TEFL – Module 3

Language Acquisition

Acquiring a Second Language

For years the acquisition of a new language, whether it be a first or second language, has attracted
attention of educators, linguists and psychologists. Acquiring any language is one of the fascinating
components of human development. When we learn a first or a second language, important similarities
exist when the instructor presents the target language to the students.

To add additional clarification, the term second language acquisition (SLA) refers to the process where a
person learns one or more foreign language(s). The acquisition of the second language happens informally
in natural context as well as formally in the classroom, where both products (language produced by the
learners at different stages) and process (the mental process and environmental factors that influence the
acquisition process) happen simultaneously.

The first stage of language acquisition is the vocalization of a cry reflecting an emotion or biological need
like discomfort or hunger. That said, an infant could clearly perceive the subtle difference between two
dissimilar sounds when listening to the human language, however, vocal expression of these subtle
differences happens several months down the road. As time passes, children learn to
form Telegraphic sentences as they combine words into sentences.

On average, around the age of four years, a child acquires a basic structure of language, which improves
with application of grammatical formats and rules. Metalinguistic awareness begins to develop during the
pre-school years when the child embarks on learning and reading.

A child that is exposed to more than one language from birth is referred to as a simultaneous
bilingual. Simultaneous bilinguals areslightly different from sequential bilinguals. Sequential
bilinguals begin learning a second language later in life. Children that are removed from their family
language and are basically immersed into a second language during their early school days are referred to
as subtractive bilinguals.
One thing for certain is that it’s different for a child or adult learning a second language than it is a child
learning their first language. Normally, all learners of a second language have acquired at least one
language, irrespective of their age, which can be a negative or a positive aspect when undertaking the
process of learning a second language.

Certainly young language learners begin the process of language learning without some of the skills that
adolescents and adult learners have. For example, a first language learner doesn’t have the same
cognitive understanding, metalinguistic maturity or worldly experience that an older second language
learner has.

That said, young learners are far less inhibited in using a new language whereas this same action can
prove to be very stressful for adolescents and adults when they struggle to express themselves correctly.
This is why it is very important for teachers to provide a safe learning environment that rarely puts
pressure on the students to speak when they are not ready.

As an ESL or EFL instructor, you will need to be aware that language learning conditions tend to differ
depending on the age of the students. Most often young learners in an informal second language-learning
situation are allowed to remain silent until they are comfortable enough to speak whereas older learners
are often put in a situation where they need to speak in order to complete the task at hand.

In an informal setting, young children are usually exposed to the second language for extended hours each
day whereas older learners are more likely to receive less exposure to the second language. That said,
quite often people who interact regularly with language learners have an intuitive sense of what is needed
to help second language learners understand.

When conducting second language learning, teachers tend to overlook things like corrections of meaning,
errors in vocabulary, and errors that do not interfere with the overall meaning of the intended phrase. In
fact, the only place where feedback on errors is typically addressed with regularity is the language
classroom.
When it comes to theories pertaining to second language acquisition (SLA), some have been developed
giving primary importance to varying components such as: the learning of innate characteristics, and the
environment and how it shapes language learning.

According tobehaviourists, all learning, whether verbal or non-verbal, follows the same underlying process
which aligns with the Theory of Behaviourism that identifies language learning as a result of habit
formation through feedback, imitation, and practice. Language learners receive linguistic input from
speakers and form ‘associations’ between words, objects, and/or events. Through repetition these
associations become stronger and stronger, and are reinforced through praise as well as corrective
feedback on their errors. Behaviourism is also related to Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH), which
explains that the adaptation of a second language is easier when there are similarities with the second
language and the first language.

Noam Chomsky’s theory states that the innate language programming within the learner develops just like
any other biological functions – Innatism. This is why the environment is so important to the learner, by
making available reciprocating speakers. This inherent language acquisition device (LAD) or endowment,
which has later been termed as Universal Grammar (UG), simply needs language samples to get activated.
The UG is considered to be a set of principles that are common within all languages and that allows all
learners to acquire the language of their environment during a ‘critical period’ in each person’s
development. The critical period is not infinite and refers to a concept of right time.

