Chapter 2:

Basic Knowledge of
Fundamental Analysis
Basic Knowledge of Fundamental Analysis

“We have observed that the money managers who have achieved long term market
beating results in this business, Walter Schloss, Warren Buffett, Bill Ruane and Rick
Cunniff, Mario Gabelli and John Neff, all have an investment philosophy based on
their definition of value. Our booklet, ‘What has worked in investing’, shows that both
in the US and internationally, basic fundamental value criteria produce better than
market returns over long periods of time.”
Christopher Browne

Fundamental analysis is a subject studying the underlying business of a company

based on the quantitative and qualitative analyses of the company’s business
performance, financial health, operating environments, capability of its management
and its intrinsic value. The main objective of the analysis is to ascertain if the
company is a suitable investment target and if it is worth our investment.

To Koon, fundamental analysis is a foundation of stock investing. Buying a stock

without understanding the business of the stock is akin to gambling without reading
our cards. How can we play the game with conviction if we do not look at the cards,
know the odds, and deploy a suitable strategy?

A share of stock usually represents a fraction of ownership in a business. According

to Peter Lynch, there is a company or business behind every stock. The stock is not a
piece of lottery ticket. When we buy a stock, we become the owners of the company.
Just like every business owner, we also have the right to share in the company’s
profits through dividend payments, and the distribution of its bonus shares if it makes
money. When the company grows, we will profit from the investment through capital
gains when we sell the stock. Therefore, fundamental analysis is an important work to
every serious investor.

Before performing fundamental analysis, we must be able to read financial reports

and annual reports, to analyse the financial health of the firm, to understand what
business the company is doing, and to study the business performance of the
company. If one does not know what the company is making and who its clients are,
cannot read its financial reports, and has no interest to learn about the business, he or
she should not risk his or her hard-earned money in the stock. Koon always says, the
stock market is a dangerous place for gamblers, and it really is a jungle out there. If
we enter the jungle too often we will meet a tiger.

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2.1 Introduction to Quarterly Financial Statement and Annual Report

“I always start off my research by reading companies’ annual reports and then
the footnotes to their numbers. I need to be satisfied about the integrity of the
numbers and the honesty of the accounting before I look further. If there is a
number that is incomprehensible, I throw the report into the wastebasket and
move on. If you look at Enron’s footnotes in the 1990s, they were just
incomprehensible. If investors had read those footnotes carefully, I don’t think
anyone would have invested in Enron stock.”
Jean-Marie Eveillard

Quarterly financial statements are statements comprise of income statement,

balance sheet, cash flow statement, statement of changes in equity and other
supporting information released by a public listed company once every three
months to satisfy the listing requirements of Bursa Malaysia. The main
objective of issuing the statements is to disclose financial performance and
important financial information of the company to shareholders and the public.
This information enables potential investors make an informed judgement,
whether the stock is worth their money, and enable the existing investors to
decide if they should add, hold or sell the stock.

Annual report, on the other hand, is a document published by a public listed

company every year to report the activities of the company in the past financial
year. Unlike quarterly financial statements, the structure of annual report is
more exhaustive. In addition to disclosing financial information, it also
encompasses chairman’s statement, top thirty shareholders list, the
remuneration of the management, business prospect and etc.

2.1.1 Why You Should Read Quarterly Financial Statements and Annual
Reports?

Although reading financial statements and annual reports can be time

consuming, these reports provide us valuable information about a
company’s financial condition, and operation. In addition, they give us an
insight into the business of the company, which includes, but is not
limited to, its business type and structure, the industry in which it
operates, the products it offers, who its clients are, its geographic market
area, current developments, and etc. Sometimes, the management may
also touch on their previous strategy, and discuss how it helped building
on the company’s success in the reports. Moreover, they disclose the
short-term and long-term strategic plans and direction of the company.
Indirectly they help us figure out where the company is, and the direction
where it is heading. As required by the reporting rules, the management
have to discuss about the current performance of the company, including
significant changes in the last financial year and the future business
prospect of the company. Some companies may also provide facts,
including the risks, and uncertainties of the business such as legal
liabilities, and lawsuits they get involved in, and the projects they are

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bidding for in this financial year. All this information will help us make an
informed judgement about our investment in the company.

2.1.2 Understanding Quarterly Financial Statement and Annual Report

As mentioned earlier, every annual report comprises of financial

statements, chairman’s statement, business and financial review provided
by the management, top thirty shareholders list and remuneration of the
management.

 Financial statements are four reports in a set; consist of income

statement, balance sheet, statement of changes in equity, and cash
flow statement. They record the financial information, financial
activities, and financial strength, or financial health of the company.
Whilst the statement of changes in equity is also included in the
financial statement set, we must pay more attention to the three
main statements, viz. income statement, balance sheet, and cash
flow statement. Further detail of the three statements will be covered
in section [Link], section [Link] and section [Link] of this chapter.

 The chairman’s statement is an overview provided by the CEO of a

company, in brief, about the company’s current business
performance, operating environment and culture, business prospect,
direction, and financial strength, and the significant changes and
developments in the company’s operation, the changes in the board
of directors’ composition, and the amount of dividends declared in
the financial year. Do not underestimate the importance of this
summary, as it contains some essential information related to the
profitability, condition, future and viability of the business. If you
notice any negative tones or words used by the CEO to describe the
company’s financial health, you should pay a careful attention to the
long-term profitability, and survivability of the business.

 Business and financial review summarises the business performance

of the company, and its recent developments. Further, the
explanation of the management on the changes in the company
revenue, and profit trends in the last financial year can also be found
in this section. Occasionally the management may use some visual
aids such as graphs, charts, diagrams, and pictures to illustrate to
shareholders the information of the company’s evolution. We must
read them in conjunction with the financial statements to get a better
picture of the business performance.

 The top thirty shareholders list is a summary that illustrates the

ownership structure of the company to the public. From the list, we
can tell if the company ownership is dominated by local institutional
funds, foreign funds, foreign companies, retail investors,
superinvestors, employees or insiders. Also, we can tell from the
structure if the business operating and dividend policies are
influenced by any of the major shareholders. For instance, most of

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the foreign-owned companies listed in Malaysia such as Carlsberg

Brewery Malaysia Berhad, Heineken Malaysia Berhad, Nestle (M)
Berhad, [Link] Berhad and Panasonic Manufacturing Malaysia
Berhad pay high and increasing dividends to their shareholders.

 The remuneration of the board of directors reported in the annual

report is a disclosure of the salary packages received by the top
management, and the directors of the company. According to some
research studies, the business performance of a company is
inversely correlated with management’s remuneration. This
situation can be explained from the psychological point of view that
the management without stakes in the company, or those who work
for salary is less motivated to ensure the success of a company, and
the value of the stock.

[Link] Income Statement

 An income statement (refer to Figure 2.1), also known as a profit

and loss statement, reports how a company performs in the financial
year or quarter. The report usually begins with the revenue or sales
of the business within the reporting period. Sometimes it is called
top line, as the revenue is the first figure appears in an income
statement. The value of revenue alone renders not much of
importance to a stock, unless the figure is compared with its profits,
its revenue data over the past five or ten years, or the revenues of its
competitors. Growing revenue generally implies that the company is
either expanding its business lines or increasing the prices of its
products. Sometimes it also reveals that the company has captured
more market shares or has grabbed some market share from its
competitors. Therefore, we should do some comparisons when
reading a financial statement to get a better picture of the story.

 The next item we have to pay attention to is its gross profit, which is
the profit netted out with after taking the cost of goods sold (or cost
of sales) into account. The cost of goods sold is the total costs of
producing the products which include, but are not limited to, raw
material costs, utility bills, machinery maintenance costs, wages and
etc. If we compare the gross profit with revenue, we will get gross
profit margin. Decreasing gross margin signifies increasing raw
material prices, wages and maintenance costs. In addition, it shows
that the management is unable to control the cost of sales.

