HSC Mathematics Extension 2

Complex Numbers Master Guide

Theory, intuition, strategies, worked examples, and practice

Prepared for targeted Extension 2 study

Contents

How to use this guide 4

1 The complex number system 4

1.1 Why complex numbers exist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 The Argand plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Equality, addition, subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Conjugates, modulus, and division 6

2.1 The conjugate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 The modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Division by a complex number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Polar form and arguments 7

3.1 From rectangular to polar form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Arguments are not unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Multiplication in polar form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Division in polar form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Euler form and De Moivre’s theorem 8

4.1 Euler’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 De Moivre’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5 Roots of complex numbers 9

5.1 Solving z n = w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2 Geometry of roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

6 Roots of unity 11
6.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.2 Algebraic identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.3 Using roots of unity to factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

7 Complex equations and polynomials 12

7.1 Quadratics with complex roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.2 Conjugate root theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.3 Solving equations by substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

8 Loci in the complex plane 13

8.1 Distance meaning of modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.2 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.3 Perpendicular bisectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.4 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8.5 Argument loci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8.6 Angle subtended by a chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

9 Transformations of the complex plane 15

9.1 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
9.2 Rotation and dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
9.3 General affine transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
9.4 Conjugation transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

10 Harder exam-style techniques 15

10.1 Using conjugates to eliminate variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
10.2 Modulus squared expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
10.3 Symmetry shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

11 Exam strategy checklist 16

12 Worked mixed examples 17

13 Practice questions 18
Set A: foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Set B: polar form and powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Set C: roots of unity and polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Set D: loci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Set E: harder mixed problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

14 Solutions 21

15 Deep-dive lessons and extra worked examples 23

15.1 Choosing the right representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
15.2 Argument discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
15.3 Proofs using real and imaginary parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
15.4 Complex roots as regular polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
15.5 Solving equations involving conjugates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
15.6 Hard locus conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

16 Common mistake bank 26

17 Timed revision drills 27

18 Extension-style challenge set 28

19 Diagnostic mini-test 29

20 One-page formula and method summary 31

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

How to use this guide

This guide is designed to teach the complex numbers topic as it is used in NSW HSC Mathematics
Extension 2. It is not just a formula sheet. The goal is to build the mental models that make the exam
questions feel predictable.
Use it in three passes:

1. Concept pass: read the explanations and redraw the diagrams.

2. Technique pass: cover the solutions and redo the worked examples.
3. Exam pass: attempt the practice questions at the end under timed conditions.

Key idea

The central idea of complex numbers is that algebra and geometry become the same thing. Addi-
tion is movement, multiplication is scaling and rotation, powers repeat angles, roots divide angles,
and equations often become geometry in the Argand plane.

1 The complex number system

1.1 Why complex numbers exist

In ordinary real-number algebra, the equation

x2 + 1 = 0

has no real solution, because no real square is negative. Complex numbers extend the real numbers by
defining a new number i such that
i2 = −1.
A complex number is written as
z = x + iy,
where x, y ∈ R. The real part is x and the imaginary part is y:

Re(z) = x, Im(z) = y.

Key idea

The word “imaginary” is historical, not a sign that the number is fake. Complex numbers are
as legitimate as negatives, fractions, irrational numbers, or vectors. They are especially useful
because they encode two-dimensional movement in one symbol.

1.2 The Argand plane

The complex number z = x + iy is represented by the point (x, y) in the plane.

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

y
z = x + iy

x ℜ

This representation is why complex numbers feel like vectors. In Extension 2, whenever the algebra feels
ugly, ask: what is this saying geometrically?

1.3 Equality, addition, subtraction

Two complex numbers are equal exactly when their real and imaginary parts match:

a + bi = c + di ⇐⇒ a = c and b = d.

Addition and subtraction are componentwise:

(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i,

(a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i.

Geometrically, addition means vector addition.

Worked example

Simplify (3 + 2i) − (5 − 7i) + 4i.

(3 − 5) + (2i + 7i + 4i) = −2 + 13i.

So the real part is −2 and the imaginary part is 13.

1.4 Multiplication

Multiply as normal, then use i2 = −1:

(a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2 = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.

Worked example

Simplify (2 + 3i)(4 − i).

(2 + 3i)(4 − i) = 8 − 2i + 12i − 3i2 = 8 + 10i + 3 = 11 + 10i.

Common trap

Do not treat i like an unknown variable whose square stays as i2 . Every time i2 appears, replace
it with −1.

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2 Conjugates, modulus, and division

2.1 The conjugate

For z = x + iy, the conjugate is

z̄ = x − iy.
Geometrically, conjugation reflects a point in the real axis.

z = x + iy

z̄ = x − iy

Important identities:
z + z̄ = 2 Re(z), z − z̄ = 2i Im(z),
z z̄ = x + y 2 .
2

2.2 The modulus

The modulus of z = x + iy is its distance from the origin:

p
|z| = x2 + y 2 .
Thus
|z|2 = z z̄.

Worked example

For z = 3 − 4i, p
|z| = 32 + (−4)2 = 5, z̄ = 3 + 4i.
Also,
z z̄ = (3 − 4i)(3 + 4i) = 9 + 16 = 25 = |z|2 .

2.3 Division by a complex number

To divide by a complex number, multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denomi-
nator:
a + bi c − di
· .
c + di c − di
This makes the denominator real because
(c + di)(c − di) = c2 + d2 .