Stephen Krashen’s ‘Monitor Model’ constitutes five hypotheses based on the Innatist theory of second
language acquisition.

‘Monitor Model’ Five Hypotheses

1. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis

2. The Monitor hypothesis

3. The Natural Order hypothesis

4. The Input hypothesis

1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis concludes at nominating acquired language learning as the

2. In the monitor hypothesis, Krashen designates the learned system as an editor or monitor
responsible for fine-tuning the language that has been acquired. This acquisition alone can ensure
fluency and intuitive judgment about correctness. Monitor model is used when the focus is on
correctness like in case of written communication. Krashen maintains that since knowing the rules
only helps the speaker supplement what has been acquired, the focus of language teaching should
be on creating conditions for acquisition rather than learning.

3. The natural order hypothesis is independent of the order of rules that are taught in the
classroom. Acquisition of the second language here attains a predictable, natural sequence where
the easy rules are not necessarily learnt at the beginning.

4. Exposure to comprehensible input is a significant factor in acquisition. Krashen claims that if the
input contains forms and structures above the learner’s existing level of language competence, it is
bound to initiate comprehension and acquisition. Undirected pleasure reading can be such a source
of comprehensible input that underlines the theory of the input hypothesis.

5. The affective filter hypothesis has features that are linked to classroom practice and is able to
diagnose the reason behind the discrepancy in the level of learning among various students under
the same learning condition. The term ‘affect’ in ‘affective filter’ refers to motivation, needs,
attitudes and emotional states that has potential to filter out input, creating a virtual barrier that
prevents learning and acquisition. The filter operates at the disposal of the learner’s state of mind,
limiting or encouraging acquisition.

The more recent psychological theories include the model of information processing where acquisition is
viewed as the construction of a knowledge system that is accessed automatically for speaking and
understanding. This principle of Automaticity involves a timely movement of the control of a few language
forms into the automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of language forms. Over analyzing
language, thinking too much about its forms and consciously lingering on rules of language, all tend to
impede this graduation to automaticity.

Theories have also been based on acquisition through conversational interaction. The interactionist
position as discussed by Evelyn Hatch, Teresa Pica, and Michael Long states that the learners require the
opportunity to interact with other speakers in a way that is conducive to adaptation until the learner shows
signs of understanding.

Acquisition vs. Learning

The distinction between “language learning” and “language acquisition” has been brought to us by
researchers in linguistics, psycholinguistics and cognitive psychology – notably by Steve Krashen, Noam
Chomsky, Steven Pinker and others and also through studies of both first and second language learning.
That said, the majority of people learn a second language without teachers, books or classroom study.
They achieve it by being exposed to comprehensible input important to their lives such as travelling and
working. They do it using new sounds and systems to communicate things that are important to them.
Interestingly these “non-students” are in many cases more successful than those attending formal
language classes. WHY? The focus is on the “message” rather than the form as illustrated by Dave Hopkins
in his book ‘Smooth Moves’:

Acquisition Learning

1. Similar to the process of learning L1 (first or 1. The learning process is not like learning L1
native language)
2. A conscious process
2. An intuitive process
3. Explicit knowledge
3. Implicit knowledge
4. Thinking before speaking
4. Speaking without thinking about it
5. Formal teaching does not help much
5. Formal teaching helps
6. Strongly influenced by affective factors
6. Not as dependent upon affective factors
7. Peers have a more important influence than
7. Teachers or parental figures are more
teachers or parental figures
important than peers
8. Language is acquired in a “context” that is
8. Language is often de-contextualized for drills
understandable to the learner
and exercises
9. 9. There is a discernable but an incomplete
9. There is no attention to what is known about
ordering of the sequence of acquisition of linguistic
the sequence of learning different linguistic features
features