ECOSYSTEM

1. Concept of and ecosystem

Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment because the latter provides
materials and energy for the survival of the former i.e. there is interaction between a biotic
community and its environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-sufficient unit which is
known as an ecosystem.
The organisms of any community besides interacting among themselves always have functional
relationship with the environment. This structural and functional system of communities and
environment is called ecological system or ecosystem.
The term ecosystem is defined as the system resulting from the integration of all the living and non-
living factors of the environment. Ecosystem are the parts of nature where living organisms interact
among themselves and with their physical environment.
The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935. An ecosystem is
the structural and functional unit of ecology (nature) encompassing complex interaction between
its biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. For example- a pond is a good example of
ecosystem. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest etc. are common examples of
ecosystems.
1.1. Characteristics of Ecosystem
According to Smith (1966), the ecosystem has the following general characteristics:
1. It is a major structural and functional unit of ecology.
2. Its structure is related to its species diversity; the more complex ecosystems have high species
diversity and vice versa.
3. Its function is related to energy flow and material cycling through and within the system.
4. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure. The
more complex the structure, the lesser the energy it needs to maintain itself.
5. It matures by passing from fewer complexes to more complex states. Early stages of each
succession have an excess of potential energy and a relatively high energy flow per unit biomass.
Later (mature) stages have less energy accumulation and its flow through more diverse components.
6. Both the environment and the energy fixation in any given ecosystem are limited and cannot be
exceeded without causing serious undesirable effects.
7. Alternations in the environment represent selective pressures upon the population to which it
must adjust. Organisms which are unable to adjust to the changed environment must necessarily
vanish.
2. Structure of the Ecosystem
All ecosystems, whether terrestrial, fresh water, marine or man-engineered, consist of following major
components:
1. Species components
2. Stratification
3. Trophic organisation—relationship of food between various layers
4. Nutrients—required for living organisms
These are broadly classified into two major components-
(1) Abiotic
(2) Biotic