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

Worked example

5 + 2i
Write in the form x + iy.
1 − 3i

5 + 2i 1 + 3i 5 + 15i + 2i + 6i2 −1 + 17i 1 17

· = = = − + i.
1 − 3i 1 + 3i 1+9 10 10 10

Exam strategy

In exam working, never leave a complex number in the denominator unless the question specifically
allows it. HSC markers expect final rectangular form a + bi or polar form r cis θ depending on
context.

3 Polar form and arguments

3.1 From rectangular to polar form

For z = x + iy, let p

r = |z| = x2 + y 2 .
If z ̸= 0, let θ be an argument of z, meaning the angle made with the positive real axis. Then

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

The abbreviation is
z = r cis θ,
where
cis θ = cos θ + i sin θ.

Key idea

Rectangular form x + iy tells you the coordinates. Polar form r cis θ tells you the distance and
direction.

3.2 Arguments are not unique

If θ is an argument of z, then
θ + 2kπ, k ∈ Z,
is also an argument. The principal argument, written Arg z, is usually taken in

−π < Arg z ≤ π.

Common trap

The biggest polar-form mistake is using tan θ = y/x blindly. The tangent ratio does not identify
the quadrant by itself. Always locate the point first.

Worked example
√
Write z = −1 + i 3 in polar form.

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

First, q √
r= (−1)2 + ( 3)2 = 2.
√
The point (−1, 3) is in quadrant II. The reference angle is π/3, so
2π
θ= .
3
Therefore
2π
z = 2 cis .
3

3.3 Multiplication in polar form

If
z1 = r1 cis θ1 , z2 = r2 cis θ2 ,
then
z1 z2 = r1 r2 cis(θ1 + θ2 ).
This is the most important geometric rule in the topic.

Key idea

Multiplication by r cis θ means: scale by r, then rotate by θ.

3.4 Division in polar form

z1 r1
= cis(θ1 − θ2 ), z2 ̸= 0.
z2 r2

Worked example

Let z1 = 4 cis 5π π
6 and z2 = 2 cis 3 . Then
 
5π π 7π
z1 z2 = 8 cis + = 8 cis .
6 3 6

Also,  
z1 5π π π
= 2 cis − = 2 cis = 2i.
z2 6 3 2

4 Euler form and De Moivre’s theorem

4.1 Euler’s formula

Euler’s formula is
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ.
So
cis θ = eiθ .
This allows complex multiplication to behave like exponent laws:

eiα eiβ = ei(α+β) .

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

4.2 De Moivre’s theorem

For integer n,
(cis θ)n = cis(nθ).
More generally, if z = r cis θ, then
z n = rn cis(nθ).

Key idea

Powers multiply the angle. Roots divide the angle.

Worked example

Find (1 + i)8 .
First write 1 + i in polar form:
√ π
1+i= 2 cis .
4
Then √  π
(1 + i)8 = ( 2)8 cis 8 · = 16 cis(2π) = 16.
4

Worked example

Express cos 3θ in terms of powers of cos θ.

By De Moivre,
(cos θ + i sin θ)3 = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ.
Expand the left:
cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ − i sin3 θ.
Taking real parts,
cos 3θ = cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ.
Using sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ,
cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ.

5 Roots of complex numbers

5.1 Solving z n = w

Let
w = R cis Θ.
To solve
z n = w,
write
z = r cis θ.
Then
rn = R, nθ = Θ + 2kπ.
Therefore
Θ + 2kπ
r = R1/n , θ= , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
n

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

Key idea

For an nth-root problem, there are usually n distinct roots. Their arguments are evenly spaced
by 2π
n around a circle.

Worked example

Solve z 3 = 8.
Write 8 = 8 cis 0. Then  
1/3 0 + 2kπ
z=8 cis , k = 0, 1, 2.
3
So
2π 4π
z = 2 cis 0, 2 cis , 2 cis .
3 3
In rectangular form: √ √
z = 2, z = −1 + i 3, z = −1 − i 3.

Worked example

Solve z 4 = −16.
Write
−16 = 16 cis π.
Then  
π + 2kπ
z = 2 cis , k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
4
Thus
π 3π 5π 7π
z = 2 cis , 2 cis , 2 cis , 2 cis .
4 4 4 4

5.2 Geometry of roots

The roots of z n = w lie on a circle centered at the origin with radius R1/n . They form a regular n-gon.

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

6 Roots of unity

6.1 Definition

The nth roots of unity solve

z n = 1.
Since
1 = cis(2kπ),
the roots are
2kπ
zk = cis , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
n
Let
2π
ω = cis .
n
Then the roots are
1, ω, ω 2 , . . . , ω n−1 .

Key idea

The roots of unity are the corners of a regular polygon on the unit circle.

6.2 Algebraic identities

If ω ̸= 1 is an nth root of unity, then

1 + ω + ω 2 + · · · + ω n−1 = 0.
This follows from the geometric series:
ωn − 1
1 + ω + · · · + ω n−1 = = 0.
ω−1

Worked example

Let ω be a non-real cube root of unity. Then

ω 3 = 1, 1 + ω + ω 2 = 0.

Also,
ω 2 = ω̄,
because the two non-real cube roots are reflections in the real axis.

6.3 Using roots of unity to factor

The equation z n = 1 gives

z n − 1 = 0.
Therefore
z n − 1 = (z − 1)(z − ω)(z − ω 2 ) · · · (z − ω n−1 ).
Also,
z n − 1 = (z − 1)(z n−1 + z n−2 + · · · + z + 1).
So the non-one roots of unity are the roots of
z n−1 + z n−2 + · · · + z + 1 = 0.

