0% found this document useful (0 votes)

3 views124 pages

Notes ET RKB

The document outlines the tutorial notes for the Engineering Thermodynamics course at Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, detailing the course objectives, outcomes, and structure. It emphasizes the fundamentals of thermodynamics, including laws, entropy, and properties of pure substances, along with practical applications and industrial visits. The vision and mission statements of both the institute and the mechanical engineering department are also included, highlighting their commitment to quality education and research.

Uploaded by

Vinayak Bhosale

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

3 views124 pages

Notes ET RKB

Uploaded by

Vinayak Bhosale

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s

PIMPRI CHINCHWAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

RESEARCH
Laxminagar, Ravet, Pune – 412101

TUTORIAL NOTES

Engineering
Thermodynamics
(Subject Code 202043)
SE Mechanical Engineering 2019 Pattern (Semester – III)

Prepared by : Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane

Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
PIMPRI CHINCHWAD EDUCATION TRUST’S
PIMPRI CHINCHWAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
RESEARCH,
RAVET, PUNE 412101

VISION AND MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE:

VISION:
To be a Premier Institute of Technical Education and Research to serve the need of
society and all the stakeholders.
MISSION:
To establish state-of-the-art facilities to create an environment resulting in
individuals who are technically sound having professionalism, research and
innovative aptitude with high moral and ethical values.

VISION AND MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING:
VISION:
To be a Premier Department of Mechanical Engineering and research to serve the
need of the society and all the stakeholders.
MISSION:
 To provide state of art facilities to impart quality education.
 To undertake various value added and add on courses to make students
technically sound and thorough professionals.
 To collaborate with the industries and academia and strive to transform the
research and innovative aptitude in the students and faculties.
 To inculcate high moral, ethical values and national pride in students and
faculties.
202043: Engineering Thermodynamics

Prerequisites: - 1. Higher Secondary Science courses.

2. Engineering Mathematics - I and II.
3. Engineering Physics.
4. Engineering Chemistry

Course Objectives:
 To introduce the fundamentals of thermodynamics.
 To understand the concepts of laws of thermodynamics.
 To apply the concepts of thermodynamics towards open and closed
systems.
 To be acquainted with Entropy generation and Exergy Analysis.
 To understand the behaviour of a Pure substance and to analyze Vapour
power cycles.
 To undertake the performance analysis of a steam generator.

Course Outcomes:
On completion of the course, learner will be able to–
CO-1 : DESCRIBE the basics of thermodynamics with heat and work
interactions.
CO-2 : APPLY laws of thermodynamics to steady flow and non-flow
processes.
CO-3 : APPLY entropy, available and non available energy for an Open and
Closed System.
CO-4 : DETERMINE the properties of steam and their effect on performance
of vapour power cycle.
CO-5 : ANALYSE the fuel combustion process and products of combustion.
CO-6 : SELECT various instrumentations required for safe and efficient
operation of steam generator.
Unit I : Fundamentals of Thermodynamics

Introduction : Review of basic definitions, Zeroth law of Thermodynamics,

Macro and Microscopic Approach, State Postulate, State, Path, Process and
Cycles, Point function and Path function, quasi static process, Equilibrium,
Temperature : (concepts, scales, international fixed points and measurement
of temperature), Constant volume gas thermometer and constant pressure gas
thermometer, mercury in glass thermometer.
First Law of Thermodynamics : Concept of heat and work, Sign convention
and its conversion. First law of thermodynamics, Joules experiments,
Equivalence of heat and work. Application of first law to flow and non-flow
Processes and Cycles. Steady flow energy equation (SFEE), Applications of
SFEE to various devices such as Nozzle, Turbine, Compressors, Boilers etc.
PMM-I kind.

Unit II : Ideal Gas and Second law of Thermodynamics

Properties and Processes of Ideal Gas : Ideal Gas definition, Gas Laws:
Boyle’s law, Charle’s law, Avagadro’s Law, Equation of State, Ideal Gas
constant and Universal Gas constant, Ideal gas Processes- on P-v and T-s
diagrams, Constant Pressure, Constant Volume, Isothermal, Adiabatic,
Polytropic, Throttling Processes (Open and Closed systems), Calculations of
Heat transfer, Work done, Internal Energy.
Second Law of Thermodynamics : Limitations of first law of thermodynamics,
Thermal reservoir, Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat pump: Schematic
representation, Efficiency and Coefficient of Performance (COP), Kelvin-Planck
& Clausius Statement of the Second law of Thermodynamics; PMM-II kind,
Equivalence of the two statements; Clausius Inequality, Concept of
Reversibility and Irreversibility, Carnot Theorem/Principles, Carnot Cycle.
Unit III : Entropy and Availability

Entropy: Entropy as a property, Clausius Inequality, Principle of increase of

Entropy Principle, Entropy changes for an Open and Closed System, Change of
Entropy for an ideal gas and Pure Substance, Concept of Entropy generation.
Entropy - a measure of Disorder.

Unit IV : Properties of Pure substances & Thermodynamics of Vapour

Cycle

Properties of Pure substances : Formation of steam, Phase changes,

Properties of steam, Use of Steam Tables, Study of P-v, T-s and h-s plots
(Mollier Chart) for steam, Dryness fraction and its determination, Study of
steam calorimeters (Barrel, Separating, Throttling and combined) Non-flow
and Steady flow Vapour Processes, Change of Properties, Work and Heat
transfer.
Thermodynamics of Vapour Cycle : Rankine Cycle, Comparison of Carnot
cycle and Rankine cycle, Introduction to Steam power Plant, Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle, Relative Efficiency, Effect of Varying operating parameters like
Superheat, Boiler and Condenser Pressure on performance of Rankine cycle,
Modified Rankine Cycle.

Unit V : Fuels and Combustion

Types of fuels, Proximate and ultimate analysis of fuel, Combustion theory,

Combustion Equations, Theoretical and Excess air requirements, Equivalence
ratio, Analysis of products of combustion, Calorific value - HCV & LCV. Bomb
and Boys gas Calorimeters. Flue Gas Analysis using Orsat Apparatus, Exhaust
Gas analyser, Enthalpy of formation, Adiabatic flame temperature.

Unit VI : Steam Generators & Boiler Draught

Steam Generators : Classification, Constructional details of low pressure
boilers, Primary Features of high pressure (Power) boilers, Location,
Construction and working principle of boiler, Boiler mountings and
accessories, Instrumentations required for safe and efficient operation,
Introduction to IBR Act, Boiler performance Calculations-Equivalent
Evaporation, Boiler efficiency, Heat balance Sheet.
Boiler Draught : Classification, Necessity of Draught, Natural draught,
Determination of Height of chimney, Diameter of chimney, condition for
maximum discharge, Forced draught, Induced draught, Balanced draught,
Draught losses.

Text:
1. P. K. Nag, “Engineering Thermodynamics”, Tata McGraw Hill
Publications
2. R. K. Rajput, “Engineering Thermodynamics”, EVSS Thermo, Laxmi
Publications
3. P. L Ballaney, “Thermal Engineering”, Khanna Publishers
4. C.P. Arora, “Thermodynamics”, Tata McGraw Hill
5. Domkundwar, Kothandaraman and Domkundwar,“Thermal
Engineering”,Dhanpat Rai Publishers
6. M M Rathore, “Thermal Engineering”, Tata McGraw-Hill

Reference:
1. Rayner Joel, “Basic Engineering Thermodynamics”, AWL-Addison Wesley
2. Cengel and Boles, “Thermodynamics an Engineering Approach”, McGraw
Hill
3. [Link], [Link] and [Link], “Fundamentals of Classical
Thermodynamics”, John Wiley & Sons
4. Holman J.P, “Thermodynamics”, McGraw Hill
5. M Achuthan, “Engineering Thermodynamics”, PHI
6. Steam Tables/Data book
List of Practical’s:

1. Joule’s experiment to validate, first law of thermodynamics.

2. Survey of temperature sensors used in various thermal systems.
3. Determination of dryness fraction of steam using combined separating
and throttling calorimeter.
4. Determination of HCV of solid or gaseous fuel using Bomb or Junker’s
calorimeter respectively.
5. Demonstration on Orsat Apparatus.
6. Trial on boiler to determine boiler efficiency, equivalent evaporation and
Energy Balance.
7. Thermodynamic Analysis of any System / Model by using any Computer
Software.
8. Energy and Exergy analysis of contemporary steam generator.

Industrial Visits

Visit to any Process Industry/Plant having Boiler equipped with

Accessories.
The visit report consists of
 Details about the Industry/Process Plant.
 Operational description of the Equipment with specification, its
use, capacity, application etc.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Course Outcomes: On completion of the course, learner will be able to;

C043.1 - DESCRIBE the basics of thermodynamics with heat and work
interactions.
C043.2 - APPLY laws of thermodynamics to steady flow and non-flow processes.
C043.3 - APPLY entropy, available and non-available energy for an Open and
Closed System.
C043.4 -DETERMINE the properties of steam and their effect on performance of
vapor power cycle.
C043.5 - ANALYSE the fuel combustion process and products of combustion.
C043.6 -SELECT various instrumentations required for safe and efficient
operation of steam generator.

Introduction of Thermodynamics:
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody has a feeling of what
energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition for it. Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause
changes.

The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power), which is
most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today the same name is broadly
interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations, including power generation,
refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter.

Therme means Heat Dynamis Means Power

One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy principle. It simply states that
during an interaction, energy can change from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains
constant. That is, energy cannot be created or destroyed.
A stone falling off a hill, for example, picks up speed as a result of its potential energy being converted to
kinetic energy.

Fig: Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change forms (the first law).

The conservation of energy principle also forms the backbone of the diet industry: A person who has a
greater energy input (food) than energy output (exercise) will gain weight (store energy in the form of
Fat), and a person who has a smaller energy input than output will lose weight. The change in the energy
content of a body or any othersystem is equal to the difference between the energy input and the energy
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Output, and the energy balance is expressed as

Ein- Eout=ΔE.

What is Thermodynamics?

Thermodynamics is the science that deals with energy interaction, i.e Heat & Power (Work) and the
effect of energy interaction on the physical properties of system or matter. The physical properties which
we senses normally by our organs.

Energy: is defined as capacity to do work. If you have more energy you do more work.
Power: Is Rate of doing work.

Thermodynamics Systems:

System or
Matter

Solid Liquid Gas

We also simply define Thermodynamics saying it is a study of 3E’s

E for Energy (Convert energy from one form to

another) E for Entropy (Measure of randomness of any

system) E for Equilibrium (Thermodynamics

Equilibrium)
1. Mechanical Equilibrium (summation of all forces is Zero)
2. Chemical Equilibrium (A+B=C+D)
3. Thermal equilibrium (Same temp. of two different bodies when they are in physical contact
With each other)

Microscopic & Macroscopic Approach:

It is well-known that a substance consists of a large number of particles called molecules. The properties
of the substance naturally depend on the behavior of these particles. For example, the pressure of a gas in
a container is the result of momentum transfer between the molecules and the walls of the container.
However, one does not need to know the behavior of the gas particles to determine the pressure in the
container. It would be sufficient to attach a pressure gauge to the container. This macroscopic approach
to the study of thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the behavior of individual particles
is called classical thermodynamics. It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of engineering
problems.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
A more elaborate approach (microscopic approach), based on the average behavior of large groups of
individual particles, is called statistical thermodynamics.

Thermodynamic
Approach

Microscopic Macroscopic
approach approach

It is the study of When matter is not

average behaviour of studies at molecular
molecules constituting level
the matters

Classical
Statistical Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics

Comparison between Macroscopic and Microscopic Approach:

Sr. No. Macroscopic Approach Microscopic Approach

1 In this behavior of each molecules is
In this gross or overall behavior is
considered, thus system considered as
considered with taking care of any
made up of a very large number of discrete
activity occurred at molecular level.
particles.
2
This analysis required simple This analysis required advanced statistical
mathematical formulae. and mathematical methods.

3
In order to describe a system only In order to describe a system large number
few properties are needed. of properties are needed.
4 This is also known as a Statistical
This is also known as a Classical
Thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics.

5
This approach is simple. This approach is complicated.

6 The values of the properties of the The value of the properties which describe
system are the average of the the molecules cannot be easily measured
millions of individual molecules. by instruments.
7 The properties like, pressure, The properties like, velocity, momentum,
temperature, volume, mass etc. are impulse, kinetic energy, force of impact
considered. etc. are considered.
8
In this approach, the change in the In this approach, the change in the
properties can be felt by our senses. properties cannot felt by our senses.

SYSTEM, BOUNDARY AND SURROUNDING

Thermodynamic System:

A Thermodynamic System is defined as quantity of matter(Finite quantity e.g. Control Mass in Kg)
orregion of space (Finite region, e.g. control volume) upon which attention is concentrated in the
analysis of the problem.

eg – 1. During driving a car, car is a system for driver.

eg – 2. During heart surgery a heart is a system for a surgeon.
eg – 3. During a lecture everything inside a class room is a system for a lecture.

Boundary of a System:

In order to fix the limits of a system, there must be a partition around the system. This
partition is known as the boundary of the system.

e.g. – 1. During driving a car, car body is a boundary.

e.g. – 2. During heart surgery a heart surface is a boundary.
e.g. – 3. During a lecture, class room wall is a boundary.

Surrounding of a System:

Everything outside the boundary of a system is called the surrounding of the system.

e.g. – 1. During driving a car, everything outside the car is a surrounding.

e.g. – 2. During heart surgery, except the heart everything is a surrounding.
e.g. – 3. During a lecture, everything outside the class room is a surrounding.

TYPES OF SYSTEM BOUNDARIES:

1. Real Boundary -
A boundary which is physically encloses a system is called as a real boundary.

e.g. – 1. Consider an oven used for baking the food products. The wall of the oven physically encloses the
heating coils and the food products. Thus it forms a real boundary.

2. Imaginary Boundary -
A system which we imagine to be enclosed within a certain space / boundary is called as an imaginary
boundary.
e.g. – 1. Boundary of a galaxy is an imaginary boundary
e.g. – 2. Boundary of an atmosphere surrounding the earth surface

3. Fixed Boundary -
This is a type of boundary has a definite shape and encloses a fixed region of universe.
e.g. – 1. System of a turbine has a fixed imaginary boundary
e.g. – 2. A wall of furnace has a fixed real boundary

4. Moving Boundary -
This is a type of boundary may change its shape and the region of the universe enclosed by it.

e.g. – 1. Wall of a balloon which changes its size and shape with the Pressure of inside air is an example
of moving real boundary

TYPES OF SYSTEM:

TYPES OF
SYSTEM

Closed System Open System Isolated System

1. Closed System:

Closed system or Non-Flow System or control massis one in which there is no mass transfer across the
boundary, but energy can transfer into and out of the system.
eg – 1. Heating water in a jar cover with lid. – Heat (energy) can be added to, and removed from the
system, but generated steam (mass) cannot escape from jar as it is covered by a lid.
eg – 2. Hot Water Bag – Which is used to get relief from muscular pain, Heat (energy) can and water
(mass) cannot transfer across the bag.
Eg – 3. Piston cylinder arrangement without Valve.

Mass fixed

Piston Cylinder arrangement without

valve

2. Open System:

Open system or Flow Systemor Control Volumeis one in which both mass and energy can enter and or
leave the system.

eg – 1. Heating water in a open jar – Heat (energy) can be added to the system and generated steam can
escape from the jar
eg – 2. Air Compressor – Work (energy) can be supply to compressor and compressed air can enter and
leave the compressor.

Control Surfaces (Real or

imaginary

Control Volume (Open System)

e.g. – 3. Gas turbine, Pump

Energy in (2) mass out

Control Volume of fixed identity

Energy out (Friction losses, heat

transfer to surrounding)

(1) mass in ( it is in Kg/Sec)

Compressor

3. Isolated System:

An Isolated system is one in which there no mass is as well as energy transfer across the system
boundary, it is independent of all the changes that are taking place in the surrounding.
It is an imaginary / hypothetical system because no system is perfectly isolated.

e.g. – 1. Tea Thermos pot is consider as a isolated system – No Heat (energy) and Tea (mass) can transfer
across the thermos pot.
e.g. – 2. Ice box is consider as a isolated system – No Heat (energy) and ice (mass) can transfer across
the ice box.

Properties of System:

Properties of any system is nothing but Characteristic of a System. It is a macroscopic analysis of the
system i.e. we study some finite quantity or particular volume of system and observed it’s physically and
find out its characteristic.

For e.g. Pressure, volume, temperature, density, enthalpy, entropy etc. characteristics are the properties of
the system.

If we know at least two properties of the system then we can say the system is in particular state.

There are two types of properties:

1. Intensive Properties -
These are the properties which are independent of the total mass in the system. If the mass of the system
changes there is no change in the value of the properties. (For e.g. Pressure, Temperature)
e.g. – 1. Density of 1 liter and 1000 liter of same water is equal.
e.g. – 2. Atmospheric pressure on open ground surface will be equal to the room floor surface, located in
same area.
e.g. – 3. If a Iron Plate of 1m² is heated to certain degree, then temperature of whole plate or a portion
of 1 mm² of same plate will be equal.