Gross profit = Revenue – Cost of goods sold

Gross profit margin = (Gross profit / Revenue) × 100%

 The second profit comes after gross profit is known as profit before
tax (PBT). It is the profit obtained by subtracting operating expenses
(such as depreciation and amortisation, and selling, general and
administrative expenses), interest expenses, and other expenses from

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and adding other incomes to the gross profit. Depreciation refers to

reduction in tangible asset value (i.e. car, furniture, machinery
values), whereas amortisation refers to the reduction in intangible
asset value (i.e. patent, goodwill, copyrights). If we compare the
profit before tax with revenue, we will get pre-tax profit margin.
Decreasing margin signifies increasing operating cost, and steep
falling of asset value. In addition, it shows that the management is
unable to lower costs.

Whilst high profit before income tax is appealing, it should be noted

that the profit is sometimes contributed by one-time-gains (or non-
recurring gains) from the disposal of assets and/or other non-
operating-related transactions. The gain will usually lead to a spike
in profit. When we analyse a company, we must take note of the
item.

Profit before tax

= Gross profit – Selling, general and administrative expenses –
Depreciation and amortisation expenses – Interest expenses +
Other incomes

Pre-tax profit margin = (Profit before tax / Revenue) × 100%

 The last profit is called net profit, which is also known as the bottom
line, or profit net of tax. It is obtained by subtracting income tax
from the profit before income tax. High net profit is although
pleasing, we should not look at the figure alone. It does not tell us a
complete story until we do some comparisons with the profits of the
company in the past five or ten years, the profits of its competitors,
and with its own revenue. An increased profit is an indicator of
business growth, which will normally lift its share price up. If the
net profit is higher than those of its competitors, it implies that the
management is very competitive.

Net profit = Profit before income tax - Income tax

 Earnings-per-share (EPS) is the value obtained by dividing the net

profit by the number of outstanding shares. The higher the earnings
per share of a stock, the higher its profitability is. Earnings-per-
share is generally used together with price-to-earnings ratio to
ascertain if the stock is undervalued or overvalued.

Earnings per share = Net profit / Outstanding shares

 Remark: negative profits indicate that the business suffers losses.

We should try to avoid companies with financial losses, as no one
can guarantee when the businesses will become profitable. It is
easier for well-managed companies to continue performing than for
bad companies to turn around. Even if the companies are good
companies, do not rush in to buy the stocks too early. When the

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companies report negative profits, their stock prices will continue to

fall. Nobody can tell how low the prices can go. The best time to
buy the stocks is when the businesses return to profit, and when
their profits are growing again, or if you can be very sure that the
company will make more profits next year than this year.

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Figure 2.1: Income Statement of Latitude Tree Holdings Berhad for the Financial
Year Ended 2013
Source: Bursa Malaysia

[Link] Balance Sheet

 Balance sheet (refer to Figure 2.2A and Figure 2.2B), also known as
the statement of financial position, is a statement showing the
ending balances of a company’s assets, liabilities and shareholders’
equity. It can be divided into two main sections. In general, current
assets and non-current assets constitute the first section. Current
liabilities, non-current liabilities and shareholders’ equity, on the
other hand, constitute the second section. The sum of components in
the first section must be equal to that in the second section.

Total assets = Total liabilities + Shareholders’ equity

Total assets = Current assets + Non-current assets

Total liabilities = Current liabilities + Non-current liabilities

 Current assets are the assets that can be converted to cash within
twelve months, which generally comprise of inventories, trade
receivables, cash and cash equivalents, short-term investments,
amounts due from associates, prepaid expenses, bank deposits, tax
recoverable and etc.

 Non-current assets are the assets that are mostly not intended for
sale, and cannot be converted to cash easily within twelve months,
which include property, plant, and equipment, associate companies,
or investment in subsidiaries, intangible assets, long-term
investments, and etc. Intangible assets are non-physical assets but
are valuable to the business, which include goodwill, brand
recognition, franchises, patents, trademarks, copyrights, and other
intellectual properties.

 Current liabilities are the liabilities that must be paid within twelve
months; which encompass trade payables, accrued expenses, short-
term borrowings, tax payable, and other current liabilities.

 Non-current liabilities are the liabilities that will only due after
twelve months, which include long-term borrowings, deferred tax
liabilities, and bonds.

 Shareholders’ equity generally consists of share capital, preferred

shares, treasury stock, reserves, and retained earnings. Note that
treasury shares are the shares repurchased from the open market
when the management feel that their stock is undervalued. It usually
appears as a negative number in the section.

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 Remark: Book value-per-share (BVPS or BV) can be obtained by

dividing shareholders’ equity by the number of outstanding shares.
Whilst analysts always use it as a reference, please note that it is of
no use in valuing a business. No matter how high the book value of
a stock is, if its profits do not grow or have no growth potential, its
share price will not rise.

Book value per share = Shareholders’ equity / Outstanding shares

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Figure 2.2A: Balance Sheet of Latitude Tree Holdings Berhad for the Financial Year
Ended 2013 (Part 1)
Source: Bursa Malaysia

Figure 2.2B: Balance Sheet of Latitude Tree Holdings Berhad for the Financial Year
Ended 2013 (Part 2)
Source: Bursa Malaysia

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[Link] Cash Flow Statement

 Even though sales are recognised in the income statement, more

often than not payments are not immediately made when goods
change hands, or are shipped. As investors, we should study the
cash flow statement to find out if the company has a sustainable
cash flow, and if it has the ability to expand its business, and to pay
dividends to investors.

 The statement of cash flows (refer to Figure 2.3A and Figure 2.3B)
summarises how money is spent and brought into the company by
its management. The report can be divided into three main sections,
namely cash flow from operating activities, cash flow from
investing activities, and cash flow from financing activities. Note
that negative cash flow indicates that the company spends more
money than it generates. If the company spends more than it brings
in, its cash balance at the end of the year will be decreased.

Cash at the end of the year

= Cash at the beginning of the year + Cash flow from operating
activities + Cash flow from investing activities + Cash flow from
financing activities

 Cash flow from operating activities records money spent on and

received from the operation. Positive cash flow shows that the
operation generates cash. By and large, it is better to have positive
cash flows than negative cash flows. Nevertheless, we should not
avoid some companies blindly simply because they have low, or
negative cash flow from operating activities. High growth
companies usually have low, or negative cash flow from operating
activities as they increase their inventory, and extend credit to their
customers when they get more sales.

In general, profit before tax, decrease in inventories, decrease in

accounts receivable, decrease in prepaid expenses, decrease in other
current assets, increase in accounts payable, increase in accrued
expenses, increase in unearned revenue, depreciation and
amortisation contribute positively to cash flow from operating
activities.

Cash flow from operating activities

= Profit before tax + Decrease in inventories + Decrease in
receivables + Increase in payables + Depreciation + Amortisation

 Cash flow from investing activities records the money received from
the disposal of assets or investments and money spent on the
acquisition of plant, property, and equipment.

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In general, capital expenditures, long-term investments, and cash

outflow from investing activities contribute negatively to the cash
flow from investing activities.

Whilst conservative investors avoid companies with a sudden surge

in capital expenditure, spending money to acquire property, plant,
and equipment may not necessarily be a bad sign. When a company
expands its business operation, having a high capital expenditure in
a particular year is inevitable. If we shun the company blindly
without ascertaining if the investment is an excellent one, we will
probably kick ourselves later for missing out on the golden
opportunity.

Cash flow from investing activities

= Cash received from asset disposal – Capital expenditures – Long-
term investments

 Cash flow from financing activities records the amount of money

received from and repaid to lenders, money received from the
issuance of stocks, money used for stock repurchased and money
paid to investors as dividends.

In general, repayment of debt, the repurchase of shares, and

dividends paid contribute negatively to the cash flow from financing
activities, as they are outflows of cash.