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

7 Complex equations and polynomials

7.1 Quadratics with complex roots

The quadratic formula works exactly the same way over complex numbers:
√
2 −b ± b2 − 4ac
az + bz + c = 0 =⇒ z = .
2a
√ √
If the discriminant is negative, use −m = i m.

Worked example

Solve z 2 − 4z + 13 = 0.
√ √
4± 16 − 52 4 ± −36 4 ± 6i
z= = = = 2 ± 3i.
2 2 2

7.2 Conjugate root theorem

If a polynomial has real coefficients and a + bi is a root, then a − bi is also a root.

Key idea

Non-real complex roots of real-coefficient polynomials come in conjugate pairs.

Worked example

A monic cubic with real coefficients has roots 2, 1 + 3i, and 1 − 3i. Find the polynomial.

p(z) = (z − 2)(z − (1 + 3i))(z − (1 − 3i)).

Pair the conjugates first:

(z − 1 − 3i)(z − 1 + 3i) = (z − 1)2 + 9 = z 2 − 2z + 10.

Hence
p(z) = (z − 2)(z 2 − 2z + 10) = z 3 − 4z 2 + 14z − 20.

7.3 Solving equations by substitution

Some complex equations become easier after substituting w = z k .

Worked example

Solve z 4 + 4z 2 + 16 = 0.
Let w = z 2 . Then
w2 + 4w + 16 = 0.
So √
−4 ± 16 − 64 √
w= = −2 ± 2i 3.
2
These are
2π 4π
w = 4 cis or w = 4 cis .
3 3
Now solve z 2 = w for each.

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

From z 2 = 4 cis 2π
3 ,
π 4π
z = 2 cis , 2 cis .
3 3
From z 2 = 4 cis 4π
3 ,
2π 5π
z = 2 cis , 2 cis .
3 3

8 Loci in the complex plane

8.1 Distance meaning of modulus

The expression
|z − a|
means the distance from the point z to the point a in the complex plane.

Key idea

Whenever you see |z − a|, translate it as: “distance from z to a”.

8.2 Circles

The locus
|z − a| = r
is the circle with centre a and radius r.

Worked example

Describe the locus |z − (2 − i)| = 3.

The centre is 2 − i, which is the point (2, −1), and the radius is 3.

8.3 Perpendicular bisectors

The locus
|z − a| = |z − b|
is the set of points equidistant from a and b. It is the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining a
and b.

Worked example

Find the Cartesian equation of |z − 1| = |z − (3 + 2i)|.

Let z = x + iy. Then
|x + iy − 1| = |x + iy − 3 − 2i|.
So
(x − 1)2 + y 2 = (x − 3)2 + (y − 2)2 .
Expand:
x2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 = x2 − 6x + 9 + y 2 − 4y + 4.
Cancel and simplify:
−2x + 1 = −6x − 4y + 13,

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

4x + 4y − 12 = 0,
x + y = 3.

8.4 Inequalities

|z − a| < r
means inside the circle.
|z − a| > r
means outside the circle.

Common trap

For < and >, use dotted boundaries if sketching by convention. For ≤ and ≥, include the boundary.

8.5 Argument loci

The expression
arg(z − a)
means the angle of the vector from a to z.
The locus
arg(z − a) = θ
is a ray starting at a, making angle θ with the positive real axis. The point a is excluded because arg(0)
is undefined.

8.6 Angle subtended by a chord

The expression  
z−a
arg
z−b
represents the angle between the vectors from b to z and from a to z, up to orientation. This often
describes a circle arc.

Key idea
 
z−a
arg = arg(z − a) − arg(z − b).
z−b
It measures an angle between two lines from z to fixed points a and b.

Worked example

Interpret  
z−1 π
arg = .
z+1 2
The fixed points are 1 and −1. The condition says the angle subtended by the segment from −1
to 1 at z is a right angle. By the circle theorem, the locus is the circle with diameter from −1 to
1, excluding the endpoints. Therefore
x2 + y 2 = 1,
with z ̸= ±1, and the orientation selects one semicircle depending on convention.

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

9 Transformations of the complex plane

9.1 Translation

w =z+a
moves every point by the vector a.

9.2 Rotation and dilation

w = az
where a = r cis θ, scales by r and rotates by θ about the origin.

9.3 General affine transformation

w = az + b
means first multiply by a, then translate by b.

Worked example

Describe the transformation w = (2 cis π3 )z + (1 − i).

Multiplication by 2 cis π3 dilates by factor 2 and rotates by π
3 anticlockwise about the origin. Then
adding 1 − i translates right 1 and down 1.

9.4 Conjugation transformations

w = z̄
reflects in the real axis. More generally,
w = az̄ + b
combines reflection, rotation, dilation, and translation.

10 Harder exam-style techniques

10.1 Using conjugates to eliminate variables

If z = x + iy, then
z + z̄ z − z̄
x= , y= .
2 2i
This lets you convert between complex equations and Cartesian equations.

Worked example

Show that z + z̄ = 4 is a vertical line.

Let z = x + iy. Then z̄ = x − iy, so
z + z̄ = 2x.
Thus
2x = 4 ⇒ x = 2.

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

10.2 Modulus squared expansion

A common move is
|z − a|2 = (z − a)(z̄ − ā).
This is useful when the equation has both z and z̄.

Worked example

Convert |z − 2|2 = 4 Re(z) into Cartesian form.