2.1. Biotic (living) components

This comprises of all the living organisms. On the nourishment (or trophic) standpoint, they may
be divided into two categories:
2.1.1. Producer: The autotrophs (autotrophic = self nourishing)
These are green plants and certain photosynthetic or chemosynthetic bacteria which can convert the
light energy of sun into potential chemical energy in the form of organic compounds needed by
plants for their own growth and development. Oxygen is produced as a by-product of
photosynthesis, needed by all living organisms for respiration. These green plants are also known
as producers because they produce food for all the other organisms.
2.1.2. Consumer: The heterotrophs (heterotrophic = other nourishing)
They are dependent directly or indirectly upon the autotrophs for their food. The organisms involved
are also known as consumers because they consume the materials built up by producers. These may
be subdivided into two kinds:
a. Macroconsumers (or Phagotrophs, Phago = to eat)
These are organisms which ingest food and digest it inside their bodies. They may be herbivores
(plant eating), carnivores (= animal eating), or omnivores (= eating all kind of food). The
herbivores are primary consumers. For example, insects like grass hopers, chew up stems and
leaves, animals like goat, cow, deer and rabbit eat up entire aerial portion of green plants, and man
eats up plant products, are all primary consumers. Frog, a carnivore, is a secondary consumer as it
eats the herbivores, the snake that eats the frog is a tertiary consumer, there is also a class of top
consumers, which are not killed and eaten by any other animals e.g. lion, tiger, leopard, vulture, etc.
The macroconsumers are of four types, namely:
(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:
These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores. Examples
are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:
The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the pri-mary carnivores. Examples are cats,
foxes, snakes etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:
These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. Example are Wolves.
(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:
These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any
other animal. Examples are lions and tigers.
b. Microconsumers (Saprotrophs, sapro = to decompose, or osmotrophs, osmo = to pass
through a membrane)
These are the organisms which secrete digestive enzymes to breakdown food into simpler
substances and then absorb the digested food. They are mostly parasitic and saprophytic bacteria,
actinomycetes and fungi. They are also known as decomposers because of their role in
decomposition of dead organic matter. However, the parasites are not decomposers and also some
consumers (e.g. insects and such small animals) also which help in decomposition by breaking
down the organisms into small bits. Keeping this in view, Wiegert and Owens (1970) suggested
the classification of heterotrophs into two categories, biophages (= feeding on living organisms)
and saprophages (= feeding on dead organic matter). Decomposers breakdown the complex
compounds of dead or living protoplasm, absorb some of the decomposition products and release
inorganic nutrients which are cycled back to the soil and the atmosphere from where they are once
again made available to the primary producers.
Such a division of organisms based on the type of nutrition gives rise to the trophic structure of the
ecosystem and the energy source used which is one kind of producer-consumer arrangement, where
each food level is known as trophic level. The amount of living material in different trophic levels
or in a component population is known as the standing crop, a term applicable to both, plants as
well as animals. The standing crop may be expressed in terms of organism’s mass, which can be
measured as living weight, dry weight, ash-free dry weight or carbon weight or calories or any other
convenient unit suitable for comparative purposes.
In nature simple food chains occur only rarely. There are several food chains linked together, and
intersecting each other to form a network known as food web.
2.2. Abiotic components
Structurally abiotic components include -
1. Climate regime: Precipitation, temperature, light, and other physical factors.
2. Inorganic substances: Elements such as C, N, H, O, P, S, etc., involved in material cycles.
3. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humic substances that link the abiotic
components with the biotic components (for details see any elementary book on ecology).
4. The minerals and atmospheric gases keep on cycling. They enter into biotic systems and after the
death and decay of organisms return to the soil and atmosphere. This is known as biogeochemical
cycle. This circulation of materials involves trapping of the solar energy by the green plants which
are ultimately lost by the organisms in several ways.
 The amount of abiotic materials present in an ecosystem is called standing stage.
3. Functions of an ecosystem
The function of the ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of materials which ensures
stability of the system and continuity of life. These two ecological processes including interaction
between the abiotic environment and the communities. For the sake of convenience, the ecosystem
dynamics may be analysed in terms of the following:
(i)Productivity,
(ii) Decomposition,
(iii) Physical (energy flow),
(iv) Biological (food chains, food web, ecological succession), and
(v) Biogeochemical (nutrient cycling) processes
3.1. (I) PRODUCTIVITY
A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem to function and sustain.
Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over
a time period by plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g m–2) or energy (kcal
m–2). The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is expressed in terms of g m-2 yr–1 or kcal
m–2 yr –1 to compare the productivity of different ecosystems. It can be divided into gross primary
productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).
Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilised by plants in respiration. Gross primary
productivity minus respiration losses (R), is the net primary productivity (NPP).
GPP – R = NPP
Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores
and decomposers). Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by
consumers.
Factors Affecting Primary Productivity
1. Type of plant species present
2. Environmental conditions (climate, temperature, light)
3. Availability of nutrients
4. Photosynthetic capacity of plants
2. Variation in Productivity
1. Productivity varies across different ecosystems due to environmental differences.
3. Global Productivity
1. Annual global NPP ≈ 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter.
4. Distribution of Productivity
• Oceans:
• Cover ~70% of Earth’s surface
• Contribute ≈ 55 billion tons
 • Land ecosystems:
• Contribute the remaining productivity

(II) DECOMPOSITION
Role of Earthworms
Earthworms are called the farmer’s “friend”. They help in:
1. Breakdown of complex organic matter
2. Loosening and aeration of soil
Similarly, decomposers break down complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon
dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition. Dead plant remains such as leaves,
bark, flowers and dead remain of animals, including fecal matter, constitute detritus, which is the raw
material for decomposition.
Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is called
fragmentation.