Cash flow from financing activities

= Debt issued + Issuance of stocks – Repayments of Debt –
Dividend paid – Share buyback

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Figure 2.3A: Cash Flow Statement of Latitude Tree Holdings Berhad for the Financial
Year Ended 2013 (Part 1)
Source: Bursa Malaysia

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Figure 2.3B: Cash Flow Statement of Latitude Tree Holdings Berhad for the Financial
Year Ended 2013 (Part 2)
Source: Bursa Malaysia

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2.2 Assessing the Financial Health and Performance of a Business

“The important thing to remember is that purchasing the common stock of

bankrupt companies is rarely a profitable investment strategy.”
Joel Greenblatt

Whilst having the ability to read financial statements is important, it is not

enough to ascertain if the financial health of a company is in good shape, if the
business is performing well and if the company is worth our investment, we
need to gather more information and to perform a thorough analysis through
calculation and comparison so as to make an informed judgement.

Just like a human’s wellbeing, a business will not be thriving if its finance is in
chaos. Likewise, our chance of winning a bet would be very slim if we invest in
a company in deep financial trouble or a company with no earning growth
potential. Avoiding this type of companies will help protecting our hard-earned
money, and will smoothen our path to achieving financial freedom.

Below are some useful metrics, which we can use to determine if the financial
health of a company is in a favourable condition, and if the business is
performing well prior to making judgement.

2.2.1 Profitability

As we know, profit is the lifeline of every business. The operation of a

company is not sustainable if the business has no ability to generate
profits. We should therefore look for companies with positive earnings,
and with bright profit growth prospects, and avoid stocks with massive
financial losses.

[Link] Net Profit Margin

Net profit margin (NPM) is an important indicator of a company’s

financial health. It measures the amount of net profit a company
earns from every ringgit of its sales or revenue. The higher its net
profit margin, the more profitable the business is.

Whilst high net profit margin business is more appealing to

investors, it should be noted that not all types of business share the
same range of net profit margin. In fact, it varies from industry to
industry. Thus, we should compare the net profit margins of
companies with that of the industry average.

In general, companies that provide legal advice, machinery and

equipment rental, accounting, tax and payroll services, specialised
design, real-estate, management consulting and medical services
enjoy higher net profit margins than electronics and appliance
stores, wholesalers, petrol stations, trading and manufacturing
companies.

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Net profit margin = Net profit / Sales

[Link] Profit Growth

According to Koon’s study, high profit growth (earnings growth or

EPS growth) is the most important trait of a winning-stock. A
company with deteriorating profits does not only suffer business
setbacks, and sluggish growth, it may also force the management to
cut its dividends. As a result, the share price of the stock will
descend. To protect our capital, we must make sure that the
company can earn more profits next year than this year, and
increasing profits years after next year before placing our wager. In
other words, we must make sure that the company has a good profit
growth prospect.

There are two types of profit growth rate. The first type is called
year-over-year profit growth rate, or profit growth rate (YoY),
which measures the growth rate of profits from one year to another.
This type of profit growth is important in moving short-term stock
price. The second type, on the other hand, is called the compound
annual growth rate of profit, or profit growth rate (N-year CAGR),
which measures the constant growth rate of profits over a specific
number of years. The latter is important in increasing long-term
shareholders’ value.

Profit growth rate (YoY)

= [(Profit in Year 1 / Profit in Year 0) – 1] × 100%

Profit growth rate (N-year CAGR)

= {[(Profit in Year N / Profit in Year 0) 1/N ] – 1} × 100%

Remark: when we notice a surge in the recent profit growth rate, we

must find out if it is attributed by any non-recurring incomes (i.e.
one-time gains from the disposal of property or assets, or from
currency exchange gain).

[Link] Return on Equity

Return on equity (ROE) measures the amount of profit a business

produces from the shareholders’ equity. The higher the return, the
more efficient the management is in utilising shareholders’
investment. Companies with sustainable competitive advantage
usually enjoy high return on equity.

Some gurus particularly fond of businesses with high return on

equity, as profits generated from the business can be reinvested to
fund its growth without having the need to inject more capitals. The
compounding effect also allows a high return on equity business to
grow much faster than its peers.

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Note that not all industries share the same range of return on equity,
as some businesses require only little assets, whilst others require
large infrastructure investment. Therefore, we need to compare the
return on equity of the company with that of the industry average to
get a better picture on how it fares against its competitors. Also, we
must look at the trend of the company’s return on equity over the
past ten years. Down-trending return on equity may point to the
inability of the management to sustain its past performance.

Return on equity = Net profit / Shareholders’ equity

2.2.2 Solvency

Loan is an important source of finance for a business. It does not only

help the company meet the financial need of the business operation, it is
also useful for funding the company’s growth, and for increasing the
wealth of its owners, as it does not dilute the stakes of the existing
shareholders. Therefore, Koon always says, being investors, we should
not be disheartened when a company takes loan to do more business.

However, debt is a double-edged sword. Taking an excessive amount of

loan to support the growth of a business, especially buying unproductive
assets, will put the company in a vulnerable position. Therefore, we must
monitor the type of business assets acquired and the debt level of the
company to ensure the solvency of the business so it can meet its long-
term financial obligations.

Below are two useful metrics, namely Debt-to-EBITDA ratio and Debt-to-
equity ratio, which we can use to assess the solvency level of the business.

[Link] Debt-to-EBITDA Ratio

Debt-to-EBITDA ratio is one of the most important metrics used to

determine the ability of a company to service its debt. The higher
the ratio, the longer the company needs to pay off its debt. Whilst
some investors prefer to look for companies with the debt-to-
EBITDA ratio lesser than three, it should be noted that some
businesses are more capital intensive than other businesses. Peer-to-
peer comparison is therefore a better approach to ascertaining the
solvency of a firm.

Debt-to-EBITDA ratio = Debt / EBITDA

EBITDA
= Net Profit + Interest + Taxes + Depreciation and Amortisation

[Link] Debt-to-Equity Ratio

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Debt-to-equity ratio (D/E) measures the debt of a business relative

to its shareholders’ equity. Similarly, capital-intensive businesses
tend to have higher debt-to-equity ratios than other businesses.
During industry boom, or when catalysts kick in, highly-leveraged
companies will enjoy higher earnings than their conservative peers.
Conversely, the stocks’ prices may take a hit when the companies
suffer huge losses during an industry recession. Therefore, we must
sell the stocks as soon as they report losses or when the industry
bust begins.

Debt-to-equity ratio = Debt / Equity

2.2.3 Liquidity

Meeting the short-term financial obligations of a business is equally

important to, if not more important than, meeting its long-term financial
obligations. Failure to cover the short-term liabilities will risk the business
going into a distressed state. One of the indicators we can use to judge the
ability of the company in meeting its obligations is its liquidity. Liquidity
measures the amount of liquid assets, such as cash and cash equivalent,
accounts receivable and marketable securities, which can be converted to
cash rather quickly and easily. Low liquidity will usually result in
financial health deterioration to a company.

Two of the financial ratios investors usually use to assess the liquidity of a
company are current ratio, and quick ratio.

[Link] Current Ratio

Current ratio, also known as working capital ratio, measures the

proportion of current assets in relation to the liabilities of the
business. Current assets are the assets that can be converted into
cash in a year. Current liabilities, on the other hand, are the debts
that must be repaid in a year. The higher the current ratio, the higher
the ability of a company is in serving its short-term financial
obligations. Nonetheless, the value should not be too high.
Unreasonably high current ratio signifies the inability of the
company in managing its cash, or working capital efficiently.
Further, it is wasteful, as some inventories may become obsolete, or
the quality of the stocks may be deteriorating, or the management
may be too lax in collecting back the money owed to the company.

Whilst some finance books suggest using 2 to 1 as the rule of

thumb, it should be noted that not all industries share the same value
of ideal current ratio. The value varies from industry to industry. We
should, in this case, compare the company’s current ratio to the
industry average ratio to find out how it fares against its
competitors.