Let z = x + iy.
|z − 2|2 = (x − 2)2 + y 2 , 4 Re(z) = 4x.
Hence
(x − 2)2 + y 2 = 4x.
Expand:
x2 − 4x + 4 + y 2 = 4x,
x2 + y 2 − 8x + 4 = 0,
(x − 4)2 + y 2 = 12.
√
This is a circle with centre (4, 0) and radius 2 3.

10.3 Symmetry shortcuts

For roots of unity and polynomial roots, symmetry often saves time.

• Roots around a circle usually sum to zero.

• Non-real roots of real polynomials appear in conjugate pairs.
• Products of moduli become modulus of products.
• Arguments add under multiplication and subtract under division.

11 Exam strategy checklist

Exam strategy

When solving a complex numbers question, choose your form deliberately:

Situation Best form

Adding or comparing real/imaginary Rectangular x + iy
parts
Multiplying, dividing, powers Polar r cis θ
Roots Polar form with +2kπ
Loci involving distance Modulus geometry
Loci involving angles Argument geometry
Polynomial with real coefficients Conjugate pairs
Equation involving z̄ Use z = x + iy or z + z̄, z − z̄

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12 Worked mixed examples

Worked example

Example 1. Find all z such that z 3 = −8i.

Write  π
−8i = 8 cis − .
2
Then  
−π/2 + 2kπ
z = 2 cis , k = 0, 1, 2.
3
So  π π 7π
z = 2 cis − , 2 cis , 2 cis .
6 2 6

Worked example

Example 2. Find the locus |z − 2i| = 2|z + 1|.

Let z = x + iy. Then
|x + i(y − 2)| = 2|x + 1 + iy|.
Square both sides:
x2 + (y − 2)2 = 4((x + 1)2 + y 2 ).
Expand:
x2 + y 2 − 4y + 4 = 4x2 + 8x + 4 + 4y 2 .
Bring all terms to one side:
3x2 + 3y 2 + 8x + 4y = 0.
Divide by 3:
8 4
x2 + y 2 + x + y = 0.
3 3
Complete the square:
 2  
4 2 2 20
x+ + y+ = .
3 3 9

√
So the locus is a circle with centre − 43 , − 23 and radius 2 3 5 .

Worked example

Example 3. If z + 1
z = 2 cos θ, show that z = eiθ or z = e−iθ when z ̸= 0.
Multiply by z:
z 2 − 2z cos θ + 1 = 0.
Using the quadratic formula,
√
2 cos θ ± 4 cos2 θ − 4 p
z= = cos θ ± cos2 θ − 1.
2
Since cos2 θ − 1 = − sin2 θ,
z = cos θ ± i sin θ = e±iθ .

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Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

Worked example

Example 4. Let ω be a non-real cube root of unity. Simplify

(1 + 2ω + 3ω 2 ) + (4 + 5ω + 6ω 2 ).

First combine:
5 + 7ω + 9ω 2 .
Use 1 + ω + ω 2 = 0, so ω 2 = −1 − ω:

5 + 7ω + 9(−1 − ω) = 5 + 7ω − 9 − 9ω = −4 − 2ω.

Worked example

Example 5. Find a polynomial with real coefficients of least degree having roots 3i and 1 − i.
Since coefficients are real, the conjugates must also be roots:

−3i, 1 + i.

Thus
p(z) = (z − 3i)(z + 3i)(z − 1 + i)(z − 1 − i).
Pair conjugates:
(z 2 + 9)((z − 1)2 + 1).
So
p(z) = (z 2 + 9)(z 2 − 2z + 2).
Expanding is optional unless requested:

p(z) = z 4 − 2z 3 + 11z 2 − 18z + 18.

13 Practice questions

Set A: foundations

1. Simplify (4 − 3i) + (7 + 8i).

2. Simplify (5 + 2i)(3 − 4i).
2+i
3. Write in the form a + bi.
3 − 2i
4. Find |6 − 8i| and 6 − 8i.
5. If z = 2 − 5i, find z z̄.
6. Find the real and imaginary parts of (1 + i)4 .
7. Solve z 2 + 9 = 0.
8. Solve z 2 − 6z + 13 = 0.
√
9. Write 1 − i 3 in polar form.
10. Write −2 − 2i in polar form using principal argument.

18
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

Set B: polar form and powers

√
11. Evaluate ( 3 + i)6 .
12. Evaluate (−1 + i)10 .
13. If z = 3 cis 2π 4
3 , find z .
6 cis(5π/6)
14. Simplify .
2 cis(π/6)
15. Find all cube roots of 27i.
16. Find all fourth roots of 16.
17. Find all solutions of z 5 = −1.
18. Find all solutions of z 4 = 81 cis π3 .
19. Show that (cos θ + i sin θ)4 = cos 4θ + i sin 4θ.
20. Derive an expression for sin 3θ using De Moivre’s theorem.

Set C: roots of unity and polynomials

21. Let ω be a non-real cube root of unity. Simplify 2 + 5ω + 8ω 2 .

22. Prove 1 + ω + ω 2 = 0 for a non-real cube root of unity.
23. Find the fifth roots of unity.
24. Show that the sum of the fifth roots of unity is zero.
25. Factor z 4 − 1 over the complex numbers.
26. Find a real polynomial of least degree with roots 2 + i and −3i.
27. Solve z 4 + z 2 + 1 = 0.
28. Solve z 6 = 1 and identify the non-real roots.
29. If z 2 + az + b has root 3 − 2i and real coefficients, find a and b.
30. Find all roots of z 3 − 8 = 0.