2. Extensive Properties –
These are the properties which are dependent of the total mass in the system. When the mass of the
system changes, the values of the properties will change proportionately. (For e.g. Volume, Energy)
e.g. – 1. Volume of 10 Kg is greater than 1 Kg of same matter.
e.g. – 2. Weight of 20 Kg mass is less than 40 Kg mass of same.
e.g. – 3. Energy evolved after burning a1 kg of coal is less than that of 10 kg of same quality and grade.

3. Specific Properties –
Extensive properties per unit mass is defined as a specific properties. For e.g. volume, energy, etc
properties are calculated for 1 kg Mass or for 1 unit mass.

Like,
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖
𝒎𝟑
𝒎𝒆
𝑲𝒈
Specific volume
=
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
=

𝑵−𝒎
Specific energy 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓
𝒈𝒚 𝑲𝒈
= = or J/Kg
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

STATE OF A SYSTEM:

What is state?

State of a system means at some particular position we known properties of a system.

Change of state:

If due to some energy interaction or mass interaction if the state of system is change then it’s called
change of state.

For e.g. initial condition of system is P1,V1,T1,ρ1 and final condition of same system is P2, V2, T2, & ρ2
respectively, then we can say the system is in change of state.

When all the properties of a system have definite values ( such as Pressure, Volume, Temperature etc.)
then the system is said to exist at a Definite state, and the property of the state are said to be State
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
functions or Point functions.

Consider a piston cylinder arrangement in which a gas is trapped. Initially when piston at bottom
position the pressure is P1, Volume is V1 and Temperature is T1. At this particular instant all known
properties have definite fixed values which shows the condition of the system at that instant, hence it is
described the state of the system, shown by State-1.
If a external load is removed gas expanded and attained another particular fixed values of a pressure P2,
volume V2 and temperature T2. At this instant the all known properties shows the condition of the
system at this instant, hence it is also described the state of the system, shown by State-2.

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS:

A process is defined as the transformation of the system from one fixed state to another fixed state.
When any one of the properties changes its state continuously then, the system is said to have undergone
a process.
Any operation in which one or more properties of the system changes, is called change of state, and the
series of change of state followed to attain the change from state-1 to state-2 is known as a path of
change of state.
When the path is completely specified, then the change of state is called a process.

IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS:

Consider a system consisting of a gas in a cylinder fitted with a piston. Let, ‘W’ be the weight kept on the piston
which compresses the gas to pressure-P1, volume-V1, and temperature-T1. The system is initially in the
equilibrium state-1.
If the weight is removed then there gas expanded until the gas pressure becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure, let at this final state gas reaches to pressure-P2, volume-V2 and temperature-T2. The system
finally comes to another equilibrium state-2.
The process 1-2 is initially and finally in equilibrium, but the intermediate states passed through
by the system are non-equilibrium states, it is joined by the dotted line.
Such a process is called Irreversible Process.

In irreversible process we can go from one state to another in some particular path but did not return from process
2 to process 1 by following same path due to some losses like friction loss, energy loss etc.

QUASI–STATIC OR REVERSIBLE PROCESS:

Quasi means nearly, so Quasi Static Process is a nearly stationary process, or a process which proceeds with
extreme slowness.
Consider a weight ‘W’ made up of many small weights, and initially kept on the piston which compressed the gas
inside the cylinder to pressure-P1, volume-V1 and temperature-T1. The system is initially in equilibrium shown
by state-1.
Now consider a small weight is removed the gas expanded to certain amount and reached to another equilibrium
state shown as state-a, where, pressure-Pa, volume-Va and temperature-Ta.
Let, the second small weight is removed, then the gas expanded and reached to the next equilibrium state shown
as state-b, where, pressure-Pb, volume-Vb and temperature-Tb.
Finally system reached to equilibrium state-2, at where pressure-P2, volume-V2 and temperature-T2.
As these weights are removed one by one, the departure of the state of the system from the equilibrium state be
very small. So every state passed through by the system will be an equilibrium state.
As all the states, initial, intermediate and final are in equilibrium, so that the process is called as a Quasi-Static
Process. It is also called as Reversible Process and it is represented by continuous line on P-V diagram.
Reversible or quasi static process is a hypothetical process. Because no such system are made up which is given
100% without any losses.
We can use this process as a benchmark to compare our process. I.e. how much our process is nearby to reversible
process. This process is very slow process.

VARIOUS THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS:

1. Constant Pressure Process / Isobaric Process –

During the change of state pressure remains same and other properties get changed, to go through
a change of state from State-1 to State-2, and the process is known as Constant Pressure Process
or Isobaric Process. It follows the law,

2. Constant Temperature Process / Isothermal Process –

During the change of state temperature remains same and other properties get changed, to attain a
change of state from State-2 to State-3, and the process is known as Constant Temperature
Process or Isothermal Process. And it follows the law,

3. Constant Volume Process / Isochoric Process –

During the change of state volume remains same and other properties get changed, to attain a
change of state from State-3 to State-4, and the process is known as Constant Volume Process or
Isochoric Process. And it follows the law,

4. Constant Entropy Process / Isentropic Process / Adiabatic Process –

During this process neither heat enters nor does heat leave the system. And it follows the law,

5. Polytropic Process –
in actual practice neither we get Isothermal Process nor Adiabatic Process, but what we get is the
process in between these two and is known as polytrophic process. It follows the law,

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE:
Thermodynamic cycle is defined as the series of state changes such that the final state is identical
with initial state.
Consider a system at the initial state of State-1, under goes a constant pressure process 1-2, from state-
1 to state-2, then it undergoes a constant temperature process 2-3 form state-2 to state-3 and then reach
to state-4 by constant volume process 3-4, and finally return to the state-1 by process 4-1.
In this a system undergoes a series of process, starting from initial state-1 and finally reach to the same
identical state, hence it is said that a system completed one cycle, and known as a thermodynamic cycle.
In a thermodynamic cycle, chemical composition of the working fluid during the process does not
change. Thus, all the properties in the initial and final states remain unchanged.
e.g. Water that circulate through steam power plant. There is a change of phase during the process,
but the end state are same.

Phase:
Quantity of matter homogeneous throughout in chemical composition and physical structure is
called as phase.
Such as chemical composition of water throughout is H2O.

Phase

Solid Liquid Gas

Consider one vessel containing water is covered by lid and supply heat energy, due to addition of
heat water is start to convert into vapor.
Here we can see the chemical composition of water (liquid) and vapor (gas) is same i.e H2O means its
satisfied one condition. But physical structure of water and vapor is different, the molecule of water
is near to each other whereas vapor’s molecules are away from each other.
So it is not in a single phase system, here two phases are coexist.

Water
vapour (H2O)

Water (H2O)

Q (Heat)
 Homogeneous system: When material is in one phase is called as homogeneous system.
 Heterogeneous system : when material is exist in two different phase (liquid and gas, or
solid and liquid) such system is called heterogeneous system

Work and heat Transfer

 Work transfer means work done by the system or on the system
 Is this work is a product of force and displacement or not?
 Normally when we define work, we say the displacement in the direction of force. But this is
the definition of mechanical work.
dl

F M M

∴ Wmechanical = F dl

 But in thermodynamic work done we can’t adopt this formula.

 Thermodynamic system is one on which we focus our study.
Surrounding

System
(closed /
open
System Boundary

 Now applying some force on system boundary, if that boundary is expanded or compressed
then we can say the work will be done.
 Thermodynamic work is define as ‘displacement of system boundary‘.

Work transfer:

 If there is any displacement in boundary of particular system we get work, then we can say
work is transfer.
 To say work is transfer, energy must be transfer from the system boundary.
 here work in the form of energy
 work is boundary phenomena
 let us take example of nozzle:

Imaginary boundary

Min
Mass in mass out
Mmax
Mmin

Real boundary

In figure we see the finite mass (system) enter inside the nozzle having mass Mmax,. This finite mass flow
along the nozzle its volume will be change. It’s Mintermidiate in middle and Mmin at outlet. So we can say the
boundary of a system is change. But due to change in boundary we did not get any type of work done.
Hence we can say work transfer will be zero. And this is called as free expansion in thermodynamics.
So in nozzle expansion is free expansion.

THERMODYNAMIC WORK:

It is an interaction between the system and the surroundings and the work is said to be done by the
system on surroundings, of the complete external effect is lifting up of the body.
Let us consider a battery and motor system, the motor is driving a fan. The system is doing work on the
surroundings.
When the fan is replaced by a pulley and weight, then the weight may be raised as the pulley is driven by
the motor. Then the complete external effect is raising up the body, so the system is doing
thermodynamic work.
When the work is done by the system, then it is taken as positive (+’ve) and when the work is done on the
system, it is taken as negative (-’ve).

P-dV WORK: (work transfer from closed system)

Consider a system consisting of a gas in a cylinder fitted with a piston

Initially when piston is at position-1, the pressure inside the cylinder is P1 and volume is V1.
Let the gas is compressed as the piston moves to position-2, Then the pressure increased to
P2 and volume V2.
Now, considering a small piston movement of ‘ dl ‘ during which pressure ‘ P ‘ is assumed to be
constant. If ‘ a ‘ is the cross sectional area in m², then the force acting on the piston is,

The small amount of work done by piston on the gas due to displacement ‘ dl ‘ is,

When the piston moves from postion-1 to position-2, volume will change from V1 to V2, then the
total amount of work done is given by,

WORK IS A PATH FUNCTION:

A system passing through a process undergoes a change of state from state-1 to state-2.
It is possible to change the State-1 to State-2 by infinite number of paths like a, b or c etc.
Now if we consider, the path ‘ a’ then the work done during the process 1-a-2 will be equal to the area
under the curve shown in fig.-a. If we consider path ‘ b ‘ then the work done during this is 1-b-2 which is
equal to the area under the curve as shown in fig.-b. And if system passes through the path ‘ c ‘ then
work done is under the curve 1-c-2, shown in fig.-c.
So, the work done during the process, directly depends upon the path and not on the end
states. Thus work is called path function.

1. WORK DONE IN ISOBARIC PROCESSES:

In constant pressure process (Isobaric Process) pressure is constant during the change of state.
We know that, Work done is given by,

2. WORK DONE IN ISOCHORIC PROCESSES:

In constant volume process (Isochoric Process) volume is constant during the change of state.
We know that, Work Done is given by,

3. WORK DONE IN ISOTHERMAL PROCESSES:

In constant temperature process (Isothermal Process) temperature is constant during the change of state.
We know that, Work done is given by,

…………

4. WORK DONE IN POLYTROPIC PROCESSES

In polytropic process the law PVⁿ = C is followed during the change of state, from state-1 to state-2, where, ‘n’
is constant.
We know that, Work Done is given by,

………

………P1V1 =P2V2 n n
=C

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Prob.-1. A Gas 0.014 m³, at a pressure of 2070 KN/m² expanded to a pressure of 207 KN/m², according to the
law PV ¹ ̇³⁵ = C. Determine the work done by the gas during the expansion.

Solution: Given Data:

Volume, V1 = 0.014 m³ Law of expansion is PV ¹ ³⁵

̇ =C

Initial Pressure, P1 = 2070 KN/m² n=

1.35 Final Pressure, P2 = 207 KN/m²

Find out : Work done, W₁₋₂ =?

W₁₋₂ =?
We know, as per the law of expansion,

PV1.35 = C …….n=1.35

Hence, according to polytrophic process,

P1 V1n= P2 V2n

2070
∴ V2= 0.014[ ]
20
1/1.35
7

∴V2 = 0.0769 m3

∴ Work done during expansion is,

207×0.0769 −2070×0.014
∴ ]
1−1.35
W 1-2 = [

∴
W1-2 = 37.32 KN-m (Kj)

Prob.2. In a certain thermodynamic process of an ideal gas, the volume changes from 0.2 m³ to 0.5 m³, while
pressure changes occurs according to the law, P = 1500 [(V/100) + 1}. Where, pressure P is in N/m², then
find out the work done by the gas in KJ.

Solution: Given Data:

Initial Volume, V1 = 0.2 m³ Law of expansion is P = 1500 x [(V/100) +

1] Final Volume, V2 = 0.5 m³

Find out: Work done , W₁₋₂ = ? In KJ

We know,

∴ Law of expansion is P = 1500 x [(V/100) +

1] Put the value of P in work done equation,

THERMODYNAMIC EQULIBRIUM:
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, if it satisfies the following three requirement of equilibrium.
1. Mechanical Equilibrium:
A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, when there is no unbalanced forces
acting on a complete system or on any part of the system.

2. Thermal Equilibrium:
A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium, when there is no temperature difference between the
system or part of the system and its surrounding.

3. Chemical Equilibrium:
A system is said to be in chemical equilibrium, when there is no chemical reaction within
the system and also there is no movement of any chemical constituent from one part of the system to
the other.

HEAT TRANSFER:

Heat is a form of energy, which crosses the system boundary due to the temperature difference between
the system and the surroundings.
When the two bodies, one hot and the other cold are kept in contact with each other, then the hot body
loses heat and becomes colder and the cold body gains heat and becomes hotter and this process continues
till the thermal equilibrium is reached.

At this stage the two bodies will be at the same temperature.

Heat is a path function, and when heat is flows into the system then it is taken as +’ve and when it is
flows out of the system then it is taken as –’ve.

Temperature and its measurement:

Change in temperature means sudden rise in temperature or fall in temperature. This occur due to external
heating, friction, chemical process etc.

Traditional thermometer to sense the temperature.

Expansion occurs.
Temperature measurement system:
Temperature measurement
system

Mechanical Temperature Electrical Temperature

measurement system measurement system

deals with physical aspects Electrical parameters

time & temperature directly

time & temperature directly
proportion to change in
proportion to change in
length/structure (expansion
Resistance /conductance
or contraction)

1. Mechanical Temperature measurement system:

a. Bimetallic temperature gauge:

b. Gas filled temperature gauge:

1. Electrical Temperature Measurement System:

a. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD):

Whenever there is change in temperature there will be change in resistance of the particular
system. Resistance will be their inside the conducting medium i.e. Copper, Nickel, and
Platinum are widely used metals.

b. Thermocouples:
Its formation of couples known as a junction by with the help of two dissimilar metal. This two dissimilar
metal produces different voltages. So the EMF get induced at the opposite end of the junction. As shown
in the fig. T1 is the opposite end temperature of the junction and it called an ambient temperature. And
the temperature of at the junction is always in higher side say it is T2.
So this temperature at T2 is always greater than T1, (T2>T1).
This dissimilar material thus produced EMF at this two different point basically, so this EMF induce is
known as seeback effect.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS:

Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

…...........Where, F – Force in N, A – Area in m²,

P – Pressure in N/m² or Pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m²)

Pressure is also measured in bar, where 1 bar = 10⁵ N/m²

Another method of Pressure measurement is length of liquid column, usually Water or Mercury. It is
measure in mm or cm, where 760 mm of Hg = 10.33 m of Water.
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is known as atmospheric pressure and it is denoted by 1 atm,
Where, 1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 10.33 m of Water = 1.01325 bar.
Atmospheric pressure is consider as a reference for all gauge used for pressure, The pressure above the
atmospheric pressure, is known as Gauge pressure Pg. (it is taken ‘+’ Ve), and the pressure below the
atmospheric pressure is known as Vacuum pressure Pvac (it is taken as ‘-’ ve)

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

Zeroth law is a fundamental law, but it’s come after first law and second law. Zeroth law describe
thermal equilibrium condition.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that, when a body ‘A’ is in thermal equilibrium with the body ‘B’
and also separately with the body ‘C’, then the bodies ‘B’ and ‘C’ will be in thermal equilibrium with
each other

Thus, this low forms the basis of temperature measurement by comparison method.

Specific Heat and Latent Heat:

1. Specific Heat :

The amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by 10C is called as specific heat. Its
unit J/kg.
The relation between heat and temperature change is usually expressed in the following form,

𝑄 = 𝑐𝑚∆𝑇

Where c – is specific heat.

Q- Heat added

∆T – Temperature difference (tfinal – tinitial)

m- Mass

The relationship does not apply if a phase change is encountered, because heat added or removed during
phase change does not change the temperature.

2. Latent Heat (hfg):

The amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of amount of water into dry saturated steam of same
saturation temperature by maintaining pressure as a constant. The enthalpy of latent heat is denoted by
‘hfg’.

 During this process only phase change occurs.

 The temperature remains constant i.e. saturation temperature.