Current ratio = Current assets / Current liabilities

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[Link] Quick Ratio

Quick ratio is also known as an acid-test ratio. Just like current ratio,
quick ratio measures the ability of a company to meet its short-term
financial liabilities. However, inventories are omitted in quick ratio
calculation, as inventory could not be readily converted into cash.

Even though the general rule of thumb for quick ratio is 1 to 1, we

should also compare the company’s quick ratio with that of the
industry average to find out how it fares, as not all industries share
the same value of ideal quick ratio.

Quick ratio = (Current assets – Inventories) / Current liabilities

2.2.4 Activity Ratios

Activity ratios are the metrics used to ascertain the effectiveness of a

management in converting their resources such as assets, receivables, and
inventories into cash or sales. Three of the most commonly used activity
ratios are total asset turnover, accounts receivable turnover, and inventory
turnover ratios.

[Link] Total Asset Turnover Ratio

Total asset turnover measures the amount of revenue a company

generates in relation to its total assets. It indicates the efficiency of a
management in deploying assets to produce sales. The higher the
turnover, the better the management is compared to their
competitors in asset management.

Total asset turnover ratio = Sales / Average total assets

[Link] Inventory Turnover Ratio

Inventory turnover measures how fast inventory is sold. In addition,

it indicates how long cash is being tied up to inventory asset.

The higher the turnover, the higher the number of times inventory is
sold in a year, the higher the efficiency of a company is in managing
its resources. However, unreasonably high turnover is not good for a
company as it implies insufficient inventory, which may result in a
loss in business.

Low inventory turnover, on the other hand, may suggest that the
company is overstocking, suffering from obsolescence or deficiency
in the finished goods. Nonetheless, a sudden drop in the turnover is
not always bad. At times a company may increase its inventory if

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the management anticipates market shortages or rapidly rising prices

of certain goods. As investors, we should read the comments of the
management provided in the financial reports in conjunction with
the inventory turnover ratio to get a better picture of the situation. At
the same time, we should compare the figure with the turnovers of
its peers.

Inventory turnover ratio = Sales / Average inventory

or

Inventory turnover ratio = Cost of goods sold / Average inventory

Remark: to find out the number of days cash is tied up to inventory

asset, or the number of days inventory is in stock; simply divide 365
by the calculated inventory turnover.

[Link] Receivables Turnover Ratio

Receivables turnover measures the number of times receivables are

collected in a year. The higher the turnover, the more efficient the
management is. On the other hand, low receivables turnover points
to the problem that the management has some difficulties in
collecting the credit it extends to customers in time. In addition, it
may suggest that the company has a loose credit policy or a massive
amount of bad debt.

Notwithstanding that, it should be noted that not all industries share

the same average receivable turnover ratio. Some companies such as
construction, consumer discretionary, and basic material, and
manufacturing companies tend to have higher receivables turnovers
than the others (i.e. large retailers, consumer, casino and gaming,
and transportation companies) due to their business natures.
Therefore, we should, as investors, compare the company’s
receivable turnover with the average turnover of the industry.

Receivables turnover ratio

= Net credit sales / Average accounts receivable

Remark: to find out the number of days a firm’s credit is collected;

simply divide 365 by the calculated receivable turnover.

2.2.5 Cash Flow

Cash flow is an important element of a business. It shows the amount of

cash flowing into and out of a business. Very often a company goes
bankrupt due to its inability to pay liabilities, not because the business is
not profitable. Therefore, positive cash flow is not only important for
dividend payment, and for future business expansion; it also ensures the
solvency of a business. Note that cash flow does not take non-cash items

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(i.e. credit sales and payables) into account, as cash is not involved in the
transactions.

[Link] Free Cash Flow

Free cash flow measures the amount of cash generated by a business

from its operation after netting out capital expenditures. Free cash
flow is an important indicator to ascertain if a company has an
ability to pay dividends and the amount of dividends it can afford to
distribute to its shareholders. In addition, it shows the ability of a
company to weather hard times, especially during the industry
recession, and to fund its business expansion internally.

Companies consistently produce positive, or high free cash flow is

normally called cash cow. In other words, to find a cash cow, we
should pay attention to the free cash flow of companies when we are
searching for high quality investment.

Free cash flow = Operating cash flow – Capital expenditures

[Link] Operating Cash Flow-to-Sales Ratio

Operating cash flow-to-sales ratio measures the amount of cash

produced by a business from its sales. The higher the ratio, the better
the management is in managing its cash flow. That being said, not
all companies have the same range of ratio. In fact, the range varies
widely from industry to industry. Being investors, we should
compare the latest operating cash flow-to-sales ratio with those of its
peers and with its historical performance over the past few years to
make an informed judgement.

Operating cash flow to sales ratio = Operating cash flow / Sales

2.3 Do Not Forget the Details of Financial and Annual Reports and Company
Announcements

“The best advice I ever got was on an airplane. It was in my early days on Wall
Street. I was flying to Chicago, and I sat next to an older guy. Anyway, I
remember him as being an old guy, which means he may have been 40. He told
me to read everything. If you get interested in a company and you read the
annual report, he said, you will have done more than 98% of the people on Wall
Street. And if you read the footnotes in the annual report you will have done
more than 100% of the people on Wall Street. I realized right away that if I just
literally read a company's annual report and the notes -- or better yet, two or
three years of reports -- that I would know much more than others. Professional
investors used to sort of be dazzled. Everyone seemed to think I was smart. I
later realized that I had to do more than just that. I learned that I had to read
the annual reports of those I am investing in and their competitors' annual
reports, the trade journals, and everything that I could get my hands on. But I
realized that most people don't bother even doing the basic homework. And if I

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did even more, I'd be so far ahead that I'd probably be able to find successful
investments.”
Jim Rogers

One of the reasons why most retail investors lose money in the stock market is
that they are reluctant to read the announcements, financial statements, and
annual reports of the stocks in which they have interests. Most of them buy and
sell stocks based on rumours. As a result, they lose their hard-earned money for
punting on news with low reliability. Even if they are willing to read the
financial statements, most of them do not have the patience to read the entire
reports, and all announcements. Skimming through the documents does not only
hinder investors capturing the essence of the reports, and companies’ progress,
many of the hidden gems will also be missing out.

Like it or not, keeping track of companies’ business developments is a duty of

every investor. We would miss out on many golden opportunities if we do not
keep track of their developments. The detailed information of the developments
can always be found in the announcements, explanatory notes, and footnotes of
their reports. Moreover, the resources can be freely accessed by investors from
any part of Malaysia through the website of Bursa Malaysia and they are always
free.

Below are some important details, which we can obtain from the reports, and
announcements if we are willing to spend time going through the documents.

2.3.1 Prospect of the Business or Company

Every management team is required to provide their view on the

performance and outlook of their business periodically -- quarterly and
yearly. This statement does not only contain some information about the
current operation of the firm, it also provides investors an insight into the
business and reveals how the business will perform in the near future.

Negative tone projected by the management usually points to a

deteriorating business outlook. Similarly, when the management focus
more on industry development than the company’s earnings prospect, or
when they paint a challenging business environment, it reveals that the
business prospect of the firm will be gloomy in the near future. We should
avoid this type of companies until their fundamentals and business
outlooks show some improvement.

Positive comments and optimistic opinions provided by the management,

on the other hand, reveal that the business outlook is improving, or the
business is growing. However, it should be noted that not all positive
comments are good news. Sometimes the management may paint a false
picture of the reality to protect the reputation of the company even if the
business performance has sunk into the red. As investors, we should take
the comments, and explanation of the management with a pinch of salt
when reading their reports.

