heater mounted inside the combustion
chamber of many CI engines, used to preheat the chamber enough so that combustion
will occur when first starting a cold engine. The glow plug is turned off after the
engine is started.

HISTORIC-FUEL PUMPS
Lacking a fuel pump, it was necessary to back Model T Fords (1909-1927) up
high-slope hills because of the location of the fuel tank relative to the engine.

Lubrication System
Oil Pan: Oil reservoir usually bolted to the bottom of the engine block, making up
part of the crankcase, acts as the oil sump for most engines.

Oil Pump: Pump used to distribute oil from the oil sump to required lubrication
points. The oil pump can be electrically driven, but is most commonly mechanically
driven by the engine. Some small engines do not have an oil pump and are lubricated
by splash distribution.

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Oil Sump: Reservoir for the oil system of the engine, commonly part of the
crankcase, some engines (aircraft) have a separate closed reservoir called a dry sump.

Main Bearing: The bearings connected to the engine block in which the crankshaft
rotates. The maximum number of main bearings would be equal to the number of
pistons plus one, or one between each set of pistons plus the two ends. On some less
powerful engines, the number of main bearings is less than this maximum.

Cooling System
Radiator: Liquid-to-air heat exchanger of honeycomb construction used to remove
heat from the engine coolant after the engine has been cooled. The radiator is usually
mounted in front of the engine in the flow of air as the automobile moves forward.
An engine-driven fan is often used to increase air flow through the radiator.

Fan: Most engines have an engine-driven fan to increase air flow through the radiator
and through the engine compartment, which increases waste heat removal from the
engine. Fans can be driven mechanically or electrically, and can run continuously or
be used only when needed.

Water Pump: Pump used to circulate engine coolant through the engine and radiator.
It is usually mechanically run off of the engine.

Water jacket System: of liquid flow passages surrounding the cylinders, usually
constructed as part of the engine block and head. Engine coolant flows through the
water jacket and keeps the cylinder walls from overheating. The coolant is usually a
water-ethylene glycol mixture.

Cooling Fins: Metal fins on the outside surfaces of cylinders and head of an air
cooled engine. These extended surfaces cool the cylinders by conduction and
convection.

Speed Control-Cruise Control: Automatic electric-mechanical control system that

keeps the automobile operating at a constant speed by controlling engine speed.

Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine

Willard W. Pulkrabek
University of Wisconsin-· .. Platteville

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