Question Bank
1. What do you mean by thermodynamics? Explain the field of application of thermodynamics?
2. Explain the following with suitable sketch:
i) System ii) Surrounding iii) Boundary.
3. What are the type of thermodynamic system? Explain each with suitable example.
4. Define thermodynamic property. What are its types? Explain with examples.
5. Explain thermodynamic equilibrium.
6. Explain zeroth law of thermodynamics.
7. What do you mean by process and cycle?
8. Explain reversible and irreversible process. What are the causes of irreversibility?
9. Define thermodynamic work, sp. Heat, and latent heat.
10. What is the various thermodynamic processes?
11. Explain quasi static process with neat sketch.
12. Define macroscopic and microscopic approach. Differentiate microscopic and macroscopic
approach.
13. Define point function and path function. Differentiate point and path function.

2. First law of Thermodynamics

 As we know that heat is one form of energy which is available in the large quantity that can be
transformed into the useful form of energy or work.
 For transforming heat into work, heat interactions between system and surroundings is essential.
 In this unit we are going to discuss the rate of exchange of heat and work will be equal but there is
no change in the system properties. This fact will be expressed as the first law of
thermodynamics.

2.1 Law of Conservation of Mass

 The law of conservation of mass states that the mass cannot be created or destroyed in the absence
of nuclear reaction but it may be converted from one form to another form.
 For example, consider a fluid passing through a system as shown in fig. 2.1

2
1
𝜌1 𝜌2

𝐴1 𝐴2

𝐶1 𝐶2

2
1
Fig. 2.1 Law of conservation of mass

 If 𝜌 is the density, A is the cross- sectional area, C is the velocity and m is the mass of fluid at
section 1 (entrance) and 2 (exit), then, the volume of fluid at entry through elemental area per

𝑚3⁄
unit time is given by,
𝑉1 = × 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴1 𝐶1

ṁ1 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Now, mass of fluid at entrance per unit time is,

𝑘𝑔⁄
∴ ṁ1 = 𝜌1 × 𝐴1 × 𝐶1 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑘𝑔⁄
 Similarly, the mass m2 of fluid at exit per unit time is,
ṁ2 = 𝜌2 × 𝐴2 × 𝐶2 𝑠𝑒𝑐

∴ ṁ1 = ṁ2
But, for steady state condition, mass flow rate remains constant.

∴
… (ṁ = Mass flow rate)
𝜌1 × 𝐴1 × 𝐶1 = 𝜌2 × 𝐴2 × ….. (2.1)
𝐶2
 The above equation is called as one – dimensional steady flow continuity equation and it is
because of law of conservation of mass.

 The law of conservation of energy states that, the energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but
whenever there is change in the state of a system there is only transformations of one form of
energy into another.
 For example, when the water is passing down vertical pipe potential energy of water is converted
into kinetic energy.
 Another example is, when brake is applied to a moving vehicle then due to friction kinetic energy
of vehicle converted into heat energy.
2.3 Joule’s Experiment
 The English scientist J.P. Joule conducted experiments which were the first step in quantitative
analysis of thermodynamics and it led to the first law of thermodynamics.
 In this experiment consider a closed adiabatic system with known mass of mercury contained in
an insulated vessel having stirrer wheel as shown in fig. 2.2

Thermometer Pulley

Weight
Q

Stirrer W/D

Adiabatic System boundary

wall (insulator)

Fig. 2.2: Joule’s Experiment

 The work is supplied across the boundary of the system by falling weight.
 The system formed by the liquid in a container is a closed system which is initially at temperature
T1. I.e. equal to atmospheric temperature.
 The weight is allowed to fall through a height ‘h’ which causes rotation of stirrer.
 The work input to the stirrer is measured by fall of weight (potential energy).
 The rotation of stirrer is kinetic energy form in molecules of mercury, (potential energy converted
into kinetic energy).
 This kinetic energy is calculated in form of temperature through thermometer, i.e. final
temperature T2. This is always greater than T1.
 Joules done this experiment by different setup, he applied this experiment on another substances
like, water, solid, gas etc. and also he was apply different kind of work like instead of mechanical
work he applied electrical work.
 He recognized that whatever work he input to the system he get that much heat in reverse form,
irrespective of the process (either it may reversible or irreversible).

P
2
Q1-2
rejected

W1-2 i/p 1 Fig. 2.3: representation of Joule’s experiment on P-V diagram

V
 By this experiment, Joule concluded that net work input W to the system was proportional to

W (1-2)∝ 𝑄(2−1)
the net heat Q transferred to the system at the end of a cycle. Refer fig. 2.3

Ʃ 𝑊 ∝ ƩQ
Ʃ W=JƩ
Q
Where J – is joules equivalents or mechanical equivalent of heat.

∴ Ʃ W=ƩQ
 In S.I system of units 1N-m = 1 J

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠,
For cyclic integral ∮ sign is used hence,
Wnet = Qnet

∲ 𝑑𝑊 = ∲ 𝑑𝑄

…. 2.2
 The equation 2.1 indicates that, algebraic sum of the work and heat interaction during a cycle is zero.
 It is valid for thermodynamic cycle.

So this is the first law of thermodynamics, for a closed system where we see the energy is conserved,
whatever work in form of energy we supplied that is equal to heat (I.e. no loss of energy). So we can
say the principle of conservation of energy is satisfied here.

2.4 First law of thermodynamics for a closed system Undergoing Process

 Let us consider we rotate the wheel of cycle by pedalling, so we are doing some sort of work.
And whatever work we done that will be store in wheel in the form of K.E.
-Q +Q

Hot Brake
shoe Hot Brake shoe

Wheel Fig. 2.4 Reverse effect

Wheel

Fig. 2.5 P-V diagram

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
🠶 So, the K.E.
stored in wheel =
work done by
pedalling
🠶 Now if
we
apply
the
brake,
it stop
the
wheel
by
applyin
g the
opposite
torque.
This is
happene
d due to
the
brake
friction.
🠶 We can
see while
applying
the brake
the brake
shoe will
be hot,
because the
work
stored in
the wheel
liberated in
the form of
heat at the
interface
between
the wheel
and the
brake.

 If we do exactly opposite of it, we bring one hot break shoe and apply it on wheel, we seen that wheel
is not rotated.
 So through this experiment joule get one conclusion, that we can converted work in completely heat but
we can't convert heat in complete work.

 So the any type of work electrical, mechanical, thermodynamic is come under a high grade category.
 Heat is not completely converted into work, and it is more distributed form of energy, and we can’t
utilised it completely so it is come under low grade category.
 So from joule experiment we know that there is impossible of complete conversion of heat and work.
 We can convert work completely into heat but we can’t convert heat completely into work.
 How’s this happen?

2.5 Energy Balance Theory

Ein

∆
𝐸
Eout

Fig. 2.5 Energy balance theory

 By observing, Ein > Eout

 if we supplied Ein amount of energy to the system, then there must be Eout amount of energy come out
from the system.
 But that much heat is not liberated from the system.
 What is the meaning of that, is the energy destroyed from the system?
 If the Answer is Yes. Then it violates the first law of thermodynamics (violation of principle of
conservation of energy).

 No it is not happen, because we know that we can’t destroy energy. So the some part of energy may

∴ 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸
be stored in the system in any different form

∆𝐸- Change in energy of the system (stored energy)

 This is happened in work and heat interaction. When we give heat

to some system, some part of heat is utilised to improve the
energy of the system and some part is utilised to do work.

From this we executing the First law of thermodynamics for a closed

Q1-2 = W2-1 + ∆𝐸 …… 2.3

system Undergoing Process is,

Where, ∆𝐸- total energy of the system and it is a property (in form
Fig. 2.6 Distribution of heat of stored energy).

2.6 Study of Energy to relate the process

 Energy is define as capacity to do work.
 Energy is divided into two category:
i) Energy in transient
ii) Energy in storage

i. Energy in transient:
The transit energy will be known when it transfer from system boundary, either it will go outside the system
or come in the system. This type of energy is called transfer or boundary phenomena. And they are the
path function, they are inexact differential, and most important they are not property of the system.
E.g. heat and work is the transient energy

ii. Energy in storage:

Energy which is stored in system quantity.
Microscopic form(energy
at molecular level)

Stored energy
Macroscopic form
i) K.E. of substance
ii) P.E of substance

Fig. 2.7 Types of stored energy

Do you know in both form of energy K.E. are present?

 If total quantity of substance i.e. ‘m’ Kg of substance is move in particular velocity, Then K.E of that ‘m’
Kg substance is = 21m𝑣2 …. So this is the kinetic energy at macroscopic level.
 If we talk about atom, there will be an average velocity of each molecule and they have particular mass also.
 So Kinetic energy of the molecules will be the microscopic energy.

∆𝐸
Q1-2 = W2-1 +

∆
𝐸

Microscopic
(molecular level) Macroscopic

Internal energy (U)

*Nucleus energy
*Atom energy K.E & P.E of the substance
*Translation, rotation, vibration
motion

Fig. 2.7 Types of stored energy

 Therefore total energy (E) of the system is the sum of,

∴ 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸
…..2.4

+𝑈
…

 U is the total energy of the substance at molecular level.

𝑄1−2 = 𝑊2−1 + ∆ 𝐸
 Now consider one system,

 In differential form
đ Q = dE + đ W
 This is differential form for first law for process and this equation is valid for open as well
as closed system.

 If we neglect macroscopic energy, i.e. K.E. and P.E., then it’s consider as there is no motion in the
system particles. We only consider the substance energy.
 For a closed system the mass interaction will be zero so velocity of the particles become zero.
 Hence kinetic energy will be zero.
 And as well as potential energy is considered as zero.
∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈
… 2.5

đ Q = dE + đ W

 This equation is valid for open system and closed system as well as reversible and irreversible process.
đ Q = dU + đ W …. 2.6
 This is the equation of first law for closed system executing a thermodynamic process.

Internal Energy for an Ideal Gas

Therefore internal energy ′U′ of an ideal gas is a function of temperature only.

 Fundamental properties of an ideal gas is, in its molecules no any type of attraction or repulsion force.

∴ U = ƒ (𝑻)


 (Note: Whatever energy we give as a input that energy is converted into temperature)

 We see for a closed system ,

 When we right first law for closed system then we get one term i.e. change in energy, and equation is,
 đQ = dE + đ W
 Since work and heat are path function and they are inexact differential that’s why we show it by đ.
 Whereas dE is exact differential, it is a stored form of energy and it is a property of system.

2.7 First law of thermodynamics

The statement of first law of thermodynamics in different forms can be stated as follows:
a) When system undergoes a cyclic change, then the algebraic sum of work delivered to the
surrounding is directly proportional to the algebraic sum of heat taken from the surrounding
i.e.
∲ 𝑑𝑊 𝛼 ∲ 𝑑𝑄
b) Both heat and work are mutually convertible one into another i.e. the energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but converted from one form to another.
c) There is no any machine which is capable of producing work without expenditure of energy.

2.8 Application of First law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics has the various important consequences which are stated as under:
i. Consequence 1 (for process)
ii. Consequence 2 (for an isolated system)
iii. Consequence 3 (PMM-I)

2.8.1 Consequence 1 (for process)

Energy is a property of system:

Proof:
 For a thermodynamic cycle

∲ 𝑑𝑊 = ∲ 𝑑𝑄
 But this thermodynamic cycle is made up with
two processes i.e. process A & Process B.
 So we examine process A & B separately, using the

𝑄𝐴 = ∆𝐸𝐴 + 𝑊𝐴
first law for a process.

𝑄𝐴 - 𝑊𝐴 = ∆𝐸𝐴
 i.e.

Similarly, 𝑄𝐵 = ∆𝐸𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵
…2.7
 Fig. 2.8- (a) Consequence
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research

𝑊𝐵 - 𝑄𝐵 = - ∆𝐸𝐵 … 2.8
Department of Mechanical Engineering

∴ Ʃ𝑊= Ʃ Q
 Now this is a cyclic process,

∴ 𝑊𝐴+ 𝑊𝐵 = 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵
…2.9

∴ 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑊𝐴 = 𝑊𝐵− 𝑄𝐵

∆𝐸𝐴 = -∆𝐸𝐵 … 2.10

From equation 2.7 & 2.8,

 Now we consider new process C return back from 2-1,

 ∴ for path C, 𝑄𝐶 = ∆𝐸𝐶 + 𝑊𝐶

 As we can see the state is same only path is change from B to C,

𝑊𝐶 − 𝑄𝐶 = − ∆𝐸𝐶
… 2.11

∴ Ʃ𝑊= Ʃ Q
… 2.12

∴ 𝑊𝐴+ 𝑊𝐶 = 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐶
𝑊𝐶 - 𝑄𝐶 = 𝑄𝐴 - 𝑊𝐴

∴ − ∆𝐸𝐶 = ∆𝐸𝐴 … 2.13

From equation 2.12 & 2.7,

− ∆𝐸𝐵 = − ∆𝐸𝐶
Comparing equation 2.10 & 2.13

Fig. 2.8 - (b) Consequence

∴ ∆𝐸𝐵 = ∆𝐸𝐶
 From this equation we get one observation that, whatever path we choose to go from State no. 1 to state

∆𝐸𝐴 = ∆𝐸𝐵 = ∆𝐸𝐶 … 2.14

no. 2 either it may be A, B or C, we get,

 Pt. no. 1 & pt. no. 2 i.e. state no. 1& 2 are same but the process or path is different. But for each path the
total energy is came out to be same. It means this stored energy is a point function. It is not depend on

So we can say the stored energy i.e.𝐸𝑘+ 𝐸𝑃 + U is a point function & it is property of a system.
the path.


2.8.1 Consequence 1 (for process)

 The property of a closed system is such that a change in total
energy (∆𝐸) is equal to the difference between the heat
supplied
(Q) and the work done (W) during the change of state.
[From statement (a) of first law of thermodynamics]

∴ ∆𝐸 = Q –W … 2.14
Proof Fig. 2.8-(c) Consequence
 Consider a cyclic change of a system as shown in fig. 2.8-©
 Let, the system proceeds from state 1 to 2 along the path A and then brought back to state 1
along the either path B or C.

∫1 (𝑑𝑄 − ∫2 (𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊)

2 1
 If the systems completes the cycle through the path 1-A-2-B-1 then,

𝑑𝑊) + =0
… [From equation (2.2) … (i)
𝐴 𝐵

∫1 (𝑑𝑄 − ∫2 (𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊)

2 1
 If the system completes the cycle through path 1-A-2-C-1 then,

𝑑𝑊) + =0
… (ii)
𝐴 𝐶

 Now subtracting equation (ii) form equation (i), we get,

( )
1Department 1
∫ 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ (𝑑𝑄 −
of Mechanical Engineering

𝑑𝑊)
2
… (iii)
𝐵
2𝐶
1
∫2 (𝑑𝑄 −
𝑑𝑊)
 It means that, when system changes from state 1 to 2, the is constant
quantity whether the system proceeds through the path B or C.

∫1 (dQ − dW) is function of the initial and final states of the system and it does not depend
 Hence 2

on the path of the process.

2
 Therefore, the quantity ∫ (𝑑𝑄 −
𝑑𝑊)
1
is a property because it is a point function.

 The energy of the system which includes all forms of energy is called as total energy (E) of
the system. It is given by,

∆ 𝐸 = 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊
E=Q–W
Or … 2.15
 But, total energy includes internal energy (U), kinetic energy (K.E.) and potential energy (P.E.).

∴ Total energy, E = Internal energy (U) + K.E. + P.E.

∆𝐸 = ∆ U + ∆(K. E. ) + ∆(𝑃. 𝐸)
Substituting the value of ∆𝐸 from equation (2.15),
Or

∴ ∆𝐸 = 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊 = ∆ U + ∆(K. E. ) + ∆(𝑃. 𝐸)
 If change in K.E. and P.E. are neglected then,
∆ U = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = dQ - dW
… 2.16

[Link] Application of First Law to Non – Flow / Closed System

The process which are applied to a close system are as follows:
1. Constant volume process
2. Constant Pressure Process
3. Constant temperature process
4. Reversible adiabatic process
5. Polytropic process

1. Constant volume process

 For constant volume or isochoric process, consider a perfect gas heated in a closed vessel
as shown in fig. 2.9

Closed vessel

System
Boundary

Heat Q 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐕𝟐
Volume (V)

 If heat is supplied at coFn isgta. n2t. 9voCluonmsetatnhtevnotlhuemper epsrsoucreessa nd temperature

of system will increase but there is no any expansion or compression of gas hence work done (area

∴
under curve) is zero.
dW = 0

dQ = ∆U + dW …(∵ 𝑑𝑊 = 0)
 From first law of thermodynamics,

∴ dQ = ∆U = U2 − U1
Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Hence, the heat energy supplied at constant volume is utilized for increasing the internal energy

dQ = ∆u … (Specific internal energy)

of the system.