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2.3.2 Latest Development

Latest developments of a business, such as the invention of a new product,

the discovery of a new oil well, winning a concession contract, or award
for infrastructure development, receiving a casino operating license,
mergers and acquisitions, the formation of a joint venture for a new
project, and the incorporation of a new subsidiary for new business
opportunities, must all be reported in annual reports, and quarterly
financial statements, and be announced on Bursa Malaysia website.

Every piece of information provides us an opportunity to buy a potential

winning horse before the race starts if we know how to interpret the
information when the share price is just about to rise. If you are willing to
do some homework, to find out the new developments, the additional
revenues and profits contributed by the projects or awards, you would find
yourselves surrounded by plenty of gold.

2.3.3 Segmental Business Performance

Many of the listed companies in Malaysia are either diversified

companies, or vertically integrated companies. A diversified company is a
firm involves in multiple businesses, whilst a vertically integrated
company is a firm providing several different services along the supply
chain. Under the requirements of Financial Reporting Standards in
Malaysia, the revenues, costs and profits of these businesses (if the
segmental assets, revenue or profit is 10% or above) must be disclosed
separately in the segmental reporting section.

By scrutinising the section, we can tell how the firm’s profits are derived,
the type of products the firm sells, the geographical market of the firm,
and the impact of the strategy the management have implemented. Also,
we will be able to identify the high-performing businesses within the firm,
and to make a better prediction on the revenues and profits for the next
few quarters.

2.3.4 Number of Shares Owned by the Management Team and the Thirty
Largest Shareholders

Studies show that the managerial ownership of a firm is directly correlated

with the value of a firm. When the management possess high stakes in the
company, naturally they will align their interest with that of the other
shareholders, thus a better team performance, and a higher firm value. In
addition, the ownership level of the management reveals their confidence
in the company. When we read an annual report, we should not ignore the
number of shares owned by the top executive in the company, as the data
tells us more than just a number.

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Similarly, the number of shares owned by the thirty largest shareholders

should not be overlooked as it tells us the maximum percentage of shares
left floating in the market currently. The lesser number of shares
circulating in the market, the faster the share price soars when the
business performs better in future. Further, we would be rewarded
handsomely if we spot any super investors or gurus owning the stock, and
if we buy it below its intrinsic value.

2.3.5 Other Details of the Annual Reports

[Link] Risks and Uncertainties

In some annual reports, risks and uncertainties are also provided by

the management so that investors can take them into consideration
in their analysis and valuation, and can prepare for the worst, or take
immediate actions if, unfortunately, any mishap occurs to the firm.
Pay no heed to the possibility of this calamity, you will find yourself
in a panic state if the firm’s operation is suspended or comes to a
halt abruptly one day.

[Link] Auditor’s Reports

Auditor’s opinion on the company’s financial statements is

important that the report reveals the conformity of the information
presented by the management with GAAP or FRS, and its fairness.
Four types of opinion usually provided by auditors are unqualified
opinion, qualified opinion, adverse opinion and disclaimer of
opinion reports. Out of the four opinions, unqualified opinion is the
best opinion, and is the most commonly issued opinion. The
remaining three types of opinion are undesirable opinions, which
show that the statements, either, do not comply with GAAP or FRS,
or are lack of fairness, violate accounting principles, or cannot be
audited impartially. We should be careful when studying the
business performance of the company with these three types of
opinion. Also, if the company changes auditors, we should take the
numbers with a grain of salt.

2.3.6 Other Important Announcements You Should Not Miss Out

[Link] Bonus, Warrant and Treasury Shares Distribution

Announcement

Koon will be delighted whenever the companies he has stake in

distributing bonus, warrant, and bonus shares to their shareholders.
According to him, the issuance of warrants and bonus, and the
distribution of treasury shares are amongst the powerful catalysts
that can lift the price of a stock up. Distributing warrants or treasury
shares to shareholders is like giving ‘Ang Pow’ to all shareholders.
Naturally the price of the stock will rise after the announcement of
the news. Distributing bonus shares to shareholders, on the other

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hand, reveals that the company is in good financial health. The news
will have positive effects on the share price, as investors’ confidence
in the company will be greatly elevated. In addition, the issuance of
bonus shares and convertible warrants will increase the liquidity of
the stock.

[Link] Dividend Announcement

The declaration of dividends too has a great impact on the share

price of a stock, as it increases the wealth of its investors. Further, it
indicates the success of the business and helps growing the
confidence of investors. As the confidence of investors boosted, the
demand and share price of the stock will follow along. If we pay
attention to this type of announcements and dividend distribution
pattern, our chance of missing out on winning stocks in Bursa
Malaysia would be very slim.

[Link] Share Buyback Announcement

Share repurchase indicates that a stock is cheap, and the company

possesses plenty of cash. These two factors will attract the attentions
of many investors who are constantly looking for undervalued
stocks and will elevate the share price of the stock. Investors who
always keep track of the company strategy and activities will be
benefited from the announcement.

2.4 Stock Valuation

“The price of any particular security can be pictured as something resembling a

captive balloon attached, not to the ground but to a wide line travelling through
space. That line represents "intrinsic" value. As time goes on, if a company's
earning power and true prospects improve, the line climbs higher and higher. If
these or other basic ingredients of intrinsic value get worse, the line declines
correspondingly. At any one time, the psychological influences (i.e., how the
financial community is appraising these more fundamental matters of intrinsic
value) will cause the price of the particular stock to be anywhere from well
above this line to well below it. However, while momentary mass enthusiasm or
unwarranted pessimism will cause the stock price to be far above or well below
intrinsic value, it, like our captive balloon, can never get completely away from
the line of true value and will always be pulled back toward that line sooner or
later.”
Philip Fisher

After analysing the business performance of a company and adding the stock in
our shortlist, we must perform stock valuation prior to placing an order. This is
to prevent us from paying an extortionate price for the stock. No matter how
good the company is, our investment return will be greatly reduced if we pay an
unreasonably high price for the stock. Therefore, stock valuation acts as the
second defence line to protect our lifetime savings.

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That being said, it does not mean that we should use a very complex model in
our valuation work. According to Benjamin Graham, “in 44 years of Wall Street
experience and study I have never seen dependable calculations made about
common stock values, or related investment policies that went beyond simple
arithmetic or the most elementary algebra. Whenever calculus is brought in, or
higher algebra, you could take it as a warning signal that the operator was
trying to substitute theory for experience.” When we use a multi-variable model
with Greek symbols in your analysis, the likelihood of making mistakes will be
higher. Instead of focusing on the economic moat of a business and its
performance, we will just be concentrating on the precision of variables used for
valuation. As a result, our attention will be diverted to the wrong direction and
our investment thesis will be jeopardised. After all, stock valuation only helps
us find an approximate value of the business, gives our rational side a chance to
guard our investment and allows us to buy a stock at a price less than what it is
worth. Hence, the process should not be made too complicated.

2.4.1 Simple Valuation and Common Sense Judgement

When we plan to start a business, we will usually begin our planning work
by determining the income we can expect from the business. After that,
we will calculate the number of years it takes for us to get back the capital
we invest in the business. Similarly, when it comes to stock valuation, we
should, first of all, find out the company’s current earnings, current
earnings per share and future earnings and future earnings per share.
Using the data, we should subsequently find out how long the company
needs to earn you back the price you pay for the stock. If the duration is
too long, it is highly likely that the stock is overvalued.

[Link] Price-to-Earnings Ratio (and Forward Price-to-Earnings Ratio)

To calculate the duration, we can use price-to-earnings ratio (P/E or

PER) equation, which measures the current share price of the stock
in relation to its annual earnings per share. The higher the value, the
longer it takes for the company to earn us the amount of money we
pay for the stock.

However, you must note that price-to-earnings ratio is calculated

using the current earnings per share, which does not indicate the
direction towards where its stock price will be heading next year.
The price will rise if its earnings grow the following year. If we
avoid stocks with marginally higher P/E but with excellent profit
growth prospects, we will probably miss out on the growth stories.
In addition, professional fund managers always shun stocks with
poor current earnings even though the companies have tremendous
profit growth prospect. Since the fund managers are not interested in
these stocks, they are sold at low prices. If we use the current
earnings to calculate their P/E, we would also miss out on the
rewards.