Set D: loci

31. Describe |z − 3| = 2.
32. Describe |z + 1 − i| ≤ 4.
33. Find the Cartesian equation of |z − 2i| = 5.
34. Find the Cartesian equation of |z − 1| = |z + 3|.
35. Find the Cartesian equation of |z − (1 + i)| = |z − (3 − i)|.
36. Describe arg(z − 2) = π4 .
 
z−1 π
37. Interpret arg = 2 geometrically.
z+1
38. Find the locus |z − i| = 2|z + i|.
39. Find the locus |z − 2|2 = Re(z).
40. Sketch the region satisfying 1 < |z| ≤ 3 and 0 ≤ arg z ≤ π2 .

19
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

Set E: harder mixed problems

41. Solve z 4 + 16 = 0.
42. Solve z 4 − 4z 2 + 16 = 0.
1
43. Let z + z = 1. Find possible values of z.
44. If |z| = 1, prove that z̄ = z1 .
45. If z = x + iy, show that Im(z 2 ) = 2xy.
46. Find all z such that z 2 = z̄.
47. If z 3 = 1 and z ̸= 1, simplify 1
1−z + 1
1−z 2
.
48. Prove that the roots of z n = 1 form a regular n-gon.
49. Find the image of the circle |z| = 2 under w = (1 + i)z + 3.
50. The complex numbers a, b, c represent the vertices of a triangle. Explain the geometric meaning of
|a − b| = |a − c|.

20
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

14 Solutions

Solutions to Set A

1. 11 + 5i.
2. 15 − 20i + 6i − 8i2 = 23 − 14i.
2 + i 3 + 2i 4 + 7i
3. · = = 4
+ 7
13 i.
3 − 2i 3 + 2i 13 13

4. |6 − 8i| = 10, conjugate 6 + 8i.

5. z z̄ = |z|2 = 22 + (−5)2 = 29.
6. (1 + i)2 = 2i, so (1 + i)4 = −4. Real part −4, imaginary part 0.
7. z = ±3i.
8. z = 3 ± 2i.
√

9. 1 − i 3 = 2 cis − π3 .
√

10. −2 − 2i = 2 2 cis − 3π 4 .

Solutions to Set B
√ √
11. 3 + i = 2 cis π6 , so ( 3 + i)6 = 64 cis π = −64.
√
12. −1 + i = 2 cis 3π 4 , so (−1 + i)
10 = 32 cis 15π = 32 cis 3π = −32i.
2 2

13. z 4 = 81 cis 8π 2π
3 = 81 cis 3 .

14. 3 cis 4π 2π
6 = 3 cis 3 .
 
π/2+2kπ
15. 27i = 27 cis π2 , so z = 3 cis 3 , k = 0, 1, 2.

2 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3: 2, 2i, −2, −2i.

16. z = 2 cis kπ


17. −1 = cis π, so z = cis π+2kπ 5 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
 
18. z = 3 cis π/3+2kπ
4 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3.

19. This is directly De Moivre’s theorem for n = 4.

20. Expanding (cos θ + i sin θ)3 and taking imaginary parts gives sin 3θ = 3 sin θ cos2 θ − sin3 θ =
3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ.

Solutions to Set C

21. Since ω 2 = −1 − ω, 2 + 5ω + 8ω 2 = 2 + 5ω − 8 − 8ω = −6 − 3ω.

22. Since ω 3 = 1 and ω ̸= 1, ω 3 − 1 = 0 = (ω − 1)(ω 2 + ω + 1), so 1 + ω + ω 2 = 0.
23. cis 2kπ
5 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.

24. Use the geometric series with common ratio ω ̸= 1: 1 + ω + · · · + ω 4 = (ω 5 − 1)/(ω − 1) = 0.

25. z 4 − 1 = (z − 1)(z + 1)(z − i)(z + i).
26. Roots: 2 + i, 2 − i, −3i, 3i. Polynomial: ((z − 2)2 + 1)(z 2 + 9).

21
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

27. z 4 + z 2 + 1 = 0. Since (z 2 − 1)(z 4 + z 2 + 1) = z 6 − 1, roots are sixth roots of unity excluding ±1.
28. z = cis kπ
3 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Non-real roots correspond to k = 1, 2, 4, 5.

29. Other root is 3 + 2i. Sum = 6 = −a, so a = −6. Product = 13 = b.

30. z = 2 cis 2kπ
3 , k = 0, 1, 2.

Solutions to Set D

31. Circle centre (3, 0), radius 2.

32. Closed disk centre (−1, 1), radius 4.
33. x2 + (y − 2)2 = 25.
34. (x − 1)2 + y 2 = (x + 3)2 + y 2 , so x = −1.
35. (x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = (x − 3)2 + (y + 1)2 , so x − y = 2.
36. Ray from (2, 0) at angle π/4, excluding the starting point.
37. Circle with diameter from −1 to 1, excluding endpoints, with orientation choosing a semicircle.

2
38. x2 + (y − 1)2 = 4(x2 + (y + 1)2 ), giving x2 + y + 53 = 16 9 .

2
39. (x − 2)2 + y 2 = x, so x2 + y 2 − 5x + 4 = 0, hence x − 25 + y 2 = 94 .
40. Quarter-annulus in the first quadrant between radii 1 and 3, excluding radius 1 but including
radius 3 and both angle boundaries.