If this internal energy is considered for per Kg matter of system, i.e. specific internal energy for 1 Kg
substance,

U / Kg of substance = u Kj/Kg or J/Kg

Specific heat at constant volume: heat required to cause unit change in temperature in a unit quantity of a
substance at constant volume Cv.
Specific heat, C = đ𝑸 (heat required to cause unit change in temperature)
𝒕
∴ 𝑪� = đ(đ𝑸 𝑽= ∵ đ Q = du
đ

𝑪
∴ 𝑪� = đ(𝒕đ𝒖 𝑽=
�

∴ đ𝒖 = 𝑪𝒗 đ𝒕
𝑪
𝒕
�
𝟐 𝟐
∴ ∫𝟏 đ𝒖= ∫𝟏 𝑪𝒗
∴ 𝒖𝟐 - 𝒖𝟏 = 𝑪𝒗 (𝑻𝟐 -
𝑻𝟏)
∴ ∆ 𝒖 = 𝑪𝒗∆𝑻
… 2.17

∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 ∆ 𝑇
This‘m’
 For is formula
kg massfor change
internal in [Link],
energy Internal energy

∴ 𝑑𝑄 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) … 2.18

𝑝.𝑉
=𝐶
Conclusions

𝑇
I. As per general gas equation

P1 P2
For constant volume process,
=
T1 T2
II. Heat supplied to the system,

III. Work output of the system, Q = m𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

dW = 0

dU = dQ = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

IV. Change in internal energy (change in enthalpy)

𝑇2
V. Change in entropy,
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣𝑙𝑛
𝑇
1

2. Constant Pressure Process

 For constant pressure or isobaric process, consider a perfect gas heated in a
frictionless piston cylinder arrangement as shown in fig. 2.10.

Weight

Cylinder

Piston
Boundary

Heat Q

Fig. 2.10. Constant pressure process

 If heat is applied to the system then the temperature will rise and gas will expand.
This upward motion of piston is work output of system.
 If Q be the amount of heat supplied to the system during process 1-2 and work output of
system is dW then,2 2
∫1 dW = ∫1 𝑝. 𝑑𝑉

∴ W = p (𝑉2 − 𝑉1) = p𝑉2- p𝑉1 … (∵ 𝑃1 = 𝑃2)

∴ W = m R (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) … (pV = mRT) … (i)

Enthalpy (H)

 Enthalpy shows total heat content in some particular state and its unit is Joule or Kilo Joule (J or kJ).
 As it shows heat content at different state it’s called the property of the system.
 For unit quantity or one kg matter of any substance, enthalpy become known as specific enthalpy. And
its represent by ‘h’.
 Unit of specific enthalpy is J/kg or kJ/kg.
 Enthalpy is expressed in term of,
 H=U+PV
 Where, U is internal energy, P is pressure and V is volume.
 PV is a flow process.
 For 1 kg substance,
h= u + pv … pv is flow work /kg
 For a closed system,

∴
đQ=du +đW … u specific internal energy.
đQ=du +pdv
 As P = C, đQ=du + d(pv)
đQ = d(u+pv) …
Comparing with sp. Enthalpy, h= u + pv
 We get,
đQ = dh

dQ = m 𝐶𝑝(∆𝑇)
 For constant pressure process,

OR Q = m 𝐶𝑝(𝑇2 − 𝑇1) … (ii)

∆𝑈= Q - W
 Now from first law of thermodynamics

∴ m 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) = m 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) – m R (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) … [from equation (i), (ii), and V=C

R = Cp − Cv
process]
… 2.19

∆U = Q-W
 Also,

𝑜𝑟 Q = ∆U + W
∴ Q = (𝑈2 − 𝑈1) + (𝑝𝑉2 − 𝑝𝑉1)
∴ Q = (𝑈2 + 𝑝𝑉2) – (𝑈1 − 𝑝𝑉1)
∴ Q = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = dh … (∵ Enthalpy h = U+pV) …2.10
 Hence, heat supplied at constant pressure is used to increase internal energy and to
produce external work.
 Also, heat supplied at constant pressure is equal to the change in enthalpy of system.

Conclusions:
As per general gas equation 𝑝𝑉 = C
𝑇
I.

𝑉1 𝑉2
For constant pressure process,
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
II. Heat supplied to the
system Q = mCp (T2 – T1)
III. Work output of the system
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

W = p (V2 – V1)
IV. Change in enthalpy
Dh = dQ = mCp (T2 – T1)

∆S = m Cp ln (𝑇2)
V. Change in entropy

𝑇1

1. Constant Temperature Process

 For constant temperature or isothermal process, consider an arrangement of
frictionless piston and cylinder as shown in fig. 2.11.

Fig. 2.11. Constant temperature process

 Isothermal process is an ideal process in which internal energy of the system will remain

∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

constant. i.e.

∴ ∆𝑈 = 0 …(∵ T2 = T1)

𝑄1−2 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊1−2
 From first law of thermodynamics,

∴ dQ = 0 + dW
Or dQ = dW
2
dQ = dW = ∫ 𝑝1. 𝑑𝑉
 We know that,

𝐶
But pV = C ∴ 𝑝 =
𝑉
2 𝑑𝑉 𝑉2
∴ dQ = dW = C∫ = 𝐶 ln( )
1 𝑉1
𝑉
But p1 V1 = p2 V2 = C
𝑉2
∴ dQ = dW = 𝑃 𝑉 ln = 𝑃 𝑉
ln 𝑃1
…2.20
1 𝑉2 1 1
𝑃1
Or dQ = dW = m1 R T ln𝑉1 = m R T𝑃ln
2
…2.21

𝑉1 𝑃2
1
1

Conclusions:
As per general gas equation 𝑝𝑉 = C
𝑇
I.

For constant temperature process,

p1 V1 = p2 V2
𝑉2
∴ dQ = dW = 𝑃 𝑉 ln = 𝑃 𝑉 ln 𝑃1
II. Heat supplied = work delivered
1 𝑉1 1 1 𝑃2
1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
III. Change in internal energy

∆𝑈 =0

∆S =R ln(
IV. Change in entropy
) = m ( ) �1
𝑉
2 �
𝑉 𝑃 2
1 R

2. Reversible Adiabatic Process

 For reversible adiabatic process or isentropic process, consider an insulated frictionless piston and
cylinder arrangement as shown in fig. 2.12

Fig. 2.12 : Reversible adiabatic process

 Because of insulation there is no heat transfer between system and surrounding but the

∴
system produces work with the help of internal energy.
No heat transfer i.e. dQ = 0
 From first law of

∆U + dW
thermodynamics, dQ =

∴ -dW = ∆U
𝑜𝑟 dW = ∆U

∴ dW = -∆𝑈 = −𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

It means, internal energy of system decreases to produce work output.

 Work done for adiabatic process is given by,

𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2𝑉2 𝑚𝑅 (𝑇1−𝑇2)
𝑊 = =
1− 𝛾− 𝛾−1
2
1
Conclusions:
I. From the equation of process p𝑉𝛾= C

∴ p1 𝑉1𝛾= p2 𝑉2𝛾 1
p1 𝑉 𝑉 p1
∴ =( ) 2 𝛾
2 )𝛾
or ( =
p2 𝑉1 𝑉1 p2
From the general equation of gas 𝑝𝑉 = 𝐶
𝑇

∴
𝑝1𝑉1 𝑝
=2𝑉2 𝑝 1
𝑇1 𝑇2 2 p1
𝑇2 𝑝2𝑉2
𝑜𝑟 ( )𝛾
𝑝1𝑉1 𝑝1 p2
= = …(i)
𝑇1

𝑇2
= 𝑝2𝑉2 = 𝑉2(𝑉1)𝛾
𝑝1𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉2
Also,
𝑇1
𝑇2
∴ = (𝑉1)𝛾−1 …(ii)
𝑇1 𝑉2

From equation (i) and (ii),

II. Heat delivered

dQ = 0
III. Work output of the system

𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃1𝑉1 −
𝑃2𝑉2
𝛾−1

∆S = 0
Iv. Change in entropy

3. Polytropic process
 The non-flow polytropic process is shown in fig. 2.13.

Fig. 2.13: Polytropic process

 All the process like isobaric, isochoric, isothermal, adiabatic, etc. may be describe by a
single equation which is called polytropic law i.e.
p𝑉𝑛= C … 2.23
Where, n = index of process.

∴ p=C
If n = 0, then
p𝑉0= C … Isobaric

∴ pV = C
If n = 1, then
p𝑉1= C … Isothermal

∴ V=C
If n =∞, then
p𝑉∞= C … Isochoric

If n = 𝛾, then
p𝑉𝛾= C … Isentropic

𝛾 𝑏𝑦 𝑛
 Polytropic process is similar to reversible adiabatic process or isentropic process hence replace

Conclusions:

I. p1 𝑉1𝑛= p2 𝑉2𝑛
𝑇 𝑉
𝑝 (
𝑛−1
2
= ( 1)𝑛−1= ( 𝑛
)
)
And … [from equation (2.22)]
2

II. Heat transfer 𝑇 𝑉 𝑝1

1 2
dQ = ∆U + dW
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
III. Change in internal energy

∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

Iv. Work output of the system

𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃1𝑉1 −
𝑃2𝑉2
𝑛−1

2.8.2 Consequence 2 (for an isolated system)

 For a closed system the internal energy remains unchanged if the system is isolated from
its surroundings. [From statement (b) of first law of thermodynamics].
 For isolated system,
dQ = 0, dW = 0

∴ ∆ U = U 2 – U1 = 0
∴ U2 = U1 … 2.24

2.8.2 Consequence 3 (PMM-I)

 A perpetual motion machine of first kind (PMM-I) is impossible to construct. [from statement © of
first law of thermodynamics]
 Fig. 2.14 shows PMM-I which delivers work continuously without any input.

Machine Work (W)

a) PMM-I

Machine
Work (W)

b) Converse of PMM-I

Fig. 2.14: Representation of PMM-I

 In this kind of machine the interaction with the surrounding is to delivery of work.
 It is impossible to have such a device as it violates first law of thermodynamics.
 Converse of PMM-I is also true i.e. there is no any machine which is capable of absorbing work
without expenditure of energy.

2.9 Application of First law of thermodynamics on Open System

2.9.1 Steady Flow Energy Equation

 Consider a steady flow open system as shown in fig.

 The following assumption are made in the system:

 The mass flow rate ṁ remain constant.
 There is no chemical reaction or no change in chemical composition of the fluid.
 At any point state of fluid remains constant.
 In the analysis potential energy, kinetic energy, flow and internal energies are considered.
 The main interaction between the system and surroundings are work and heat

𝐴1 and 𝐴2 be the cross sectional area at inlet and outlet

 Let,

𝑝1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝2 be the pressure at inlet and outlet.

𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 be the specific volume at inlet and outlet.
𝑈1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈2 be the internal energy at inlet and outlet.
𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 be the velocity of the fluid at inlet and outlet.
 If Q is the amount of heat interaction and W is the work output then, as per law of conservation of

energy, Total energy flow rate into control volume = Total energy flow rate out of control

volume

∴ ṁ[energy carried into the system] + ṁ[Flow work] + 𝑑𝑄

𝑑𝜏
= ṁ ×[energy carried out of the system]+ ṁ[flow work] + 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝜏

∴ ṁ [I. E + P. E + K. E]
+𝑚[𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘] 𝑑𝑄
1 1
= ṁ [I. E + P. E + K. E] 𝑑𝜏
+
+𝑚[𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘] 𝑑𝑊
2 2+
𝑑𝜏
2
∴ ṁ [𝑈1 + g𝑍
1 𝐶 𝑑
1 +2 ] + ṁ1[𝑝1 𝑄
2
2 𝐶 𝑑
= ṁ [𝑈2 + g𝑍
2 +
2
] + ṁ2[𝑝2 𝜏
𝑑
𝑊
𝑑
𝜏
= ṁ [𝑈 + g𝑍 +22 𝐶 +𝑝
∴ ṁ [𝑈1 + g𝑍1 + 𝐶1 +
𝑝 𝑑 𝑑𝑊
2

𝑉 1 1 𝑄 2 2 2 2 𝑑𝜏
]
+ 2 𝑑 2
𝜏

2
𝑑 𝑑
[ 1 + g 1 +𝐶 1
𝑄
2𝐶
𝑊
∴ +ℎ 𝑍
2 2 + 2 2
] = [ℎ + g𝑍 ….. [∵h=U + pV]
2 𝑑 𝑑
𝜏 𝜏

 The general steady flow energy equation, on time basis is,

2 2
∴ ṁ[ℎ1 + g𝑍 +21 ] + 𝑄 = ṁ [ℎ2 + g𝑍
� �
…. 2.25
1 � 2 �
𝑊
+2 ] +
2

2.9.2 Flow Work or Flow Energy

 When we have to move some mass in and out of control volume of an open system there has to be
some force which moves the mass.
 To understand this concept, consider a piston inserted in the pipe of cross-sectional area A to push the
unit mass of fluid at pressure p and distance travelled by piston is L, as shown in fig.2.16
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 2.16: Flow work ---------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Work done (W) = Force (F) × Displacement (L)

• We know that,

∴ W = F × L = pA × L
∴ W = p × (AL)
… (∵F = p.A)

∴ W=pv … 2.26
Where, p = Pressure in N/𝑚2 or Pa
3
v = specific volume in 𝑚
kg
W = Flow work or flow energy in j/kg

2.9.3 Application of Steady Flow Energy Equations

 The commonly used engineering systems which works on steady flow energy equation are as follows:

1. Turbine 4. Boiler
2. Pump 5. condenser
3. Compressor 6. Nozzle

1. Turbine
 Turbine is a device which converts heat energy or work into useful work, as shown in fig.2.17.
 We know that Steady Flow Energy Equation for unit mass,

[ℎ1 + 𝑍1𝑔 + ]+ Q =[ℎ2 + 𝑍2𝑔 + ]+𝑊

𝐶2 1 𝐶2 2

2 2
… from equation 2.25

 In case of turbine, change in Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy of turbine is neglected.
Steam in

Steam in
Fig.2.17Turbine

∴ ℎ1 = ℎ2 + W
 Also, as the turbine is insulated Q=0.

Or W= ℎ1- ℎ2

 Hence, the enthalpy drop is converted into useful work.

2. Pump

 Pump is a device which takes the water from a low level and delivers to high level as shown in fig. 2.18

𝑍
2

𝑍
1

Fig. 2.18: Centrifugal pump

 We know that Steady Flow Energy Equation for unit mass,

[ℎ1 + 𝑍1𝑔 + 1𝐶
]+ Q =[ℎ2 + 𝑍2𝑔 + ]+𝑊
2 𝐶22
2 2
In case of centrifugal pump heat transfer Q=0 and ∆U = 0.
∴ [𝑍 𝑔 + 1 𝐶] =[𝑍 𝑔 + 𝐶2 ] − 𝑊
•
2 2

2 2
2
1
• Here work is taken as negative because the work is done on the system.

3. Compressor

 Compressor is a device used to compress the air and supply it at high pressure and in large quantity, as
shown in fig.2.19.
 We know that Steady Flow Energy Equation for unit mass,

[ℎ1 + 𝑍1𝑔 + 1𝐶
]+ Q =[ℎ2 + 𝑍2𝑔 + ]+𝑊
2 𝐶22
2 2

Control volume

Fig. 2.19: Reciprocating compressor

∴ ℎ1 - Q = ℎ2 − 𝑊
 In case of reciprocating compressor, change in K.E and P.E are negligible.

Or W =( ℎ2 - ℎ1) + Q

 Both Q and W are negative because heat is transferred from the system and work is done on the system.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

4. Boiler
 Boiler is a device in which chemical energy of fuel is released by combustion process in the form of heat.
This heat is convert water into steam, as shown in fig.2.20.

Fig. 2.20 Boiler

 We know that Steady Flow Energy Equation for unit mass,

[ℎ1 + 𝑍1𝑔 + 1𝐶
]+ Q =[ℎ2 + 𝑍2𝑔 + ]+𝑊
2 𝐶22
2 2

∴ ℎ1 + Q = ℎ2
 In case of boiler, work done W = 0 and change in K.E and P.E. is negligible.

Or Q = ℎ2 - ℎ1
 It means supplied heat is used to increase the enthalpy.

5. Condenser

 A condenser is used to condense the steam by absorbing the heat from steam with the help of coolant, as
shown in fig.2.21.

Fig. 2.21: Condenser

 We know that Steady Flow Energy Equation for unit mass,

[ℎ1 + 𝑍1𝑔 + 1𝐶
]+ Q =[ℎ2 + 𝑍2𝑔 + ]+𝑊
2 𝐶22
2 2

• In case of condenser, work done W = 0 and change in K.E and P.E. is negligible.

∴ ℎ1 - Q = ℎ2

∴ Q = ℎ1 - ℎ2

• It means due to heat transfer there is decrease in the enthalpy of steam.

6. Nozzle

• Nozzle is a device of varying cross-section by means of which pressure energy of fluid is converted into
K.E.
• It is used in jet engines, turbines, fuel pumps, etc. Refer fig. 2.22.

Fig. 2.22 Nozzle

 We know that Steady Flow Energy Equation for unit mass,

[ℎ1 + 𝑍1𝑔 + ]+ Q =[ℎ2 + 𝑍2𝑔 + ]+𝑊

𝐶2 1 𝐶2 2

2 2

• But In case of nozzles, work done W = 0, Heat transfer Q = 0 and change in P.E is also negligible.