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As a businessman, Koon prefers to focus on the future earnings, and

forward price-to-earnings ratio. If it is accurately estimated, we
would be highly rewarded. Forward price-to-earnings ratio measures
the current stock price in relation to the expected earnings per share.
To determine the forward price-to-earnings ratio, we must be able to
make an educated guess, or prediction about the future earnings of
the business. Again, it can only be accurately predicted if we
understand the business.

In general, Koon always looks for financially healthy companies

with P/E, and forward P/E lesser than ten (P/E < 10). This will
prevent him from overpaying for the stocks, and will increase his
chance of winning the bet.

Having said that, research studies show that investors who buy only
low P/E stocks are not always ended up winning. Stock prices
seldom drop without a cause. As investors, we should figure it out
why the price, and P/E of the stock are so low. If we pay attention to
the company’s announcements, and read its financial statements,
and annual report closely, we should be able to find out the reason.
If, indeed, the share price falls without a valid reason, the demand
for its products is high and the company’s earnings are on an
uptrend, then we should not be afraid to buy the stock.

Price-to-earnings ratio = Share price / Earnings-per-share

Forward price-to-earnings ratio

= Share price / Forecasted earnings-per-share

[Link] Dividend Yield

Another approach to determine the duration we need to get back the

money we invest in a stock is by examining the stock’s dividend
yield (D/Y), which measures the percentage of dividend we can
expect from our investment. The higher the yield, the shorter it takes
for us to get back the money we invest in the stock.

High dividend yield stocks are appealing to passive investors, and

are always in high demand. Therefore, the prices of high dividend
stocks are not cheap. If you can find a stock with a dividend yield
higher than 7%, with high earnings predictability, and its earnings
are on an uptrend, you should consider adding the stock in your
portfolio.

Note that not all high dividend stock investments will be your
winning bets. Since dividend yield is calculated based on the
dividends paid last year, the yield tends to go up when the stock
price falls during industry downturn. Being investors, we should
find out if the dividend payment is sustainable by looking at the
current earnings, earning potential, and cash flow of the firm. The

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yield will fall, and its price may drop further if the company is
unable to maintain its dividend payment.

Stocks that pay very little or no dividend may not necessarily be a

bad investment. Young companies usually do not pay dividend to
shareholders, as they need to preserve the cash for business
expansion. If we avoid high growth companies with profitable, and
promising businesses that pay no dividend to shareholders without
finding out the reason of doing so, a lot of golden opportunities will
be slipping through our fingers.

Dividend yield = Dividend per share / Share price

2.4.2 Relative Valuation

After calculating the price-to-earnings ratio, we can re-value the stock

again using relative valuation. The objective of this valuation is to find out
if the stock is fairly priced compared to its competitors with comparable
assets in the same industry. In relative valuation, it is assumed that the
market is efficient on all stocks in the same industry except the stock to be
analysed. In other words, the market is right on average but is wrong on
an individual stock.

[Link] Methodology of Performing Relative Valuation

i. To perform relative valuation, first of all, we need to select a

multiple that we would like to use for comparison. The most
commonly used multiples for relative valuation are price-to-
earnings ratio (P/E), enterprise value-to-earnings before
interest, tax, depreciation and amortisation ratio
(EV/EBITDA), enterprise value-to-earnings before interest
and taxes ratio (EV/EBIT), price-to-book ratio (P/B), price-to-
sales ratio (P/S) and etc. Since we have learned how to
calculate the P/E of a stock earlier on, let’s use P/E for relative
valuation.
ii. Subsequently, we need to list down the stock we are valuing,
and its peers on a piece of paper.
iii. Calculate the P/E of each stock.
iv. Calculate the average P/E of the stocks.
Remark: the stock we are valuing currently, and the
stocks with negative P/E should not be included in the average
P/E calculation.
v. Multiply the average P/E by the earnings-per-share (EPS) of
the stock we are valuing to find out the value of the stock.
vi. If the stock’s market price is lower than its value, it is
undervalued. The higher stock price (compared to its value),
conversely, implies that the stock is overvalued.

[Link] Use the Method Wisely

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As much as the method helps ascertaining if a stock is undervalued

or overvalued against its peers, it cannot tell us if the stock market,
in general, is undervalued or overvalued. Moreover, it does not
indicate if the industry is entering a recession.

Take Plenitude Berhad, a property stock listed on the Main Board,

as an example, it looked undervalued at the end of 2014 when the
property market was taking a turn for the worse. Its P/E was below
10, and lower than the industry average. As the property market
rolling down the hill, so was the share price of Plenitude Berhad. If
anyone bought the stock at the end of 2014, and if he or she held
onto it until 2019, his or her portfolio performance would be
adversely affected by its price dip.

As investors, prior to placing our wager, we must study the business

of the company, analyse the financial health of the company, and
only safeguard our investment with stock valuation. Ask ourselves if
the business can make more profits next year than this year, and
make increasing profits years after next year. If the answer is “no”,
we should move on to the next stock.

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2.5 Example: Latitude Tree Holding Bhd.

“You must thoroughly analyze a company, and the soundness of its underlying
businesses, before you buy its stock; you must deliberately protect yourself
against serious losses.”
Benjamin Graham

Latitude Tree Holdings Berhad is one of the multi-bagger stocks in which Koon
previously invested, and it constituted a substantial chunk of his portfolio in
2013, 2014 and 2015. When he initially shared his investment thesis on Latitude
with people, it was not well received, as they did not understand the business of
the company, and did not bother to know about its financial performance. Most
of them took punts on either stock market rock stars, or stocks in hot sectors.
After two years, it was proved that Latitude was a better investment. Its stock
price soared alongside the increasing profits, and stronger business
performance. It still makes people wondering how Latitude provided such a
spectacular return to its shareholders.

In this section, let us study why Latitude was a good investment in 2013, 2014,
and 2015, and how Koon assessed Latitude. I hope this simple, yet practical
method will help you discover multi-baggers stocks in Bursa Malaysia in future,
and help us achieve financial freedom sooner after learning about it.

2.5.1 Understanding the Business of Latitude Tree Holding Bhd.

Latitude is one of the largest publicly traded furniture manufacturers in

Malaysia by revenue. Despite its position in the industry, the company
was not closely followed by any analysts in 2013. The market
capitalisation of Latitude was only about 156 million in November 2013.

The company principally involved in wooden and rubber-wood furniture

production. Being an integrated furniture manufacturer, the company has
more control over the value chain, production expenses and transaction
costs, and is able to offer a wide range of furniture products to clients at
very low prices. As furniture order grows, the management increase their
investment in the automated system and advanced technology machinery
to reduce their long-term manufacturing costs.

In addition, it has a research and development team, comprises of

professional designers, technicians and developers, designing furniture to
cater for the tastes of different markets, to increase the range of
innovative, and attractive products, and to adapt to the fast-changing
customer needs. This investment gives the company an opportunity to
distinguish itself from its competitors.

The group operates mainly in Southeast Asia such as Vietnam, Malaysia,

and Thailand. In total, the company owns seven factories with the
manufacturing area of 7.8 million square feet. Most of its products are

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exported overseas to the United States, Europe, Canada, Australia, and

Middle East countries. The United States, being the largest market of
Latitude, accounted for 92% of its revenue in 2013.

Remark: one of the advices of Koon is to look for businesses that we can
understand because we have to be able to make an educated guess about
their future earnings. The more complex a business is, the more uncertain
our projections will be. Moreover, it is harder for an incompetent
management to make big mistake to affect the bottom line of a simple
business.