Solutions to Set E


41. z 4 = −16 = 16 cis π, so z = 2 cis π+2kπ
, k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
4
√
42. Let w = z 2 . Then w2 − 4w + 16 = 0, so w = 2 ± 2i 3 = 4 cis(±π/3). Take square roots of each.
√
43. z 2 − z + 1 = 0, so z = 1±i 3
2 .

44. |z| = 1 means z z̄ = 1, so z̄ = 1/z.

45. z 2 = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y 2 + 2xyi, so Im(z 2 ) = 2xy.
46. Let z = x + iy. Then z 2 = x2 − y 2 + 2xyi and z̄ = x − iy. Equate parts: x2 − y 2 = x, 2xy = −y.
From y(2x + 1) = 0. If y = 0, x 2 = x, so x = 0, 1. If x = −1/2, then 1/4 − y 2 = −1/2, so
√ √
y = ± 3/2. Thus z = 0, 1, − 12 ± 23 i.
2
2−z−z 2
47. Since 1 + z + z 2 = 0, compute common denominator: (1−z )+(1−z)
(1−z)(1−z 2 )
= (1−z)(1−z 2 )
= 3
(1−z)(1−z 2 )
. Also
(1 − z)(1 − z ) = 1 − z − z + z = 2 − z − z = 3. Value 1.
2 2 3 2

48. Roots are cis 2kπ

n . Consecutive arguments differ by 2π/n, all moduli are 1, so the points are equally
spaced on the unit circle: a regular n-gon.
√ √
49. |z| = 2. Since w − 3 = (1 + i)z, |w − 3| = |1 + i||z| = 2 2. Image is circle centre 3, radius 2 2.
50. The point a is equally distant from b and c, so it lies on the perpendicular bisector of segment BC.
The triangle has AB = AC, so it is isosceles at A.

22
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

15 Deep-dive lessons and extra worked examples

15.1 Choosing the right representation

A strong Extension 2 solution usually begins by choosing the correct representation. The same number
can be viewed in multiple ways:
z = x + iy = r cis θ = reiθ .
Each form makes different operations easy.

Form Best for Reason

x + iy addition, equality, components are visible
real/imaginary parts
r cis θ multiplication, division, pow- moduli and arguments separate
ers, roots
reiθ proofs, identities, elegant exponent laws apply
manipulation
Geometry loci and transformations equations become shapes

Worked example

Representation decision. Evaluate

√ !6
1+i 3
.
1−i

Rectangular division first would be annoying. Use polar form:

√ π √  π
1 + i 3 = 2 cis , 1−i= 2 cis − .
3 4
Thus √
1+i 3 √ π π  √ 7π
= 2 cis + = 2 cis .
1−i 3 4 12
Raise to the sixth power:
 6
√ 7π 7π 3π
2 cis = 8 cis = 8 cis = −8i.
12 2 2

15.2 Argument discipline

Arguments are where many marks are lost. The equation

y
tan θ =
x
only gives a reference-angle relationship. It does not determine the quadrant.

Exam strategy

Argument routine:
1. Plot the point roughly.
2. Find the reference angle using special triangles or tangent.

23
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

3. Choose the correct quadrant.

4. Convert to the required branch, usually −π < Arg z ≤ π.

Worked example
√
Find the principal argument of z = − 3 − i.
The point is in quadrant III. The reference angle satisfies
1
tan α = √ ,
3
so α = π/6. The standard positive angle is
π 7π
θ=π+ = .
6 6
But the principal argument lies in (−π, π], so subtract 2π:
7π 5π
Arg z = − 2π = − .
6 6

15.3 Proofs using real and imaginary parts

When a problem asks you to prove a trig identity using complex numbers, expand and compare real or
imaginary parts.

Worked example

Use De Moivre’s theorem to find cos 4θ in terms of cos θ.

Let c = cos θ and s = sin θ. Then

(c + is)4 = c4 + 4ic3 s − 6c2 s2 − 4ics3 + s4 .

The real part is

cos 4θ = c4 − 6c2 s2 + s4 .
Using s2 = 1 − c2 ,
cos 4θ = c4 − 6c2 (1 − c2 ) + (1 − c2 )2 .
Simplify:
cos 4θ = 8c4 − 8c2 + 1.
Therefore
cos 4θ = 8 cos4 θ − 8 cos2 θ + 1 .

Worked example

Use De Moivre’s theorem to find sin 4θ.

From the same expansion,
sin 4θ = 4c3 s − 4cs3 = 4cs(c2 − s2 ).
So
sin 4θ = 4 sin θ cos θ(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) .

24
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

15.4 Complex roots as regular polygons

When solving roots, a diagram can reveal missing roots.

Worked example

Find the sixth roots of 64 and explain their geometry.

Write 64 = 64 cis 0. Then
 
1/6 2kπ kπ
z = 64 cis = 2 cis , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
6 3

The roots are six points on the circle radius 2, separated by angle π/3. They form a regular
hexagon.

15.5 Solving equations involving conjugates

Equations involving z̄ are usually solved by putting z = x + iy.

Worked example

Solve
z + 2z̄ = 3 + i.
Let z = x + iy. Then z̄ = x − iy, so

z + 2z̄ = (x + iy) + 2(x − iy) = 3x − iy.

Equate real and imaginary parts:

3x = 3, −y = 1.
Thus
x = 1, y = −1,
and
z = 1 − i.

Worked example

Solve
z z̄ + z + z̄ = 3.
Let z = x + iy. Then
z z̄ = x2 + y 2 , z + z̄ = 2x.
So
x2 + y 2 + 2x = 3.
Complete the square:
(x + 1)2 + y 2 = 4.
This is not a finite set of values; it is the circle centre (−1, 0) radius 2.