∴ ℎ1
+ 𝐶2
2
= ℎ2
𝐶
21 2
+
2
• If 𝐶1 is known then 𝐶2 is given by,
𝐶2 = √2(ℎ1 − ℎ2) +1 𝐶2

7. Throttling process
 Throttling is an irreversible process in which a fluid flowing across a restriction undergoes a drop in
pressure without change in enthalpy or heat transfer or work transfer.
 This process occurs in a flow through porous plug, as shown in fig.2.23.

Fig. 2.23: Throttling process

 The fluid comes out at reduced pressure𝑃2.
 Steady Flow Energy Equation for unit mass is,

[ℎ1 + 𝑍1𝑔 + ]+ Q =[ℎ2 + 𝑍2𝑔 + ]+𝑊

𝐶2 1 𝐶2 2

2 2

 But in case of throttling process, change in P.E and K.E. is negligible. Also there is no transfer of heat and
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
worki.e. Q=0 and W=0.

∴ ℎ1 = ℎ2
 It means enthalpy before throttling is equal to enthalpy after throttling.

Numerical
1. When a system is taken from state ‘a’ to state ‘b’ along path ‘acb’ 84 kJ heat flows into the system
and system does 32 kJ of work.
a) How much will the heat flow into the system alongpath ‘adb’ be, if the work done is 10.5 kJ
b) when system returns from b-a following the curved path, work done on the system is 21kJ.

c) If 𝑈𝑎 = 0 &𝑈𝑑 =42 kJ, find the heat absorb in the process db.
Does this system absorb or liberates heat and how much?

P c b

a d

V
Solution:

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑏 = 84 kJ
For process ‘acb’

𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑏 = 32 kJ

∴ 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑏 = ∆ 𝑈 + 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑏
As per first law of thermodynamics for closed system undergoing process is

84 = ∆ 𝑈 + 32

∆ 𝑈 = 84 − 32
∆ 𝑈 = 52 𝑘𝐽

* What is the fundamental in this process to solve numerical?

1. Internal energy or total energy of the system is a point function and it’s a property of the system.
2. If we execute the process for any two fix state from any different path, irrespective of
path change in internal energy will be remain same.
3. As you can see in diagram, process move from state a to state b, by different path. You
have three path here, i.e. acb, adb & return path ba.
4. Whatever process done here but the initial and final location of the state is fix.
5. Therefore internal energy is a point function, though whatever path we followed the change
in internal energy between state a to b will be remain same.
6. So you have to remember here change in internal energy throughout process will be same.
This concept is help us to solve the problem.

𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑏 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑎𝑑𝑏
a) For adb path,

𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑏 = 52 + 10.5
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑏 = 62.5 kJ
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

b) For ba path,

𝑄𝑏𝑎 = ∆ 𝑈 + 𝑊𝑏𝑎
Work done on the system, hence its –ve work done.

𝑄𝑏𝑎 = −52 − 21 ∆𝑈 is the internal energy

𝑄𝑏𝑎 = −73 ∴ ∆ 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑏 − 𝑈𝑎 = 52
from state a to state b.

𝑘𝐽
∴ for path ba internal energy
kJ

i.e. ∆ 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑎 − 𝑈𝑏 = - 52
(-) sign indicate heat is liberated from the system become reverse,

𝑊𝑎𝑑 = ?
c) For db path, kj

𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑏 = 62.5 kJ ∆ 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑑 − 𝑈𝑎 𝑊𝑎𝑑𝑏= 𝑊𝑎𝑑 +

We calculate for process adb,
∆ 𝑈 = 42 – 0 𝑊𝑑𝑏
∴ 𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑏 = 𝑄𝑎𝑑 + 𝑄𝑑𝑏
This adb process is made by two path, ad & db.

∴ 𝑄𝑑𝑏 = 𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑏- 𝑄𝑎𝑑 ∆ 𝑈 =42 kJ

10.5 =𝑊𝑎𝑑 + 0

∴ 𝑄𝑑𝑏 = 62.5 -52.5 𝑊𝑎𝑑 = 10.5 kJ

𝑄𝑑𝑏= 10 kJ
𝑄𝑎𝑑 = ∆𝑈𝑎𝑑 +
For

𝑊𝑎𝑑
This is the heat transfer along process ‘db’.

𝑄𝑎𝑑 = 42 + 10.5

𝑄𝑎𝑑 = 52.5 kJ
2. A fluid is confined in a cylinder by a spring loaded frictionless piston so that the pressure in the fluid
is linear function of the volume (P = a+bV). The internal energy of the fluid is given by the following

Where U is in kJ, P is in kPa, V is in 𝑚3.

equation, U = 34 + 3.15 pV.

If change in initial state of 170 kPa, 0.03 𝑚3 to a final state of 400 kPa, 0.06 𝑚3 with no work other
than that done by piston. Find the direction and magnitude of heat transfer.

𝑃1 = 170 kPa 𝑉1 = 0.03 𝑚3

Solution:

𝑃2 = 400 kPa 𝑉2 = 0.06 𝑚3

Given Data:

𝐹𝑜𝑟, ∆ 𝑈 = 𝑈2 - 𝑈1

∴ 𝑈1 = 34 + 3.15 𝑃1𝑉1
Given: U = 34 + 3.15 pV

∴ 𝑈2 = 34 + 3.15 𝑃2𝑉2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

∴ ∆𝑈 = 3.15 (𝑃2𝑉2 − 𝑃1𝑉1)

∆U = 3.15 (400× 0.06 − 170 × 0.03)
∆U = 59.346 kJ

= ∫𝑉2 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑊1−2
For,
𝑉1

𝑃1= a+b𝑉1 170=a+b× 0.03

Given: press. Is linear function of volume, i.e. P= a+bV

𝑃2 = a + b𝑉2 400=a+b× 0.06

570=2a+0.09b
a= -60 kPa
b = 7667 kPa
∴ 𝑊1−2 0.06
=∫0.0 (−60 + 7667𝑉)𝑑𝑉
3

𝑊1−2 = 8.55 kJ

∴ 𝑄1−2 = ∆ 𝑈 + 𝑊1−2

𝑄1−2 = 59.346 + 8.55

Total heat transfer,

𝑄1−2 = 67.896 kJ
Magnitude: 67.896 kJ, Direction: heat is being added

initial state where 𝑃1 = 1 bar, 𝑉1 = 1.5 𝑚3 and 𝑈1 = 512 kJ. The process as follows,
3. A gas undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of three processes beginning at an

i) Process 1-2: compression with PV= constant, 𝑃2=2 bar,𝑈2=690 kJ

ii) Process 2-3: 𝑊2−3=0, 𝑄2−3 = -150kJ
iii) Process 3-1: 𝑊3−1= +50kJ, neglecting K.E and P.E.
changes. Determine heat interaction in process 𝑄1−2&𝑄3−1.

𝑃1 = 1 bar, 𝑉1 = 1.5𝑚3, 𝑈1 = 512 kJ

Solution:

𝑃2=2 bar,𝑈2=690 kJ 𝑊2−3=0, 𝑄2−3 = -150kJ

Given Data:

𝑊3−1= +50kJ

For an ideal gas isothermal process PV=C, (but it is not necessary, may be it will be hyperbolic
equation).
𝑉2 𝑃1
W= 𝑃 𝑉 ln = 𝑃 𝑉 ln
then, if PV=C
1 𝑉1 1 1 𝑃2
1

For an ideal gas Here, PV=C is hyperbolic

process ∆𝑈 = 0 ∆𝑈 ≠0
executing isothermal process

∴For an ideal gas Since 𝑈1= 512kJ

Q=W 𝑈2 = 690 kJ

𝑄 𝑉2 𝑃1
=∆ 𝑈 + = 𝑃 𝑉 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑃 𝑉 𝑙𝑛
𝑊 𝑊
i)
…
1−2 1−2 1−2 1 1 1 1
𝑉1 𝑃2
𝑄1−2 = (𝑈2 − 𝑈1) −
100
= 100× 1.5𝑙𝑛
103.97 200

𝑊1−2 = -103.97 kJ
= (690-512)-103.97
𝑄1−2 = 72.03 kJ

𝑄3−1 = ∆ 𝑈 + 𝑊3−1 ∆ 𝑈 = 𝑈1 − 𝑈3… ∵ 𝑈1=512 kJ

∆𝑈 = 512 − 540=-28 kJ 𝑈3= ?
ii) …

𝑄2−3 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊2−3
-150 = ∆ 𝑈 + 0

∴ 𝑄3−1 = -28 + 50 ∆𝑈 = −150 𝑘𝐽

𝑄3−1 = 22 kJ 𝑈3 − 𝑈2 = −150
𝑈3= -
𝑈3= 540 kJ
150+690

4. During a thermodynamic cycle of processes (A-B-C-D-A), that heat transferred during each
process are: 120 kJ, -16 kJ, -48 kJ and 12 kJ respectively. Estimate network transferred during
the thermodynamic cycle, direction of work transfer, change in internal energy and total
energy of the cycle using the first law for thermodynamic cycle.

𝑄1 = 120kJ, 𝑄2 = -16 kJ, 𝑄3 = -48kJ, 𝑄4 = 12 kJ

Solution:
Given data:

To Find: 1) Net work done 2) Direction of work 3) Change in internal energy 4) Total energy

Step 1: Calculate net work done (W)

∲dQ =∲dW
From first law of thermodynamics,

𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 = 𝑊

W = 68 kJ

+ ve sign indicates work done by the system

Step 2: Calculate change in internal energy

∆𝑈=0

If a system undergoes cycle, the change in internal energy is zero.

Step 3: Total energy

TE = ∆ U + W
TE = 0+68 = 68 kJ

5. A cylinder containing air undergoes a thermodynamic cycle through following processes:

Process 1: During compression 82 kJ of work is done on the system (air) by piston and 45 kJ
heat is rejected.
Process 2: During expansion 100 kJ work is done by the system (air). Using the first law of
thermodynamics for cycle estimate,
a) the heat transfer during process 2 and
b) Direction of this heat transfer.

Given Data:𝑊𝑎−𝑏 = -82 kJ, 𝑄𝑎−𝑏 = -45 kJ, 𝑊𝑏−𝑎 = 100 kJ

Solution:

To find: 1) 𝑄𝑏−𝑎 2) Direction of heat transfer

From first law of thermodynamics

∲ 𝑑𝑊 = ∲ 𝒅𝑄

𝑄𝑎−𝑏 + 𝑄𝑏−𝑎 = 𝑊𝑎−𝑏 + 𝑊𝑏−𝑎

∴ −45 + 𝑄𝑏−𝑎 = -82 + 100

𝑄𝑏−𝑎 = 63 kJ

Direction of heat transfer-Positive sign indicates heat is supplied to the system

6. Fluid (water) flow steadily at the rate of 10 𝑚3/ min through a pump having initial pressure of 100 kPa
and the final pressure of 300 kPa. The pump have inlet and outlet diameter of 0.25 m and 0.17 m

required to drive the pump. Assume 𝜌𝑤= 1000 kg/𝑚3.

respectively. The inlet of pump is at 3 m and outlet is at 9 m from the datum. Determine, the power

Solution:
Given Data:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Q = 10 𝑚3/ min = 0.1666 𝑚3/ sec, 𝑃1 = 100 KN/𝑚2, 𝑃1 = 300 KN/𝑚2,

𝑍1 = 3 m, 𝑍2 = 9 m,
𝑑1 =0.25 m, 𝑑2 =0.17 m, 𝜌𝑤= 1000 kg/𝑚3

Calculate the power required to drive the pump:

We know that, 𝑈1 = 𝑈2 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐴1 𝐶 1 = 𝐴2 𝐶 2

Discharge rate (Q) = 𝐴1𝐶1 = 𝐴2𝐶2

0.1666 = 𝜋(0.25)2. 𝐶 = 𝜋(0.17)2. 𝐶

4 1 4 2

𝐶1= 3.395 m/sec 𝐶2= 7.344 m/sec

Mass flow rate (ṁ) = 𝝆Q = 1000× 0.1666 = 166.7 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑉= =
2
−𝐶2
− 𝑈 ) + (𝑝 𝑉 -𝑝 𝑉 )+ (𝐶 −𝑍
)] 𝑉 𝒎𝟑=0.001
1
Ǭ-W = ṁ
[(𝑈
=0 AND /kg
2 1
-)+g(𝑍
2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2
∵Ǭ
2 1 𝜌

W = 166.7 [0 + (300 × 103 × 0.001-100 × 103 × 0.001)+ (7.343 )+9. 81(9 − 3)]
2
−3.3952

W = - 46677 J/sec = -46.677 kW

7. Steam at a 6.87 bar, 2050 C enters in an insulated nozzle with a velocity of 50 m/s. it leaves
at a pressure of 1.37 bar and a velocity of 500 m/s. Determine the final enthalpy of steam.

Solution:

𝑃1 = 6.87 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑃2 = 1.37 𝑏𝑎𝑟 , 𝑇1= 2050𝐶= 205+273 = 478 K

Given Data:

𝐶1= 50 m/s 𝐶2 = 500 m/s

To find: 𝐻2

know that, ℎ + ℎ2 +
2 2
We 1 = 2
𝐶 1 2 𝐶 2

∵ ℎ1 = 𝑈1 + 𝑃1𝑉1
∵𝑈1 = 0
𝑃1𝑉1 = mR𝑇1

∵ ℎ1 = 0 + mR𝑇1

= 0 + 1 × 287 × 478
Department of Mechanical Engineering

ℎ1 = 137.186 × 103 J/kg

ℎ1 = 137.86 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2
∴137.186 × 103 + 50 = 2 5002
ℎ + 2
2
ℎ2 = 138.436 × 103 - 125 × 103

𝐻2 = 13.436 × 103 J/kg

𝐻2 = 13.436 kJ/kg

8. Steam flows through a nozzles at a mass flow rate of ṁ = 0.1 kg/s with a heat loss of 5kW. The

inlet (𝐶1 ≈ 0), 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐶2) of steam in m/s at the nozzle exit is calculate.
enthalpies at inlet and exit are 2500 kJ/kg and 2350 kJ/kg respectively. Assuming negligible velocity at

Solution:

Given Data:

ṁ = 0.1 kg/s, Q= -5kW=-5 kj/s ℎ1 = 2500 kJ/kg ℎ2 = 2350 kJ/kg

𝐶1 ≈ 0 𝐶2 =?

W = 0 ∆P.E.
=0

We know SFEE,
ṁ[ℎ1 +𝑔 1 + ]+ Q = ṁ[ℎ2 + 𝑔2 + ]+
𝑍 �21 𝑍 �22
� �
𝑊
1000 1000

𝐶22
0.1(2500)-5 = 0.1 (2350 +
2000 )

𝐶2 = 447.21 m/s

Question Bank

1. A steam turbine receives steam steadily at 10 bars with an enthalpy of 3000 kJ/kg and discharges at 1
bar with an enthalpy of 2700 kJ/kg. The work output is 250 kj/kg. The changes in K.E. and P.E. are
negligible. Calculate the heat transfer from the turbine casing to the surrounding.
2. Explain the law of conservation of mass and energy.
3. Explain with neat sketch the first law of thermodynamics. (Joule’s experiment)
4. What are the consequences (corollaries) of first law? Explain any one in detail.
5. Derive an expression for steady flow energy equation on time basis.

a. Pump b. turbine c. boiler d. compressor e. condenser f. nozzle

8. Write short notes on: i) flow work ii) Throttling process.

3.1 Limitation of first law of thermodynamics

• We know that, first law of thermodynamics states that, when a closed system undergoes a cyclic process

∲ dW = ∲ dQ
then the cycle integral of the work is proportional to cyclic integral of heat i.e.

• Also first law of thermodynamics relates to the principle of conservation of energy i.e. if one form of
energy disappears then it appears in another form in equal amount or energy is neither created nor
destroyed.
• According to the first law, the energy transfer can take place in either direction and it does not specify the
direction of the energy transfer.
• We know that, non-violation of the first law by a proposed cycle does not ensure that the cycle will occur,
this drawback has led to the formation of the second law of thermodynamics.
• Hence, a cycle can occur if it satisfies both the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
• Second law states whether it is possible for energy transfer to proceed in a particular direction or not and
the reverse direction is impossible.
• The limitation of first law of thermodynamics can be understood with the help of following examples:
 An ice-cream when kept open to atmosphere absorbs heat and gets melted but liquid ice-cream
does not solidify without doing any work on it.
 In case of joule’s experiment, the fall of weight causes rotation of paddle and increases the
temperature of water (work transform into heat), but increase in temperature of water does not
rotate the paddle and lift the weight (means heat cannot be transformed into work).
 When a running vehicle is stopped by applying brakes, the internal energy of brake increases by an
amount equal to the decrease in kinetic energy, but hot brakes after losing their internal energy
wheels does not cause them to rotate.
• In all the above examples, the energy transfer or the process can proceed along a particular direction but it
is impossible in the opposite direction even if the first law is satisfied.
• It means the first law of thermodynamics is necessary but not sufficient for a process to take place. Hence,
it is necessary to study the laws which give more information of heat into useful work.