2.5.2 Assessing the Financial Performance of Latitude Tree Holding Bhd.

Having a good understanding of the business, and its outlook is not

enough, we must also analyse the financial health of the company, and
buy it below its fair price. To judge the financial status of Latitude, we
need to study the profitability, solvency, liquidity, and activity ratio of its
business.

 Profitability

First of all, we must make sure that the business made more profits
this year than last year, and will earn more profits next few years
than this year before placing our bet.

Profit growth rate (YoY)

= [(Net profit in 2013 / Net profit in 2012) – 1] × 100%
= [(Rm 32,046,000 / Rm 14,753,000) – 1] × 100%
= 117.22%

Profit growth rate (4-yr CAGR)

= {[(Net profit in 2013 / Net profit in 2009) 1/4 ] – 1} × 100%
= [(Rm 32,046,000 / Rm 13,213,000) 1/4 ] – 1 × 100%
= 24.79%

It can be clearly seen from the calculation above that the net profit
of Latitude in 2013 had increased by 117.22% from Rm 14.753
million to Rm 32.046 million. The figure was higher than that of its
4-year CAGR profit growth rate, 24.79%, and that of the industry
average, 26.62%. The surge was an early indicator showing that the
company’s net profit had started to grow rapidly in 2013, and had
grown faster than the profit growth of its competitors.

Net profit margin (NPM)

= Net profit / Sales
= (Rm 32,045,000 / Rm 493,687,000) × 100%
= 6.49%

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In addition, its net profit margin showed an improvement from

2.85% in 2012 to 6.49% in 2013, which was higher than that of the
industry average, 5.66% in 2013. This implied that the business’s
profitability was improving, and was better than that of its peers.

Return on equity
= Net profit attributable to shareholders / Shareholders’ equity
= (Rm 24,366,000 / Rm 232,061,000) × 100%
= 10.50%

Further, its return on equity demonstrated an improvement from

4.69% in 2012 to 10.50% in 2013, which was higher than that of the
industry average, 8.19% in 2013. This figure suggested that the
management is efficient in utilising the available resources to
generate profits for the company despite the growing shareholders’
equity, and decreasing debt level.

According to Koon, when he delved further into the business detail,

and the financial reports of Latitude, he noticed a few near-term
catalysts that would contribute positively to its bottom line, and
would stimulate its revenue and earnings growth despite operating
in a challenging economic environment. Some of the main catalysts
include
 higher orders,
 increased production capacity in Vietnam,
 higher production output,
 improved productivity,
 lower material costs,
 lower tax rate, attributed to the tax incentive provided by the
government of Vietnam
 strengthening of USD against MYR (refer to Figure 2.4),
 decrease in finance costs,
 upward revision of its selling prices for some products.

Figure 2.4: USD-MYR Currency Exchange Rate Chart from 2012 to 2017

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Source: Yahoo Finance

Koon started buying Latitude after performing some analysis at the

price of Rm 1.60, at the end of 2013. His judgement on the profit
growth of Latitude was proved right when its net profit continued to
increase in 2014 and 2015 (refer to Figure 2.5). In addition, its
return on equity continued to show positive growth (refer to Figure
2.6) and so as its share price (refer to Figure 2.7). He added more
shares to his winning position as the share price, and earnings of
Latitude continued to go up. After holding the stock for about three
years, he started to sell it at Rm 8.00 when the company reported
reduced earnings in 2016.

Net Profit and Net Profit Margin of Latitude

90,000,000 12.00%
11.02%
80,000,000
9.88% 10.00%
70,000,000 9.46%

Net profit margin (%)

Net profit (Rm)

60,000,000 8.00%
7.20%
50,000,000 6.49% Net profit
6.00%
40,000,000 Net profit margin

30,000,000 3.94% 4.00%

3.33%
20,000,000 2.85%
2.00%
10,000,000

0 0.00%
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Year

Figure 2.5: Net Profit and Net Profit Margin of Latitude from 2009 to 2016

Return on Equity and Shareholders' Equity of Latitude

600,000,000 20.00%
18.00%
500,000,000
Shareholders' equity (Rm)

16.00%
Return on Equity (%)

14.00%
400,000,000
12.00%
Shareholders' Equity
300,000,000 10.00%
Return on Equity
8.00%
200,000,000
6.00%
4.00%
100,000,000
2.00%
0 0.00%
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Year

Figure 2.6: Return on Equity and Shareholders’ Equity of Latitude from 2009 to 2016

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Figure 2.7: Stock Price Chart of Latitude from 2012 to 2017

Source: Yahoo Finance

Reminder: betting your money on a profitable stock with growing

profits, and good profit growth prospect will give you a higher
chance of winning the game than on a money-losing business. The
latter is more likely to continue suffering setbacks, so as its share
price. You must avoid the company, unless you can be sure that its
business has turned the corner, and will be profitable next year.

 Solvency

Subsequently, we have to ascertain the solvency of the company to

ensure that the company has the ability to meet its long-term
financial commitments. It can be done by analysing the debt-to-
EBITDA ratio, and debt-to-equity ratios of the firm.

Debt-to-EBITDA ratio
= Debt / EBITDA
= Rm 98,533,000 / Rm 56,894,000
= 1.73

Debt-to-Equity ratio
= Debt / Shareholders’ Equity
= Rm 98,533,000 / Rm 232,061,000
= 0.42

The debt-to-EBITDA ratio, and debt-to-equity ratio of Latitude in

2013 were at 1.73 and 0.42, respectively, and were still on down
trend (refer to Figure 2.8). Although the figures were slightly higher
than those of the industry averages, 1.42 and 0.17, respectively, they
were controlled at acceptable levels. If we shun stocks with higher
debt-to-EBITDA, and debt-to-equity blindly without trying to
understand their reasons of taking loans, we will probably miss out
on this type of glowing gems.

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Basic Knowledge of Fundamental Analysis

Debt to EBITDA Ratio and Debt to Equity Ratio of Latitude

3.33
3.50

3.00 2.68 2.65

2.50 2.18
Ratio (times)

2.00 1.73
Debt to EBITDA Ratio
Debt to Equity Ratio
1.50
0.93
0.81
1.00 0.63 0.70 0.69
0.58
0.49 0.42
0.50 0.28 0.22 0.17

0.00
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Year

Figure 2.8: Debt-to-EBITDA Ratio and Debt-to-Equity Ratio of Latitude

 Liquidity

Also, we must not forget to assess the company’s ability to pay its
short-term obligations. It can be done by determining the current
ratio and quick ratio of the stock.

Current ratio
= Current assets / Current liabilities
= Rm 228,528,000 / Rm 160,081,000
= 1.43

Quick ratio
= (Current assets – Inventories) / Current liabilities
= (Rm 228,528,000 – Rm 89,653,000) / Rm 160,081,000
= 0.87

As can be seen in Figure 2.10, the current ratio and quick ratio of
Latitude were lower than those of the industry averages. The current
ratio and quick ratio of Latitude in 2013 were at 1.43 and 0.87,
respectively. The current ratio and quick ratio of the industry
averages, on the other hand, were at 1.83 and 1.20, respectively. As
the management continued to pay back its debts, and continued to
build up its cash level, the current ratio and quick ratio of Latitude
improved significantly (refer to Figure 2.9), which reached the
levels of 2.62 and 1.78, respectively, in 2016.

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Basic Knowledge of Fundamental Analysis

Current Ratio and Quick Ratio of Latitude

3.00
2.62

2.50
2.03
2.00 1.78
Ratio (times)

1.63
1.43 Current Ratio
1.28 1.33
1.50
1.14 1.09 1.14 Quick Ratio
1.05
0.81 0.87
1.00
0.67 0.66
0.58

0.50

0.00
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Year

Figure 2.9: Current Ratio and Quick Ratio of Latitude from 2009 to 2016

 Activity Ratio

To prevent investing in a poorly-managed company (of which the

management cannot utilise their resources effectively), we have to
compare the total asset turnover ratio, inventory turnover ratio, and
receivable turnover ratio of the company with those of its peers.