15.6 Hard locus conversion

Some locus questions look algebraic but are easier geometrically.

25
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

Worked example

Describe
z−2
= 1.
z+2
Since modulus of a quotient is quotient of moduli,

|z − 2|
= 1.
|z + 2|

So
|z − 2| = |z + 2|.
This means z is equidistant from 2 and −2, so the locus is the perpendicular bisector of the
segment joining (−2, 0) and (2, 0):
x = 0.
Also z ̸= −2, but −2 is not on x = 0 anyway.

Worked example

Describe
z−i
= 2.
z+i
This becomes
|z − i| = 2|z + i|.
Let z = x + iy:
x2 + (y − 1)2 = 4(x2 + (y + 1)2 ).
Expand:
x2 + y 2 − 2y + 1 = 4x2 + 4y 2 + 8y + 4.
So
3x2 + 3y 2 + 10y + 3 = 0.
Divide by 3:
10
x2 + y 2 + y + 1 = 0.
3
Complete the square:
 2
2 5 16
x + y+ = .
3 9


The locus is a circle centre 0, − 35 and radius 43 .

16 Common mistake bank

Mistake Why it is wrong Fix

Using tan−1 (y/x) without check- Tangent repeats every π Sketch the point first
ing quadrant
Forgetting +2kπ in roots You lose roots Always write Θ + 2kπ before di-
viding by n
Using too many k values Repeats roots For nth roots, use k =
0, 1, . . . , n − 1
Treating |z − a| as algebra only It is distance Translate it geometrically first

26
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

Cancelling complex expressions May divide by zero State exclusions like z ̸= 0 or z ̸=

without domain checks a
Assuming arg(z1 + z2 ) = arg z1 + Arguments add under mul- Use polar rules only for multipli-
arg z2 tiplication, not addition cation/division
Expanding conjugate pairs late Messy algebra Pair conjugates early
Leaving denominator complex Not simplified Rationalise with conjugate

17 Timed revision drills

Drill 1: 10-minute algebra fluency

1. Simplify (2 − 7i)(−3 + 4i).

4 − 5i
2. Simplify .
2+i
3. Find z̄, |z|, and Arg z for z = −3 + 3i.
4. Solve z 2 + 2z + 10 = 0.
5. If z = 1 + 2i, find z 2 − 3z̄.

Drill 2: 15-minute polar fluency

√
1. Write − 3 + i in polar form.
2. Evaluate (1 − i)8 .
3. Find all square roots of −12i.
4. Find all cube roots of −8.
4 cis(7π/8)
5. Simplify 2 cis(−π/8) .

Drill 3: 20-minute loci fluency

1. Describe |z + 2 − 3i| = 5.
2. Convert |z − 1| = 2|z + 2| to Cartesian form.
3. Describe arg(z + 3) = π/6.
 
4. Interpret arg z−2
z+2 = π/2.

5. Sketch |z − 1| < 3 and Im(z) > 0.

Answers to timed drills

√
1. Drill 1: 22 + 29i; 35 − 145 i; z̄ = −3 − 3i, |z| = 3 2, Arg z = 3π/4; z = −1 ± 3i; z − 3z̄ =
2

(−3 + 4i) − (3 − 6i) = −6 + 10i.

√ √
2. Drill 2: 2 cis(5π/6); 16; 2 3 cis(−π/4) and 2 3 cis(3π/4); 2 cis(π/3), 2 cis π, 2 cis(5π/3); 2 cis π =
−2.
3. Drill 3: circle centre (−2, 3) radius 5; (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 4((x + 2)2 + y 2 ); ray from (−3, 0) at angle π/6
excluding start; circle with diameter from −2 to 2, excluding endpoints and selecting the oriented
semicircle; upper half of the open disk centre (1, 0) radius 3.

27
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

18 Extension-style challenge set

These are harder than basic fluency questions and are closer to the style where Extension 2 complex
numbers becomes powerful.

1. Let z = cis θ. Prove that

z n + z −n = 2 cos nθ.

2. If z + z −1 = 2x, show that

z 2 + z −2 = 4x2 − 2.

3. Let ω be a non-real cube root of unity. Prove

(1 − a)(1 − aω)(1 − aω 2 ) = 1 − a3 .

4. Find the set of points satisfying  

z−1−i π
arg = .
z−1+i 2

5. If |z| = 1, simplify
z+1
z−1
by finding the nature of its real part.
6. Solve z 3 = z̄.
7. Find the image of the line Re(z) = 2 under w = iz + 1.
8. Find the image of the circle |z − 1| = 2 under w = (2 − i)z + 3i.
9. Prove that if z1 , z2 , z3 are the cube roots of a complex number w ̸= 0, then z1 + z2 + z3 = 0.
10. Let z ̸= 1 and z 5 = 1. Evaluate
1 + 2z + 3z 2 + 4z 3 + 5z 4 .

Challenge solutions

1. Since z = cis θ = eiθ , z n = einθ and z −n = e−inθ . Their sum is 2 cos nθ.
2. Square z + z −1 = 2x: z 2 + 2 + z −2 = 4x2 , hence z 2 + z −2 = 4x2 − 2.
3. The numbers 1, ω, ω 2 are roots of t3 − 1 = 0, so (t − 1)(t − ω)(t − ω 2 ) = t3 − 1. Put t = 1/a and
rearrange, or recognise the product as the factorisation of 1 − a3 .
4. The fixed points are 1 + i and 1 − i. A right angle subtended by this vertical segment gives the
circle with diameter between them: (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1, with endpoints excluded and orientation
selecting a semicircle.
5. For |z| = 1, write z = eiθ . Then

z+1 eiθ/2 (eiθ/2 + e−iθ/2 ) 2 cos(θ/2) θ

= iθ/2 iθ/2 = = −i cot .
z−1 e (e − e−iθ/2 ) 2i sin(θ/2) 2

So it is purely imaginary, provided z ̸= 1.