3.2Basic Definitions
To understand the second law of thermodynamics following basic definitions should be clear:

1. Heat or thermal reservoir 2. Heat source and heat sink

3. Heat engine 4. Heat pump

 Heat or thermal reservoir

• Heat or thermal reservoir is a sufficiently large system in stable equilibrium to which and
from which finite amount of heat can be transferred without any change in temperature.
• For example, large bodies of water lakes, rivers, etc. and atmosphere.

 Heat sink and heat source

• A heat reservoir which supplies heat to aa system or high temperature reservoir is called as
heat source.
• A heat reservoir which absorbs heat from a system or low temperature reservoir is called as
heat sink.

 Heat engine
• Heat engine is a thermodynamic system or device operating in a cycle to which net heat is transferred
and from which work is delivered.
• For example, steam engine, steam turbine, I.C. engine, etc.

 Heat pump
• Heat pump is a thermodynamics system or a device operating in a cycle which remove heat from low
temperature body and delivers to high temperature body.
• For example, refrigerator, air- conditioner, etc.

3.3 Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat Pump

3.3.1. Heat Engine
 Heat engine is a thermodynamic system operating in a cycle to which net heat is transferred and from
which network is delivered.
 Fig. 3.1 shows a heat engine using a cyclic process.
System boundary

𝑇1 or 𝑇𝐻
Heat source
High
-------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------- ----------------------------- --------------------
temperature
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical En gineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Turbine

𝑄
Boile

W 1

Condenser Heat W
𝑄1
Engine
𝑄
2

𝑄2
Pump

𝑇2 or 𝑇𝐿
Heat sink
Low
temperature

Fig. 3.1: Heat engine

 In this process, steam generated from water in the boiler and it is used to develop useful work in the
turbine. The steam coming out of the turbine is condensed in the condenser and again fed back to the
boiler by using pump to complete the cycle.
 All the four elements of the system, boiler, turbine, condenser and pump form heat engine.
 The input of the system is heat supplied to the boiler whereas net output from the system is work done
by the turbine.
 If Q1 is heat supplied to the boiler and Q2 is the heat rejected from the condenser then ne t heat
interaction between the system and surroundings is (Q1 – Q2). Refer fig. 3.1
 From first law of thermodynamics,
W = Q1 – Q2
 The efficiency (measure of performance ) of heat engine is,

𝛈𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊 𝑄1−𝑄2
= 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑄= 𝑄
=1

𝛈
1

=1-
∴ 𝑄2 𝑄 … 3.1
1

 Hence, efficiency of heat engine is always less than unity.

3.3.2. Heat Pump

 Heat pump is a thermodynamic system operating in a cycle which removes heat from low
temperature body and delivers to high temperature body.
 Heat is pumped out so as to cool houses in summer season.
 Fig. 3.2 shows the heat pump using a cyclic process.
System boundary

𝑇1 Or 𝑇𝐻
Heat source
High
temperature

𝑄1
W 𝑄1
Compressor Heat
-------------- Refrigerator --------------------
Pump W
---------------------------------------------------------------
-------------- -----------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE
PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

𝑄2

Condenser

𝑄2
Low
temperature
Throttle

Fig. 3.2: Heat Pump

 In a domestic refrigerator, the energy from it is delivered at low temperature to the atmosphere which
is the high temperature by using heat pump. Hence, maintaining a low temperature in the refrigerator.
 All the four elements in the system, compressor, condenser, throttle valve and refrigerator form a
heat pump.
 In refrigerator main purpose is maintain a low temperature by removing heat coming in and
discharge the same to thee atmosphere which is at high temperature.
 From first law of thermodynamics,

W = Q1 – Q2
[Link] Coefficient of performance (C.O.P)
 In case of heat pump, the efficiency is replaced by a term Coefficient of performance (C.O.P).
 The definition of C.O.P. depends on the use of system whether like a heat pump or like a refrigerator.
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄2
 If Q2 is heat added to the system and Q1 is heat rejected from a system then the net output is (Q1 – Q2).
Now, (COP) refrigerator = =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊

𝑄2
∴
𝑄1−
(COP) refrigerator = … 3.2
𝑄2

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊
And (COP) pump = =

𝑄1
∴
𝑄1−
(COP) pump = … 3.3
𝑄2

 Subtracting equation (3.3) and (3.1),

𝑄1
) –( 𝑄2
) = 𝑄1−𝑄2 = 1
𝑄1−𝑄2 𝑄1− 𝑄1 −𝑄2
=(
𝑄2

∴ (COP) heat pump = (COP) refrigerator = 1 … 3.4

Note: (COP) heat pump is the reciprocal of the efficiency of heat engine, for the same sources.

3.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Based on the limitation of first law of thermodynamics many statements of second law are available. Some
of them are as follows:

1. Kelvin – Planck Statement

2. Clausius Statement

1. Kelvin Plank Statement

 It states that, it is impossible to construct an engine working in a cyclic process whose sole
effect is to convert all the heat supplied to it into an equivalent amount of work.
 It means only part of heat is converted into work and remaining part is rejected to low
temperature reservoir. Refer fig. 3.3

𝑇1 or 𝑇𝐻
Heat source High

𝑇1 or 𝑇𝐻
Heat source High
temperature temperature

𝑄
𝑄1 1

Heat
Heat W= Q1−Q2
W= Q1 Engine

𝑄
Engine
T1 > T2
2
Low

𝑇2 or 𝑇𝐿
Heat sink
temperature

a) Satisfying only first law b) Satisfying both first and second law
and violating second law

Fig. 3.3: Kelvin – Plank statement

 Therefore, to operate heat engine at least two thermal reservoirs at different temperatures are
required.

1. Clausius Statement

 It states that it is impossible to construct a heat pump working in a cyclic process whose sole effect is
the transfer of energy in the form of heat from a body at low temperature to a body at high
temperature.

 It means, energy in the form of work must be added or supplied to heat pump for transferring the heat
from cold body to hot body. Refer fig. 3.4.

High

𝑇1 Or 𝑇𝐻
Heat source High

𝑇1 Or 𝑇𝐻
temperature Heat source temperature

𝑄
1 𝑄
W= Q1−Q2
1
Heat
Heat
Pump
Pump
𝑄 𝑄
2 2
Low

𝑇2 or 𝑇𝐿
Heat sink Low

𝑇2 or 𝑇𝐿
temperature Heat sink
temperature

a) violating second law b) Satisfying second law

Fig. 3.4: Clausius Statement

3.5Equivalence of Kelvin and Clausius Statement

 Although the Kelvin – Plank and Clausius statements appears to be different, they are equivalent (same).
The violation of one means the violation of other. This can proved very easily as follows.

3.5.1 Violation of Kelvin- Plank Statement

 Consider the heat pump which violates the Kelvin – Plank statement by absorbing heat Q1 from single
reservoir and producing equal amount of work W = Q 1. The work delivered by this heat engine is used to
drive the heat pump which takes the heat Q 2 from low temperature reservoir, and delivers Q 1 + Q2 amount
of heat to high temperature reservoir by consuming the work W = Q1 as shown in fig. 3.5.

Heat Source, T1 Heat Source, T1

W+Q2= Q1+𝑄2 𝑄1
Q1+Q2

Heat
Heat Wnet=Q1 Heat pump
Combined
pump engine
System

𝑄2 Boundary of 𝑄2
combined
system
Heat Sink, T2 Heat Sink, T2

Fig: 3.5 Violation of Kelvin – Plank statement leads to violation Clausius statement
 Thu s, if we consider the combined system of heat engine and heat pump, then acts like a he at pump
transferring the Q2 amount of heat from low temperature to high temperature reservoir without consuming
any external work. Thus, it violates the clausius statement.

3.5.2 Violation of Clausius Statement

 Consider heat pump, which violates the clausius statement by transferring Q 2 amount of heat from low
temperature to high temperature body without consumption of work. Let us assume the heat engine
working between the same thermal reservoirs which absorbs Q1 amount of heat (which is greater than Q2)
and delivers work W =Q1 – Q2 and rejects the Q2 amount of heat to low temperature reservoir as shown in
fig. 3.6

Heat Source, T1 (Q1-Q2) Heat Source, T1

𝑄2 𝑄1
Q

Heat Heat
pump engine W=Q1-Q2 Heat
pump
W=Q

𝑄2 𝑄2
Boundary of
Heat Sink, T2 combined
system

 Thus if we consider the combined system of heat engine and heat pump, then it acts like a heat engine
which absorbs the Q1 –Q2 amount of heat and develops the equivalent amount of work.
 Thus, it acts like a heat engine exchanging heat with single reservoir and producing an equal amount of
work. This violates the kelvin –plank statement.

3.6 Perpetual Motion Machines (P.M.M.)

 Any machine or device that violates either the first law or second law of thermodynamics is called as
perpetual motion machine (P.M.M).
 There are following two kinds of P.M.M.

 Perpetual motion machine of first kind (P.M.M-I)

 Perpetual motion machine of second kind (P.M.M-II)

1. Perpetual motion machine of first kind (P.M.M-I)

 A machine or device that violates the first law of thermodynamics is called as Perpetual motion machine
of first kind (P.M.M-I).
 These machines will give continuous work without receiving energy from other system.
 But, it is impossible to construct P.M.M.-I i.e. no machine is capable of producing work
without expenditure of energy.

2. Perpetual motion machine of second kind (P.M.M-II)

 A machine or device that violates the second law of thermodynamics is called as P.M.M.-II
 It is the machine which converts internal energy from the surrounding atmosphere into work and
gives 100% efficiency.
 P.M.M.-II satisfies first law but violates second law.
 As per the second law, it is impossible to have a P.M.M.-II which just converts the internal energy of
the atmosphere into useful work.

P.M.M.-I P.M.M.-II

W W=Q

a) Violation of first law b) Violation of Second law satisfies first law

Fig. 3.7: Perpetual Motion Machine I and II

3.7 Concept of Reversibility and Irreversibility

If a heat engine cannot give 100% efficiency then it is logical to determine the maximum possible
efficiency of heat engine. The concept of reversible process helps in this regard.

1. Reversibility

 A reversible process can be defined as the process which can be performed in reverse direction restoring
the system and surroundings back to their initial condition as at the start of the process.
 At the end of reversible process both system and surrounding remain unaffected.
 If the reversibility achieved it is clear that no loss of energy is accompanied by reversible process.
 The degree of reversibility is the measure of the perfection with which it can be attained in a
thermodynamic process.
 For the process to be perfectly reversible, it must be internally and externally as well as mechanically and
thermally reversible.
 The converse of above statement is also true i.e. “There can be no machine which would continuously
consume work without some form of energy appearing simultaneously. Refer fig. 3.9.

All equilibrium Q
states

Machine
W

Fig. 3.8:
2. Perpetual Reversible
Motion process
Machine of Second (PMM-II) Fig. 3.9: Converse of PMM - I

 A PMM-II is defined as a machine which converts internal energy from the surrounding atmosphere into
work giving 100% efficiency.
 The thermal reservoir (source) in this case is atmosphere. As per Kelvin Planck statement of second law of
thermodynamics, the existence of PMM-II is impossible.
 All the attempts made to make such a machine have failed. This shows the validity of Kelvin Planck
statement. Refer Fig. 3.10.

Thermal resevoir

PMM-II W=Q

Fig. 3.10: P.M.M-II

3. Irreversibility
 An irreversible process is defined the process which cannot be performed in reverse direction so that final
state is identical with initial state.
 Here only end states are equilibrium states and all intermediate states are non-equilibrium states.
 It is represented by dotted curve as shown in Fig.3.11.

Fig. 3.11: Irreversible process

Causes of Irreversibility

 Many factors causes the process irreversible. They are as follows:

a) Friction

 In piston and cylinder arrangement as shown in Fig. 3.12 some work is required to overcome the friction
between piston and cylinder.
Surroundings

W
System

Fig. 3.12: Friction

 Due to friction heat is generated and transferred from system to surrounding.
 Since surrounding is not restored to its original state after completion of cycle, we can concluded that
its friction has forced the process to be irreversible.

b) Heat Transfer
 Heat transfer due to temperature difference between system and surrounding is an irreversible process.
 Heat will flow from surrounding to system when surrounding have higher temperature.

Conditions of Reversibility

 The reversible process should satisfy following conditions:

1) The process should not involve friction of any kind.
2) Heat transfer should not take place with finite temperature difference.
3) The heat and work transfer during forward and reverse process should be identically equal.
4) There should be no free or unrestricted expansions.
5) There should be no mixing of fluids.
6) The process must be proceed in a series of equilibrium states.

3.9 Carnot Cycle

 In 1824 a French scientist Sadi Carnot originated a classificial reversible cycle in the study of
engines which is termed as Carnot cycle.
 The following assumption are made in the operation of Carnot cycle.
 During the motion there is no friction between piston and cylinder.
 The walls of cylinder and piston is perfectly insulated.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

 The cylinder head of the cylinder is arranged in such a way that it can be a perfect heat
conductor or perfect heat insulator, as per the requirements.
 The heat transfer does not affect the temperature of the source and sink.
 The cycle can operate on any substance, but here it is a gas.

3.9.1 Processes in Carnot Cycle

 The Carnot cycle consist of four reversible processes, out of which two are frictionless isothermals and
other two are frictionless adiabatic.
 Fig. 3.13 shows proposed reversible engine working between heat source and heat sink.
Piston
Heat source at Cylinder
T

Heat sink at T2 System

Perfect conductor/ insulator

Fig. 3.13: Carnot Cycle

 The working of the Carnot engine is represented on p-V and T-S (Temperature-Entropy) diagram.

Reversible
adiabatic
compression T
P
1 Q1
P1 Q1 1 2
T Isothermal T =T
expansion 1 2
P2
2 Reversible
P3 adiabatic
compression
T =T
4 3 4

P4 3 Isothermal 4 3
Q2
expansion Q2
V S
V1 V4 V2 V3 S1=S4 S2=S3

a) P-V diagram b) T-S diagram

Fig. 3.14: Representation of Carnot cycle

 The working of cycle and sequence of operation are described as follows:

i. Isothermal expansion process (1-2) :During the beginning of a stroke, the cylinder head is made
perfect conductor and heat Q1 is supplied to the system at temperature T1. The gas expands
isothermally at temperature T1 from 1 to 2.

ii. Reversible adiabatic expansion process (2-3): During this process, the system is allowed to expand
adiabatically so that its temperature becomes low i.e. heat sink temperature T2 (on T-S diagram it is
T3).

iii. Isothermal compression process (3-4): In this process, perfect conductor is removed and heat sink is
brought in contact with cylinder head. During this process, gas is compressed isothermally from 3 to
4. Here work is done on the gas.

iv. Reversible Adiabatic compression process (4-1):Here, the perfect conductor is brought in contact
with cylinder head and the gas is compressed adiabatically. During the process, temperature is raised
from T4 to T1 on T-S diagram.

3.9.2 Efficiency of Carnot Engine

 Thermal efficiency of Carnot engine is defined as the ratio of work output to the heat input.

𝛈 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑄1)

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑊)

But, work output W = Q1 – Q2

𝑊 𝑄1−𝑄2
∴ 𝛈= 𝑄1
= 𝑄1

∴ 𝛈 … 3.5
𝑄2 𝑄
=1-
1

 The equation of various processes of Carnot cycle are as follows:

For process (1-2)

∆U = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 0
For isothermal process,
… (∵ T2 = T1 on cycle)
𝑉2
∴ Q1 = W1-2 = m R T1ln ( ) … (i)
𝑉1

For process (3-4)

For isothermal process,

∆U = 𝑈4 − 𝑈3 = 0 … (∵ T3 = T4 on cycle)
𝑉4
∴ Q2 = W3-4= m R T2ln ( )
𝑉3
𝑉3
𝑂𝑟 Q2 = W3-4= - m R T2ln ( ) … (ii)
𝑉4

Negative sign indicates that the work is done on the gas or heat is rejected to the surrounding, this is the
significance of negative sign.

Substituting the equation (i) and (ii) in equation 3.5

𝑉3
𝑙n ( )
𝛈 =1- 𝑇2 𝑉4
𝑉2
𝑇1 𝑙n ( )
Or
… (iii)
𝑉1

For process (2-3) and (4-1):

For reversible adiabatic process,

P 𝑉𝛾 = C

) )
𝑇2 𝑉3 𝛾−1 𝑇1 𝑉4 𝛾−1
𝑇3 𝑉2 𝑇4 𝑉1
=( and =(

But on cycle T3 = T4 = T2 (heat sink temperature)

And on cycle T1 = T2 = T1 (heat source temperature)

∴ ) )
𝑇1 𝑉3 𝛾−1 𝑉4 𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑉 𝑉1
=( =(
2

∴ (𝑉3) = (𝑉4) or (𝑉3) = (𝑉2)

𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑉4 𝑉1
… (iv)

∴
Substituting equation (iv) in equation (iii), we get,

𝛈
…3.6

𝑇2 𝑇
=1-
1

Equating equation (3.5) and 𝑄(3.6),

1 2 𝑇2
- =1-
𝑄1 𝑇1

∴ = 𝑇1
𝑄2 𝑇2
𝑄1
𝑄1 𝑄2
Or =
𝑇2
= Constant
𝑇1
𝑄
𝑇
Or = Constant … 3.7

From above equation 3.7 it is clear that heat transfer from a heat reservoir is proportional to its temperature and this
called as Carnot principle.