Total asset turnover ratio

= Sales / Average total assets
= Rm 493,687,000 / Rm 450,386,000
= 1.10

Inventory turnover ratio

= Sales / Average inventory
= Rm 493,687,000 / Rm 89,653,000
= 5.51 (66 days of inventory on hand)

Receivables turnover ratio

= Net credit sales / Average accounts receivable
= Rm 493,687,000 / Rm 33,530,000
= 14.72 (25 days of credit)

In comparison, the asset turnover ratio of Latitude in 2013 was

similar to that of the industry average, 1.10. This figure implied that
the company was as efficient as its competitors in utilising their
assets to generate sales.

However, its inventory turnover ratio, 5.51, was slightly lower than
that of the industry average, 6.10. Given the increasing orders in
2013, it was sensible that the management kept more inventories so
they could fill the new orders quickly once they received them, and
to prevent shortage of stock due to unforeseen circumstances.

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Basic Knowledge of Fundamental Analysis

Moreover, sixty six days of inventory on hand signified that the

inventory moved fairly quickly. Therefore, it did not worry Koon
much about the inventory level.

Compared to its peers, its receivables turnover ratio, 14.72, was far
higher than that of the industry average, 6.92. This was a good sign
showing that the management were efficient in collecting its credit.

 Cash Flow

Just like managing our personal finances, we must make sure that
the company can continue its operation without running out of cash.
Therefore, we must analyse the free cash flow and operating cash
flow to sales ratio of the firm.

Free cash flow

= Operating cash flow – Capital expenditures
= Rm 52,879,000 – Rm 5,285,000
= Rm 47,594,000

Operating cash flow to sales ratio

= Operating cash flow / Sales
= Rm 52,879,000 / Rm 493,687,000
= 0.11

The free cash flow of Latitude, Rm 47,594,000, was in surplus in

2013, and was higher than its net profit, Rm 32,046,000, and was
also higher than the dividend paid to shareholders, Rm 6,124,000.
This was a positive sign showing that the company was in a healthy
financial state. After paying dividend to shareholders, the company
could still fund its business expansion, using the cash generated
from operation, without taking more loans.

In addition, the operating cash flow to sales ratio of Latitude, 0.11,

was higher than that of the industry average, 0.08. This indicated
that the management was more capable than their competitors in
turning sales into cash in their day-to-day operation.

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Basic Knowledge of Fundamental Analysis

Industry
Description 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Average (in 2013)
Revenue (Rm) 397,378,000 506,866,000 500,664,000 517,863,000 493,687,000 163,715,000
Net profit (Rm) 13,213,000 36,483,000 19,741,000 14,753,000 32,046,000 9,259,000
Net profit attributable to shareholders (Rm) 14,009,000 27,730,000 12,471,000 9,840,000 24,366,000 8,958,000
Adjusted earnings per share (Rm) 0.1441 0.2853 0.1283 0.1012 0.2507 0.1041
Net profit margin (%) 3.33% 7.20% 3.94% 2.85% 6.49% 5.66%
Profit growth (year over year, %) 0.00% 176.11% -45.89% -25.27% 117.22% 26.62%
Return on equity (%) 7.89% 14.45% 6.36% 4.69% 10.50% 8.19%
Debt-to-EBITDA ratio (times) 3.33 2.18 2.68 2.65 1.73 1.42
Debt-to-equity ratio (times) 0.63 0.70 0.58 0.49 0.42 0.17
Current ratio (times) 1.14 1.28 1.09 1.14 1.43 1.83
Quick ratio (times) 0.67 0.81 0.58 0.66 0.87 1.20
Total asset turnover ratio (times) 1.09 1.17 1.22 1.25 1.10 1.12
Inventory turnover ratio (times) 6.65 6.61 5.91 6.80 5.51 6.10
Receivables turnover ratio (times) 12.82 13.56 14.16 12.46 14.72 6.92
Free cash flow (Rm) 37,467,000 8,781,000 -11,990,000 22,938,000 47,594,000 9,194,000
Operating cash flow to sales ratio (times) 0.11 0.08 0.05 0.07 0.11 0.08
Adjusted dividend per share (Rm) 0.0387 0.0667 0.0200 0.0300 0.0630 0.0275
Price to earnings ratio (P/E) 6.40 9.31
Dividend yield (%) 3.94 2.84
Figure 2.10: Summary of Latitude Tree Holdings Berhad’s Financial Performance

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Basic Knowledge of Fundamental Analysis

2.5.3 Valuing the Business of Latitude Tree Holding Bhd.

To avoid paying too much for sellers, and avoid overpaying for what the
business is worth, Koon always makes sure that the Price-to-Earnings
ratio or forward Price-to-Earnings ratio of his stock does not exceed 10,
and does not exceed that of the industry average.

Chapter Summary
Price-to-Earnings ratio
= Share price / Earnings-per-share
= Rm 1.60 / Rm 0.25
 Fundamental analysis is about finding the intrinsic value of a company
= 6.40
 What do we need to excel in fundamental analysis

 ForwardtoPrice-to-Earnings
Interest ratio of a stock
understand the business
= Share price / Estimated earnings-per-share
 = Rm 1.60 / Rm
Rudimentary 0.50
accounting and finance knowledge
= 3.20
 Effort to study financial statements, annual reports, and
announcements of a company
Predicted share price of Latitude in 2015
 = Industry
The three averagestatements
main financial P/E ratio ×wePredicted earnings-per-share
should read
= 9.31 × Rm 0.50
 = Rm 4.65
Income statement: gross profit, pre-tax profit, and net profit

 The Price-to-Earnings
Balance sheet: assets,ratio and forward
liabilities, Price-to-Earnings ratio of the
and equity
stock were only about 6.40 and 3.20, respectively, when Koon started to
 accumulate
Cash flow the shares of
statement: Latitude
cash at theoperating
flow from end of 2013. Both ratios
activities, were
cash flow
lower
fromthan 10, and
investing were below
activities, the industry
and cash average
flow from P/E --activities
financing 9.31. Based on
prediction, its stock price could go up to Rm 4.65 when Mr. Market re-
 Howvalued it using
to analyse the the
valueindustry average P/E the following year. It was proved
of a company
right as the share price went up to Rm 4.65 in early 2015, and the price
 continued its dash
Step 1: know towards the level of Rm 8.00 at the end of 2015. Had
its business
anyone followed Koon to buy it at Rm 1.60 and sold it at Rm 8.00, he or
she
 wouldWhathave
kindearned about 400%
of products gain, equivalent to 124% per year, in
it offers?
the investment!
 Who the customers are?

 How its profits are derived?

 Step 2: assess the financial health of the company

i. Profitability:
Profit growth rate, net profit margin, return on equity

ii. Solvency:
Debt-to-EBITDA ratio, and debt-to-equity ratio

iii. Liquidity:
Current ratio, and quick ratio

iv. Activity ratio:

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Asset turnover ratio, inventory turnover ratio, and receivables
turnover ratio
Basic Knowledge of Fundamental Analysis

Chapter Summary (Continued)

v. Cash flow:
Free cash flow, and operating cash flow to sales ratio

 Step 3: value the stock

 Using Price-to-Earnings ratio, and forward Price-to-Earnings

ratio

 Using dividend yield

 Using relative valuation

 Do not ignore the details of financial and annual reports, and important
announcements

 Prospect of the business

 Latest development

 Segmental business performance

 Number of shares owned by the management, and major shareholders

 Other nitty-gritty of annual reports: risk and uncertainties, and

auditor’s reports

 Essential announcements: warrants, bonus and treasury shares

distribution, dividend, and share buyback announcements

 Before buying a stock, we must make sure that

 The company makes increasing profits

 The company is financially stable

 Its share price is below what the business is worth

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Basic Knowledge of Fundamental Analysis

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