6. Let z = reiθ . Then z 3 = r3 e3iθ and z̄ = re−iθ . If r = 0, z = 0. If r ̸= 0, then r3 = r, so r = 1, and
3θ = −θ + 2kπ, so θ = kπ/2. Thus z = 0, 1, i, −1, −i.
7. Let z = 2 + iy. Then w = i(2 + iy) + 1 = 1 − y + 2i. Thus Im(w) = 2, a horizontal line.

28
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

8. Since w −√3i = (2 − i)z, and centre

√ z = 1 maps to w = (2 − i) √+ 3i = 2 + 2i. Radius scales by
|2 − i| = 5, so radius becomes 2 5. Image: |w − (2 + 2i)| = 2 5.
9. The cube roots are equally spaced around a circle and form an equilateral triangle centred at the
origin, so their vector sum is zero. Algebraically, they are roots of z 3 − w = 0, whose z 2 coefficient
is zero, so their sum is zero.
10. Let S = 1 + 2z + 3z 2 + 4z 3 + 5z 4 . Since 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 = 0, subtract 5(1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 ) = 0:

S = −4 − 3z − 2z 2 − z 3 .

A cleaner method uses derivative of 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 = 0: 1 + 2z + 3z 2 + 4z 3 = −5z 4 /(z − 1)

after differentiating the geometric identity carefully. One accepted compact form is
−5
S= ,
z−1

using z 5 = 1, z ̸= 1.

19 Diagnostic mini-test

Attempt this after studying the guide. A good target is 45 minutes.

√
1. Write z = −1 − i 3 in polar form and find z 5 .
√
2. Solve z 4 = 8 + 8i 3.
3. Let ω be a non-real cube root of unity. Simplify (2 − ω)(2 − ω 2 ).
4. Find the Cartesian equation of |z − 3i| = |z − 4|.
5. Describe the locus arg(z − 1 − i) = 3π
4 .

6. Solve z 2 + z̄ = 0.
7. Find a monic polynomial with real coefficients and roots 2 + i and 1 − 2i.
8. Show that if |z| = 1, then z + z̄ is real and lies between −2 and 2.
z−1
9. Interpret geometrically z+i = 3.

10. Use De Moivre’s theorem to express cos 5θ in powers of cos θ.

Diagnostic answers
√
1. z = 2 cis(−2π/3), so z 5 = 32 cis(−10π/3) = 32 cis(2π/3) = −16 + 16 3i.
√  
2. 8 + 8i 3 = 16 cis π/3, so z = 2 cis π/3+2kπ
4 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3.

3. (2 − ω)(2 − ω 2 ) = 4 − 2(ω + ω 2 ) + ω 3 = 4 − 2(−1) + 1 = 7.

4. x2 + (y − 3)2 = (x − 4)2 + y 2 , so 8x − 6y = 7.
5. Ray starting at (1, 1) with direction angle 3π/4, excluding the starting point.
6. Let z = x + iy. Then z 2 + z̄ = (x2 − y 2 + x) + (2xy − y)i = 0. Hence x2 − y 2 + x = 0 and
y(2x − 1) = 0. If y = 0, x(x + 1) = 0, so z = 0, −1. If x = 1/2, then 1/4 − y 2 + 1/2 = 0, so
√ √
y = ± 3/2. Thus z = 0, −1, 2 ± 2 i.
1 3

7. Include conjugates: 2 − i and 1 + 2i. Polynomial ((z − 2)2 + 1)((z − 1)2 + 4).

29
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

8. If z = x + iy and |z| = 1, then z + z̄ = 2x, real. Since x2 + y 2 = 1, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, so −2 ≤ 2x ≤ 2.

9. Points whose distance from 1 is three times their distance from −i; this is an Apollonius circle.
10. The standard result is
cos 5θ = 16 cos5 θ − 20 cos3 θ + 5 cos θ.

30
Mathematics Extension 2 Complex Numbers

20 One-page formula and method summary

Concept What to remember

Rectangular form z = x + iy, where x = Re(z) and y = Im(z)
Conjugate z̄ = xp − iy; reflection in real axis
Modulus |z| = x2 + y 2 ; distance from origin
Modulus squared |z|2 = z z̄
Polar form z = r cis θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
Argument angles are not unique; add 2kπ
Multiplication r1 cis θ1 · r2 cis θ2 = r1 r2 cis(θ1 + θ2 )
Division divide moduli, subtract arguments
Powers (r cis θ)n = rn cis(nθ)

Roots z = R1/n cis Θ+2kπ n
Roots of unity n , k = 0, . . . , n − 1
cis 2kπ
Locus |z − a| = r circle centre a, radius r
Locus |z − a| = |z − b| perpendicular
  bisector of a and b
z−a
Argument quotient arg z−b is an angle between lines
Real polynomial roots non-real roots occur in conjugate pairs

Exam strategy

Final exam habit: before starting algebra, write one sentence translating the question. Example:
“|z − 2i| = 3 means points distance 3 from (0, 2).” This prevents most complex-number mistakes.

31