Important Points of Carnot Cycle

 Carnot heat engine is a hypothetical device.

 The efficiency of Carnot cycle depends on the absolute temperature of heat source (T1) and heat sink (T2).
 Carnot cycle cannot be used in practical engine due to following reasons:
 For isothermal process, the piston should move slowly to allow time for heat transfer so that
the temperature remains constant.
 It is not possible to perform a frictionless process.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 An interchangeable cylinder head makes the process impractical.

 As compared to other engine, Carnot engine has the maximum efficiency while operating
between given temperature limits.

3.9.3 Carnot Heat Pump and Refrigerator

 In Carnot cycle it is possible to reverse the process individually and continue the cycle in reverse order.
 During the reverse process, all the energy transfers with the process are reversed in direction but their
magnitude remains same. Refer fig. 3.15.
Reversible adiabatic
compression
p
1 Q1
P1 Isothermal
expansion
P2
2 Reversible
adiabatic
P4
expansion
4
Fig. 3.15: Carnot Isothermal
P3
refrigerator and heat 3 compression
Q2
pump
V
V1 V4 V3
V2
 Therefore, we can construct hypothetical device which absorbs heat Q2 from heat reservoir at temperature -
T2 and rejects heat Q1 to high temperature reservoir T1. During this external work W is supplied to the
system from surrounding.
 We know that COP of refrigerator and heat pump is given by,
𝑄2
(COP) refrigerator =
𝑄1−𝑄2 … [from equation 3.2]
𝑄1
And (COP) heat pump =
𝑄1−𝑄2 … [from equation 3.3]

𝑄
𝑇
But, = Constant = C

∴ Q = TC

Or Q1 = T1 C and Q2 = T2C

𝑄2

𝑇2 𝑄1−𝑄2
(COP) refrigerator = =
𝑇1−𝑇2
𝑄1
And … 3.7
𝑇1 𝑄1−𝑄2
(COP) heat pump = =
𝑇1−𝑇2

Note: Heat reservoir of temperature T2 is called as evaporator and heat reservoir of temperature T1 is called as
condenser.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
3.9.4 Carnot Theorem

 All heat engine operating between a given temperature source and a given temperature sink, none has
a higher efficiency than reversible engine.

Heat Source, T1 (Q1-Q2)

𝑄1𝐴 𝑄1𝐵

Irreversible WA Reversible
WB
(A) (B)

𝑄2𝐴 𝑄2𝐵

Heat Sink, T2

Fig. 3.16 (a): Carnot theorem

 Common Source

To prove this theorem we have to consider 𝛈A>𝛈B

Q1A= Q1B


𝑊𝐴 𝑊𝐵
𝛈A = 𝛈B =
 From the efficiency formula we know that,

𝑄1𝐴 𝑄1𝐵
and

If 𝛈A>𝛈B WA> WB

Which is implies that WA – WB> 0 … (i)

 Now we reverse the reversible engine B and it convert in a heat pump as shown in fig.

Heat Source, T1 (Q1-Q2)

𝑄1𝐴
𝑄1𝐴 𝑄1𝐵
𝑄1𝐵
Irreversible Reversible
WA WB (Heat Pump) WA
B
(A) (B) W

𝑄2𝐴
𝑄2𝐵

Heat Sink, T2

Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s Heat Sink, T2

Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Fig. 3.16 (b): Carnot theorem
 So, WA-WB> 0 after considering this situation we are getting the net positive work output.

 Now you can see after this consideration and all that proves Q1A = Q1B and we are getting net positive
work output i.e. WA – WB so the requirement of source is not there.
 Hence the diagram becomes change as shown in fig. 3.16©.

𝑄1 𝑄1𝐵
𝐴
WA
Irreversible WB Reversible

(A) (B)

𝑄2𝐴 𝑄2𝐵
WA-WB

Heat Sink, T2

Fig. 3.16 (c): Carnot theorem showing only single temperature source
 So we can see all of the consideration the efficiency of irreversible heat engine is greater than that
of reversible heat pump.
 We obtaining a machine that is working on only one temperature.

∴ 𝛈A >𝛈B
 This in case violates the Kelvin- Plank statement of second law.
….. Is never been possible

𝛈B≥𝛈A
 So we come in conclusion, that

Or in a broad category, 𝛈reversible ≥𝛈irreversible

 Hence the Carnot theorem is verified.

3.10 Absolute thermodynamic temperature scale

 For any reversible process of heat addition or heat rejection in a cycle, the heat is a function
of temperature only. This is the absolute thermodynamic temperature scale.
 To understand this absolute thermodynamic temperature scale and to establish the relation
between absolute temperature and heat we take the example of the reversible heat engine.

T1

Reversible W = Q1-Q2
H.E

Fig. 3.17 Reversible Heat Engine

 As we already studied this heat engine and we have calculated the expression for thermal efficiency of this
heat engine and that was the function of heat.
 So according to absolute thermodynamic temperature scale the heat is the function of temperature then if

i.e. 𝛈Reversible = ƒ (T1, T2) (thermal efficiency will be the function of temperature as this thermal efficiency
the efficiency was the function of heat it will also with the function of temperature also.

was the function of heat.)
𝑊
𝛈Reversible =
 so thermal efficiency of a heat engine,
𝑄
𝑄1− 𝑄2
𝛈Reversible =
𝑄1𝑄2
𝛈Reversible = 1 -
𝑄1

As it is function of temperature, 𝛈Reversible = ƒ (T1, T2)

 Here one thing is important the heat addition and heat rejection process are reversible processes.

∴ ƒ (T1, T2) = 1 - 2
𝑄

𝑄1
Or = ƒ (T1, T2)…∵ 1 = constant (this equation valid for reversible heat engine)
𝑄1

𝑄2
 To establish relation between heat and absolute temperature we will take two reversible heat engine which
are connected in series.
 So here Q1 heat is extracted from this thermal reservoir which is at temperature T1.
 This Q1 heat is delivered to the first heat engine because of this it performs work W A and it rejects the Q2
amount of heat.
 And this Q2 amount of heat is utilized by another heat engine.
 Because of that heat engine performs work WB and it rejects the Q3 amount of heat to the sink T3 as shown
in Fig. 3.18.
 Here T1> T2> T3

Q1
Reversible
H.E (A) WA= Q1-Q2

Q2
Reversible
H.E (B) WB= Q2-Q3

T3
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.

Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. 3.18 Absolute Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

𝑄1
= ƒ (T1, T2)
 As we have already established for a reversible heat engine, i.e.

𝑄2
 The ratio of the heat addition and the heat rejection is the function of temperature, T1 and T2.
 Let say this Q1 heat is individually the function of temperature T1 and similarly this Q2 heat is the function

∴
of T2.
𝑄1 𝜱𝑇1
= ƒ (T1, T2) =
For only a reversible heat engine,
…a
𝑄2 𝜱𝑇2
Similarly we can write for the second heat
engine,
𝑄2 𝜱𝑇2
= ƒ (T2, T3) = …b
𝑄3 𝜱𝑇3
 And hence, if there is a only heat engine which is operating in between temperature T1 and T3,
then we can write for heat engine as,
𝑄1 𝜱𝑇1
= ƒ (T1, T3) = …c
𝑄3 𝜱𝑇3
 On the simplification of this three equation a, b and c we get,
ƒ (T1,T3)
ƒ (T1, T2) =
ƒ (T2,T3)

ƒ (T1, T2) =
𝜱𝑇1
Or
from equation a.
𝜱𝑇2

𝑄1
∴ 𝑇1
𝑄2 =
𝑇2
 So this is the expression which is establishing the relation between heat addition and heat
rejection corresponding to their absolute temperature of heat addition and rejection.
 So this is the absolute thermodynamic scale of temperature. This is only and only valid for a
reversible heat engine.
 This was the definition for any reversible process of heat addition and heat rejection. In a cycle the heat is
the function of temperature only this is now prove.

3.11 Important trick to solve Numerical

1) Heat Engine 2) Heat Pump 3) Refrigerator

T1 T1 T1

𝛈=
𝑊
Q1 Q1

𝑄1
HEE
W HP
W
Q2
Q2
T2
-
𝑄
1
T2
--------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
(C Q1 �
O �
P)P R
= W

T2
2
� -------------------------------------------------
� Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
(COP)R =
�
�
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

(COP) HP = 1 + (COP) R

𝑄 2+ 𝑄 1−
𝑊
𝑊 = �
(COP) p = (COP) R
𝑊 �

3.12 Solved Examples

1. The COP of a refrigerator is 6, when it maintains the temperature of -3 0 C in the evaporator. Determine the
condenser temperature and refrigerating effect if the power required to run the refrigerator is 7.5 kW.

Solution:
Given data: (COP)ref = 6, T2= -3 0C = -3 + 273 = 270 K, W= 7.5 kW
To find: i) Condenser temperature T1 and ii) Refrigerating effect.
Step-1: Calculate the Condenser temperature T1
COP of refrigerator is given by,

𝑇2
= 𝑇1−𝑇2
(COP)
ref

∴ 270
𝑇1−27
6

0
=

∴ T1 = 315 K …Ans

Step-2: Calculating Refrigerating effect

Power required to run the refrigerator = 7.5 kW = 7500 W = 7500 J/sec
We know that,

(COP)R = 𝑄 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

2 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
=
�
�

(COP)R = 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

∴
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
6= 7500

∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 45000 J/sec = 45000 W = 45 kW …Ans

2. A reversible heat engine takes 900 kJ heat from source at 700 K. The engine develops 350 kJ of network
and rejects heat to low temperature reservoir at 600 K and 500K. Determine engine thermal efficiency
and heat rejected to each temperature reservoir by using clausius inequality.

Solution:

T2(reservoir-2) = 500 K

To find: i) 𝛈E ii) Q2

T1=700K T1=700K

Q1 Q1

HEE W HEE W

Q2 Q2

T2= 600K T2= 500K

Thermal efficiency
Step – 1: calculate thermal efficiency
For reservoir-1 𝑇2 600
𝛈E = 1- = 1- = 0.143 = 14.30% …Ans
𝑇1 700

For reservoir -2𝑇2 500

𝛈E = 1- = 1- = 0.2357 = 23.57% …Ans
𝑇1 700
Step – 2: calculate heat rejected (Q2)

∴
Wnet= Q1 –Q2
Q2 = Q1 – Wnet = 900 -350

∴ Q2 = 550 kJ …Ans

3. A reversible heat pump is used to maintain a temperature of 0 0C in a refrigerator when it rejects the heat to
the surroundings at 27 0C. Determine COP of the machine and work input required if the heat removed rate
is 25kW.
If the required input to run the pump is developed by reversible engine which receives heat at 673 K and
rejects heat to atmosphere, determine overall COP of the system.
Solution:

Device: Heat Pump, Q1 = 25kW = 25 × 103

Given Data: T1= 27 + 273 = 300 K, T2 = 0 + 273 = 273 K

W To find: i) COP ii) Wnet

T1=300K
𝑇2
Step-1: Calculate COP

𝑇1−𝑇2 Q1 = 25 ×
COP =

273
=300−273 = 10.11 …Ans 103
W
R

Q1 = 25 × 103 W
Step-2: Calculate work input
We have Q2
COP 𝑄1 𝑄1
=
𝑄1−𝑄2 𝑊
= T2 =273 K

𝑄1
∴ Wnet = = 25 × 103

𝐶𝑂𝑃
= 2472.80 W … Ans
10.11

4. A reversible heat engine working as a refrigerator absorbs heat from low temperature reservoir of 650 kJ,
when work input is 250 kJ.
i) Find its COP and heat transferred to the surrounding.
ii) If the same device works as a heat engine, find out its thermal efficiency.
iii) If the same device work as a heat pump, estimate the COP.
Solution:

iv) 𝛈 HE
Given data: Q2 = 650 kJ, W= 250kJ
To find: i) COP of refrigerator, ii)Q1 iii) COPHP

𝑄2 650
Step-1: Calculate COPRefrigerator

𝑊
(COP)R = = = 2.6 … Ans
250
Step-2: Calculate heat transfer (Q1)

Step-3: Efficiency of heat engine 𝛈HE

Q1 = W+Q2 = 250 + 650 = 900 kJ …Ans

𝛈 = 𝑊 = 250 = 0.278 = 27.8% …Ans

𝑄1 900

𝑄1 900
HE
Step-4: Estimate COP Heat Pump
= = 3.6 …Ans
𝑊 250
(COP)HP =

5. The efficiency of a Carnot engine rejecting heat to a cooling pond at 28 0C is 30%. If the cooling pond
receives 1050 kJ/min. what is the power developed by the cycle in kW. Also find the temperature of
the source.

Solution:

Given data: T2 = 28 + 273 = 301 K, 𝛈 Carnot = 30%, Q2 = 1050 kJ/min

To find: i) Power developed (W) ii) T1

Step-1: Calculate the source temperature T1 T1=?

𝑇2
We know that, 𝛈 = 1-
𝑇1
Carnot

Q1=?

0.3 = 1- 301
𝑇1 HEE W=?
T1 = 430 K …Ans
Q2=1050 kJ/min
Step-2: Calculate the heat rejecting from heat source and power
T2= 301K
𝑄2
𝛈 Carnot= 1 -
Carnot efficiency is also given by,

𝑄1
1050
∴ 0.3 = 1-
𝑄1

∴ Q1 = 1500 kJ/min.

Power developed by the cycle is,

Wcarnot = Q1 – Q2 = 1500 – 1050

∴ Wcarnot = 450 kJ/min = 7.5 kJ/sec= 7.5 kW …Ans

6. A heat pump is used to maintain an auditorium hall 25 0C, when the atmospheric temperature is 100C. The
heat leakage from the hall is 1500 kJ/min. Calculate the power required to run the actual heat pump, if
COP of the actual heat pump is 30% of the COP of the Carnot cycle heat pump working between the
same temperature limits.
Solution:
Given data: T1 = 25+273=298 K, T2 = 10+273=283 K, Q1= 1500 Kj/min=25kJ/sec = 25kW,
(COP)actual = 0.3 (COP) Carnot
T1=298K
To find: Power
𝑻𝟏
Step-1: Calculate the power required to run the actual heat pump Q1 = 25 kW
(COP)Carnot HP = = = 19.867 HP
𝟐𝟗𝟖 Q2
𝑻𝟏−𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝟗𝟖−𝟐𝟖𝟑
∴ (COP) actual HP = 0.3 ×(COP)Carnot HP
W=?

= 0.3 × 19.867 = 5.96

T2 =283 K
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟏
(COP) actual HP = =
𝑸𝟏−𝑸𝟐 𝑾
5.96 = 𝟐𝟓
𝑾
∴ W = 4.195 kW … Ans
7. A reversible heat engine operates on Carnot cycle between sources and sink temperature of 225 0C and
250C. If the heat engine receives 40 kW from the source, find the net work done, heat rejected to the sink
and efficiency of the engine.
Solution:

To Find: W, Q2 and 𝛈 Carnot

Given data: T1 = 225+273= 498 K, T2 = 25+273= 298 K, Q1= 40 kW

Step-1: Calculate the efficiency of heat engine T1=498 K

Efficiency of Carnot cycle is,𝑇2 298
𝛈 Carnot = 1- = 1- = 0.4 = 40% …Ans
𝑇1 498 Q1=40 kW
Step-2: Calc ulate net work done and heat rejected to sink,
𝑄1−𝑄2 𝑊
𝛈 Carnot =
W=?that,
We k now HEE W=?
=

∴ 0.4 = 𝑄1 𝑄1 Q2=?
𝑊
40

∴ W = 16 kW …Ans T2= 298K

∴
But, W = Q1 – Q2

∴
16 = 40 – Q2
Q2 = 24 kW …Ans

8. A Carnot engine operates between source and sink temperature of 230 0C and 30 0C. If the engine receives

ii) heat rejected iii) 𝛈Carnot

450 kJ of heat from the source, determine
i) Work done iv) also find COP if it operates as a heat pump
and when it operates as a refrigerator.

