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Amphibians, comprising approximately 8,866 species, are characterized by their metamorphosis, moist skin, and a three-chambered heart, with most species exhibiting external fertilization. They are divided into three major orders: Anura (frogs and toads), Urodela (salamanders and newts), and Gymnophiona (caecilians), each with distinct features and adaptations. Amphibians are highly threatened due to environmental sensitivity, habitat loss, and diseases like Chytridiomycosis.

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4 views5 pages

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Amphibians, comprising approximately 8,866 species, are characterized by their metamorphosis, moist skin, and a three-chambered heart, with most species exhibiting external fertilization. They are divided into three major orders: Anura (frogs and toads), Urodela (salamanders and newts), and Gymnophiona (caecilians), each with distinct features and adaptations. Amphibians are highly threatened due to environmental sensitivity, habitat loss, and diseases like Chytridiomycosis.

Uploaded by

Louise Yeung
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© All Rights Reserved
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Amphibians

1. General Overview (Class Amphibia)

 ~8,866 species (2025)


 Habitats: aquatic → semi-terrestrial → terrestrial
 Diet: all carnivorous, little specialization
 Limbs: 4 digits (forelimb), 5 digits (hindlimb)
 Heart: 3-chambered
 Reproduction: mostly external fertilization, oviparous
 Physiology: poikilothermic (ectothermic)

Key Defining Features

1. Metamorphosis
2. Moist, scaleless, permeable skin (gland-rich)
3. Columella-operculum complex (hearing)
4. Atlas vertebra for skull articulation

2. Major Orders of Amphibians

1. Anura (frogs & toads)

 ~90% of amphibians
 No tail (adult), strong hindlimbs → jumping
 External fertilization
 Tadpole → adult metamorphosis

2. Urodela (salamanders & newts)

 Tail retained
 More aquatic
 Locomotion: lateral undulation
 Often reduced lungs

3. Gymnophiona (caecilians)

 Limbless, burrowing
 Internal fertilization
 Sensory tentacles
3. Skin Structure & Function

Two main gland types:

 Mucous glands
o Keep skin moist
o Aid gas exchange & protection
 Granular glands
o Secrete toxins (defense)

Special case:

 Parotoid glands → produce bufotoxins (neurotoxins)


 Aposematism: bright coloration warns predators

4. Respiration (VERY IMPORTANT)

Amphibians use 4 modes:

1. Lungs (adult)
2. Gills (larvae)
3. Skin (cutaneous respiration)
4. Buccopharyngeal membrane

👉 Key concept:

 Skin is major gas exchange surface, especially:


o underwater
o lungless species

5. Ventilation Mechanism

Buccal Pump (amphibians)

 Air is forced into lungs by mouth cavity


 Different from mammals (no diaphragm)

Evolution trend:

 Fish: gill pumping


 Amphibians: buccal pump
 Mammals: diaphragm breathing
6. Sensory System (Ear)

 First vertebrates with hearing via ear


 Have 1 middle ear bone (columella)

Special structure:

 Columella + Operculum = sound transmission system


o Columella → airborne sound
o Operculum → seismic (ground vibration)

Unique feature:

 Papilla amphibiorum (low frequency detection <1000 Hz)

7. Locomotion (Urodela focus)

Lateral Undulation

 Movement driven by body (axial muscles)


 Limbs:
o move in diagonal pairs
o mainly for support, not propulsion
 Posture: sprawling

👉 Evolution trend:

 Amphibians/reptiles → sprawling
 Mammals/birds → erect posture

8. Order-Specific Key Traits

🦎 Urodela (Salamanders)

 Respiration: mostly cutaneous + buccopharyngeal


 Weak lungs
 Paedomorphism common (retain larval traits)

🐸 Anura (Frogs/Toads)
 Adapted for jumping
 Strong hindlimbs, no tail
 Respiration: lungs + skin
 Features:
o Tympanic membrane
o Vocalization
 Tadpole stage → major metamorphosis

🪱 Gymnophiona (Caecilians)

 Limbless, burrowing
 Internal fertilization
 Respiration: lung + skin + buccopharyngeal
 Unique:
o sensory tentacles
o reduced eyes

9. Metamorphosis (HIGH-YIELD)

Major Changes:

Morphological

 Gills → lungs
 Tail reduction
 Skeleton calcification
 Mouth widens, head flattens

Physiological

 Shift: ammonotelic → ureotelic


 Larval Hb → adult Hb (lower O₂ affinity)

Biochemical

 Activation of urea cycle


 Formation of tympanic membrane

10. Conservation (brief, non-supp.)


 Amphibians = most threatened vertebrates
 Reasons:
o Environmental sensitivity (pollution)
o Narrow habitat range
o Disease: Chytridiomycosis

🔥 Exam Tips (what to focus on)

 ⭐ Skin function (respiration + defense)


 ⭐ 4 modes of respiration
 ⭐ Buccal pump vs mammalian breathing
 ⭐ Differences among 3 orders
 ⭐ Metamorphosis (structural + physiological changes)
 ⭐ Urodela locomotion (lateral undulation)
 ⭐ Ear structure (columella-operculum)

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