Solution:
Given data: T1= 230+273= 503 K T2 = 30 + 273 = 303K Q1 = 450 kJ
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Find: i) W ii) Q2 iii) 𝛈Carnot
Department of Mechanical Engineering
iv) COPHP v) COPR
Step-1: Calculate efficiency and work done of cycle
We know that,

𝑄1−𝑄2 𝑊
𝛈Carnot =
Efficiency is also given by
=
𝑄1 𝑄1

𝑊
0.398 = 450

∴ W = 179.1 kJ …Ans

But, W = Q1 –Q2

∴ 179.1 = 450 – Q2

∴ Q2 = 270.9 kJ …Ans

Step-2: Calculate the (COP)HP and (COP)R

When the engine operates like heat pump,

𝑄1 𝑄1 450
(COP)HP = = =
𝑊 𝑄1−𝑄2 450−270.9

∴ (COP)HP = 2.515 …Ans

When it operates like a refrigerator,

𝑄2 𝑄2 270.9
(COP)R =
= =
𝑊 𝑄1−𝑄2 450−270.9

∴ (COP)R = 1.515 …Ans

9. An inventor claims to have developed a refrigeration unit which maintain at -5 0C in the refrigerator which
is in room of surrounding temperature 28 0C. It has COP of 9.5. Check whether his claim is right or not.
Solution:
Given data: T2 = -5 + 273 = 268 K, T1 = 28 + 273 = 301 K, (COP)R = 9.5
To find: check whether inventor’s claim is right or not. T1=301K
Step-1: Calculate the (COP) R and check it,
We know that, Q1
𝑄2 𝑇2 R
𝑄1−𝑄2 𝑇1 −𝑇2
(COP) R = = W
268
∴ Q2
301−26
(COP) R =
8
= 8.121

∴
T2 =268 K
(COP) R< (COP)inv.

It means for given temperature range inventor’s claim is invalid. …Ans

10. A fish freezing plant of 100 tons capacity is to be maintained at -40 0C for which the outside atmosphere
temperature is 30 0C. The actual COP of the refrigeration system is 10% of the theoretical Carnot pump
working between the same temperature limits. Calculate the power required to run the plant.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Take, 1 ton of refrigeration = 3.5 kW.
Solution:

Given data: Q1 = 100 tons = 100 × 3.5 = 350 kW, T2= -40 + 273 = 233 K, T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K
(COP)A = 0.1(COP) T
Find: Power (W)
Step-1: Calculate power required to run the plant,
𝑄1
COP of Carnot or theoretical 𝑇1 pump is given by,
heat T1=303K
(COP)T = =
𝑄1−𝑄
3032 𝑇1−𝑇2
∴
Q1
303−23
(COP)T =
3
= 4.33
HP W=?
(COP)A = 0.1(COP)T …Given Q2

∴ (COP)A = 0.1 × 4.33 = 0.433 T2 =233 K

𝑄1 𝑄1
Now, (COP) A= =
𝑄1−𝑄2 𝑊
∴ 0.433 = 350
𝑊

∴ W = 808.31 kW …Ans

11. The power input required for a grinding mill is 30 MJ/min. A heat source at 420 0C is available for
supplying the energy and surrounding is at 30 0C. If the actual engine is 25 % as efficient as a Carnot
engine working between the same temperatures limits. Calculate the energy supplied by the source per sec.
Source: 3
Given data: Power input to grinding mill W = 30 Mj/min=30×10 kJ/sec. = 500 kW,
60
T1 = 420+273=693 K, T2 = 30+273= 303 K, (𝛈)A = 0.25 (𝛈)T
To find: Q1
Step-1: calculate the energy supplied by the source,
Efficiency of Carnot engine is, 𝑄1−𝑄2 𝑇1−𝑇2
𝛈Carnot = = T1=693 K
𝑄1 𝑇1
693−303
∴ 𝛈Carnot = = 0.563=56.3%
693 Q1=?

But, (𝛈)A = 0.25 (𝛈)Carnot = 0.25 × HEE W=500kW

0.563 To
Q2 grinding
(𝛈)A = 𝑄
1−𝑄2 𝑊
0.141 = 14.1% mill
Now, (𝛈)A = =
𝑄 𝑄1
1
T2= 303K

∴ 0.141 = 500
𝑄
1

∴ Q1 = 3546.1 kJ/sec = 3546.1 kW …Ans

12. An inventor claims to have invented refrigeration machine operating between -23 0C and 27 0C. It
consumes 1 kW electrical power and gives 20000 kJ of refrigerating effect in one hour. Comment on his
claim.
Solution:
Given data: T1 = 27+273=300 K, T2 = -23+273= 250 K, W= 1 kW,

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
20000
Department of Mechanical Engineering
3600
Q2 =20000 kJ/hr. = kJ/sec = 5.55 kW
To find: Check whether inventor’s claim is right or not,
Step-1: Calculate actual and theoretical COP of refrigerator

∴ (COP)T = (COP) Carnot = 5

𝑄2 𝑄2 5.55
(COP)Actual = = =
𝑄1−𝑄2 𝑊 1

∴ (COP)Actual = 5.55
It means COP of Carnot refrigerator is less than COP of actual refrigerator. Hence, inventor’s
claim is invalid.

13. The Carnot engine is operating between sources and sink temperature T 1 and T2 respectively. It has
efficiency of 30 %. If the sink temperature is reduced by 25 0C then the efficiency is increased to 35 %.
Find the temperature T1 and T2.
𝑇2
Given data: 𝛈 = 30% = 0.3 = 1- , 𝛈’ = 0.35 when T’2 = T2 -25 and T’1 =T1
Solution:

𝑇1
To find: T1 and T2

It is given that, 𝛈 = 30% = 0.3 = 1- 𝑇2

Step-1: Calculate the source and sink temperature T1 and T2

𝑇1
… (i)

And 𝛈’ = 0.35= 1- 𝑇′2

𝑇′1

∴ 0.35 = 1- (𝑇2−25)
𝑇1 … (ii)
Dividing equation (i) and (ii),
(𝑇2−25)
1−
𝜂′ 0.35 𝑇1 𝑇1− 𝑇2+25
𝜂 = 0.3 = 1− = 𝑇 1− 𝑇 2
𝑇2
( )
𝑇1

∴ 1.167 = 𝑇1− 𝑇2+25

𝑇1 − 𝑇2

∴ 1.167𝑇1 - 1.167 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 + 25

∴ 0.167 𝑇1 = 0.167 T2 + 25

∴ T1 = T2 + 149.7 … (iii)

Substituting this value in equation (i),

∴ 0.3 = 1- 𝑇2 = 1- 𝑇2

𝑇1 (𝑇2+149.7)

𝑇2
∴ = 1-0.3 = 0.7
(𝑇2+149.7)

∴ T2 = 349.3 K …

Ans And T1 =

∴
T2 + 149.7 = 349.3 + 149.7
T1 = 499 K … Ans
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

14. A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at temperature of 600 0C and 40 0C. The engine
drives a reversible refrigerator, which operates between reservoir at temperature 40 0C and -20 0C. The
heat transfer to the heat engine is 2000 kJ and the network output of the combined engine refrigerator plant

and reservoir at 𝛈A = 0.4 𝛈T and (COP)A = 0.4 (COP)T

is 360 kJ. Calculate i) Heat transfer to the refrigerator and reservoir and ii) Heat transfer to the refrigerator

Solution:
Given data: T1 = 600 + 273 = 873 K, T2 = 40 + 273 = 313 K, T3 = -20 + 273 = 253 K,
T4 = T2 = 313 K, Q1 = 2000 kJ, W1 = 360 kJ.

Heat transfer to the refrigerator and reservoir at 𝛈A = 0.4 𝛈T and (COP)A = 0.4 (COP)T
To find: i) Heat transfer to the refrigerator and reservoir and
ii)

Step-1: Calculate heat transfer to the refrigerator and

reservoir𝑇W = W1 + W2
𝛈T = 1-
… (i)
2
But,
𝑇1
313
∴ 𝛈T = 1 -
873

∴ 𝛈T = 0.6415

T1 T4

𝑄4
Q1
W W2
Refrigerator
Heat
engine

W1
𝑄 Q3
2

Heat Sink, T2 Heat Sink, T3

𝑊
Now, 𝛈T =
𝑄1
∴ 𝑊
200
0.6415 =
0

∴ W = 1283 kJ
Substituting in equation (i),

1283 = 360 + W2

∴ W2 = 𝑊 𝑄1−𝑄2 𝑄2
𝛈T =
923 kJ … Ans
But, = = 1-
𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑄1

∴ 𝑄2
2000
0.6415 = 1-
∴ Q2 = 717 kJ

We know that, 𝑄3 𝑄3 𝑇3
(COP) Ref = = =
𝑊2253𝑄4 −𝑄3 𝑇4−𝑇3
∴
313−25
(COP) Ref =
3
= 4.22
𝑄3
But, (COP) Ref =
𝑊2

∴ 𝑄3
923
4.22 =

∴ 𝑄3 = 3895.06 kJ

∴
And W2 = Q4 –Q3
923 = Q4 = 3895.06

∴
∴ Total heat transfer to the refrigerator to the reservoir = Q2 + Q4 = 717 + 4818.06
Q4 = 4818.06 kJ

= 5535.06 kJ …Ans

𝛈A = 0.4 𝛈T = 0.4 × 0.6415 = 0.2566

Step-2: Calculate heat transfer to the refrigerator and reservoir at 40% of their maximum values,

𝑇2 𝑄2
Now, 𝛈A = 1- = 1-
𝑇1 𝑄1
∴ 𝑄2
2000
0.2566 = 1-

∴ 𝑄2 = 𝑊
𝛈A =
1486.8 kJ …Ans
And
𝑄1

∴ 𝑊
200
0.2566 =
0

∴ W = 513.2 kJ

But, W = W1 + W2

∴ 513.2 = 360 + W2

∴
(COP) A = 0.4 (COP)T = 0.4 × 4.22 = 1.688
W2 = 153.20 kJ
𝑄3
Similarly,
Now, (COP) A =
𝑊2
∴ 𝑄3
153.20
1.688 =
∴ Q3 = 258.6 kJ

But, W2 = Q4 –Q3
153.20 = Q4 – 258.6

∴
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Q4 = 411.8 kJ

∴ Total heat transfer to the reservoir = Q2 + Q4 = 1486.8 + 411.8

= 1898.6 kJ … Ans

3.13 Examples for Practice

1. Two Carnot engines work in series between the sources and sink temperature of 600 K and 400 K. If
both engines develop same power determine the intermediate temperature.
2. Which is more effective way to increase efficiency of Carnot engine, either to increase T 1 keeping T2
constant, or to decrease T2 keeping T1 constant.
3. The overall volume expansion ratio of a Carnot cycle is 16. The cycle works between the temperature
limit of 320 0C and 40 0C. Determine:
a. Volume ratio of isothermal and adiabatic process

Assume working fluid is air and 𝛄 = 1.4.

b. Thermal efficiency of the cycle.

4. A house hold refrigerator with COP of 1.8 removes heat from the refrigerated space at a rate of 90
kJ/min. Determine:
a. The electric power consume by the refrigerator.
b. The rate of heat transfer to the kitchen air.
5. Heat pump is used to maintain house at 23 0C. The house is losing heat to outside air through walls at
60,000 kJ/hr. While energy generated in house by various appliances is 4,000 kJ/hr. For a COP of 1.5.
Find required power input in kW, supplied to the heat pump.
6. A cold storage is to be maintained at – 5 0C while the surrounding are at 35 0C. The heat leakage from
the surroundings into the cold storage is estimated to be 29 kW. The actual COP of the refrigeration
plant is one-third of an ideal plant working between the same temperatures. Find the power required to
drive the plant.

Question Bank

1. State Clausius and Kelvin – Plank statements of second law of thermodynamics and prove their
equivalence.
OR
State Kelvin-Plank and Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics and prove that the
violation of Kelvin-Plank statement results into violation of Clausius statement.
2. Write a short note on : PMM-I and PMM-II
3. Define heat sink and heat source, heat pump, thermal reservoir, heat engine.
4. State limitation of first law of thermodynamics. Explain how Clausius and Kelvin- Plank statements
overcome these limitations using the heat engine, heat pump and refrigerator concept.
5. Define thermal efficiency of heat engine and COP for refrigerator and heat pump.
6. Explain reversible and irreversible process. What are the causes of irreversibility?
7. What are the limitation of first law of thermodynamics? Explain with suitable examples.
8. What is the difference between PMM-I and PMM-II?
9. Explain the difference between heat pump and refrigerator.
10. What is Carnot cycle? Explain with neat sketch.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. RAHUL KRISHNAJI BAWANE PCCOER, Dept of Mechanical Engineering.
Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research
Department of Mechanical Engineering

11. Derive an expression for efficiency of Carnot cycle.

12. What is Absolute thermodynamic temperature scale?
13. What is Carnot theorem?

Engineering Thermodynamics Overview
100% (1)
Engineering Thermodynamics Overview
3 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
1 page
BME301 Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
No ratings yet
BME301 Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
1 page
Thermo Syllabus
No ratings yet
Thermo Syllabus
3 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
69 pages
Thermodynamics in Sustainable Energy
100% (1)
Thermodynamics in Sustainable Energy
2 pages
Entropy in Engineering Thermodynamics
No ratings yet
Entropy in Engineering Thermodynamics
3 pages
Mech Polytechnic Engineering-heat Power Engineering Semester 4 Text Books (1)
No ratings yet
Mech Polytechnic Engineering-heat Power Engineering Semester 4 Text Books (1)
231 pages
Thermodynamics Syllabus for B.Tech ME
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Syllabus for B.Tech ME
2 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
2 pages
Thermodynamics
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics
2 pages
ME8391 Thermodynamics Course Overview
100% (1)
ME8391 Thermodynamics Course Overview
154 pages
101230301 Engineering Thermodynamics
No ratings yet
101230301 Engineering Thermodynamics
3 pages
Thermodynamics Course Outline for Diploma
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Course Outline for Diploma
2 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
19 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
3 pages
Thermal Engineering Course Overview
No ratings yet
Thermal Engineering Course Overview
12 pages
Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
3 pages
Thermodynamics and Combustion Course
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics and Combustion Course
3 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
2 pages
Process Engineering Thermodynamics Course
No ratings yet
Process Engineering Thermodynamics Course
3 pages
ME3391 Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
No ratings yet
ME3391 Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
2 pages
Thermodynamics Exam Review and Questions
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Exam Review and Questions
10 pages
B.Tech Thermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
B.Tech Thermodynamics Course Overview
2 pages
Thermal Engineering Course Overview
No ratings yet
Thermal Engineering Course Overview
6 pages
MEC203 Thermodynamics Syllabus
No ratings yet
MEC203 Thermodynamics Syllabus
1 page
Process Flowsheeting & Simulation Course
No ratings yet
Process Flowsheeting & Simulation Course
7 pages
Thermodynamics Syllabus for PCC-ME 213G
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Syllabus for PCC-ME 213G
1 page
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
2 pages
Basic Engineering Thermodynamics Course
No ratings yet
Basic Engineering Thermodynamics Course
3 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
2 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
3 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Details
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Details
2 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
2 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
17 pages
Comprehensive Thermodynamics Overview
No ratings yet
Comprehensive Thermodynamics Overview
209 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Lesson Plan
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Lesson Plan
4 pages
Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
2 pages
Thermodynamics Course Overview and Topics
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Course Overview and Topics
2 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus 2025
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus 2025
4 pages
Thermodynamics Syllabus
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Syllabus
4 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Guide
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Guide
17 pages
Thermodynamics Course Overview ME6301
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Course Overview ME6301
167 pages
Thermal Engineering Course Overview
No ratings yet
Thermal Engineering Course Overview
6 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus Overview
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus Overview
1 page
Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
2 pages
B.Tech Mechanical Engineering Thermodynamics
No ratings yet
B.Tech Mechanical Engineering Thermodynamics
3 pages
Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
2 pages
Apply Apply Apply
No ratings yet
Apply Apply Apply
2 pages
Mechanical Engineering Curriculum Overview
No ratings yet
Mechanical Engineering Curriculum Overview
48 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Outline
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Outline
2 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
2 pages
Thermodynamics
100% (6)
Thermodynamics
334 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
3 pages
Aerothermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
Aerothermodynamics Course Overview
2 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Overview
8 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Outline
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Outline
4 pages
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
No ratings yet
Engineering Thermodynamics Course Syllabus
4 pages
ME3391 Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
No ratings yet
ME3391 Engineering Thermodynamics Syllabus
3 pages
UNIT 2 Phase Dig and IC Dig
No ratings yet
UNIT 2 Phase Dig and IC Dig
10 pages
Unit 1-Part 2 Material Testing
No ratings yet
Unit 1-Part 2 Material Testing
60 pages
Multiplication Tables 2 to 10
No ratings yet
Multiplication Tables 2 to 10
29 pages
Unit I - Part 1-Crystal Structure
No ratings yet
Unit I - Part 1-Crystal Structure
72 pages
Heat Transfer Coefficients Study
No ratings yet
Heat Transfer Coefficients Study
5 pages
Thermal Conductivity of Asbestos Powder
No ratings yet
Thermal Conductivity of Asbestos Powder
4 pages
Heat Conduction & Convection FDM Analysis
No ratings yet
Heat Conduction & Convection FDM Analysis
4 pages