Major Steps of Decomposition

The important steps in the process of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism,
humification and mineralisation.
A. Fragmentation
• Breakdown of detritus into smaller particles. It is carried out by organisms called detritivores.
• Detritivores: Organisms that feed on detritus. Example: Earthworms
 B. Leaching
• Water-soluble inorganic nutrients percolate down into the soil horizons.
• These nutrients may get precipitated as unavailable salts.
C. Catabolism
• Decomposition of detritus into simpler inorganic substances by:
• Bacteria
• Fungi (via enzymes)
D. Humification
Formation of a dark-colored, amorphous substance called humus.
Characteristics of humus:
• Highly resistant to microbial decomposition
• Decomposes very slowly
• Colloidal in nature
• Acts as a reservoir of nutrients
E. Mineralisation
Further degradation of humus by microorganisms.
Results in the release of inorganic nutrients into the soil.
Factors Affecting Decomposition
1. Oxygen Requirement
• Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring (aerobic) process.
2. Controlling Factors
• The rate of decomposition depends on:
• Chemical composition of detritus
• Climatic factors
3. Effect of Chemical Composition
• Slower decomposition:
• Detritus rich in lignin and chitin
• Faster decomposition:
• Detritus rich in nitrogen
• Presence of water-soluble substances (e.g., sugars)
4. Climatic Factors
• Important factors:
• Temperature
 • Soil moisture
5. Role of Soil Microbes
• Temperature and moisture influence microbial activity, which regulates decomposition.
6. Favourable Conditions
• Warm and moist environment:
• Enhances microbial activity
• Increases decomposition rate
7. Unfavourable Conditions
• Low temperature and anaerobic conditions:
• Reduce microbial activity
• Slow down decomposition
• Lead to accumulation of organic matter
(III) ENERGY FLOW
The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all living organisms. This energy
is transmitted to different trophic levels along the food chain. This energy flow is based on two different
laws of thermodynamics:
First law of thermodynamics, that states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only
change from one form to another.
Second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred more and more of it is wasted.
The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival of such a great
number of organisms. For almost all organisms on earth, the primary source of energy is solar energy.
It is amusing to find that we receive less than 50 per cent of the sun’s effective radiation on earth. When
we say effective radiation, we mean the radiation which can be used by plants to carry out
photosynthesis.
Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually reflected back into space by the earth’s
atmosphere. This effective radiation is termed as the Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR).
Overall we receive about 40 to 50 percent of the energy having Photosynthetically Active Radiation
and only around 2-10 percent of it is used by plants for the process of photosynthesis. Thus, this percent
of PAR supports the entire world as plants are the producers in the ecosystem and all the other organisms
are either directly or indirectly dependent on them for their survival.
The energy flow takes place via food chain and food web. During the process of energy flow in the
ecosystem, plants being the producers absorb sunlight with the help of the chloroplasts and a part of it
is transformed into chemical energy n in the process of photosynthesis.
This energy is stored in various organic products in the plants and passed on to the primary consumers
in the food chain when the herbivores consume (primary consumers) the plants as food and convert
chemical energy accumulated in plant products into kinetic energy, degradation of energy will occur
through its conversion into heat.
Then followed by the secondary consumers. When these herbivores are consumed by carnivores of the
first order (secondary consumers) further degradation will occur. Finally, when tertiary consumers
consume the carnivores, again energy will be degraded. Thus, the energy flow is unidirectional in nature.
Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain that
is known as their trophic level. Producers belong to the first trophic level, herbivores (primary
consumer) to the second and carnivores (secondary consumer) to the third.

The important point to note is that the amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. When
any organism dies, it is converted to detritus or dead biomass that serves as an energy source for
decomposers. Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level for their energy
demands. Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called as the
standing crop.
The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit
area. The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight.
Moreover, in a food chain, the energy flow follows the 10 percent law. According to this law, only 10
percent of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other; rest is lost into the atmosphere.
Ecological Energetics
In ecological energetics one is mainly interested in the (i) quantity of solar energy reaching an
ecosystem, (ii) quantity of energy used by green plants in the process of photosynthesis and (iii) the
quantity and path of energy flow from producers to consumers.
In the earth’s atmosphere about 15 X 108 calories m-2 yr-1 of solar energy is received (Phillipson, 1966).
About 34% of the solar radiations reaching the earth’s atmosphere is reflected back into space by clouds
and the suspended dust particles in the atmosphere; 9% is further held by ozone, water vapour and other
atmospheric gases. Remaining 47% reaches the earth’s surface. In fact, only 1 to 5% of the energy
reaching the ground is converted by green plants to chemical energy, and 42 to 46% is absorbed as heat
by ground, vegetation or water. Water budget showed that 45% of the incoming radiation was dissipated
by transpiration of 370 t ha-1 of water from the crop. The quantity of solar radiation received at any
place not only depends upon the clarity of the atmosphere, but also on the latitude of the area. The
equatorial region receives maximum solar radiation followed by other regions of the tropics. The
quantity of energy goes on decreasing with increase in latitude both in the northern and southern
hemispheres.

The behaviour of energy in ecosystem can be conveniently termed as energy flow because of
unidirectional energy transformations. Total energy flow that constitutes the energy environment has
already been dealt in detail, and now we take up the study of that portion of the total energy flow that
passes through the biotic components of the ecosystem. Entrance of energy, its retention within the
ecosystem and dissipation into space, are governed by two laws of thermodynamics. According to the
first law, the law of conservation of energy, in a closed system, no energy comes in or escapes out and
not created or destroyed but may be altered from one form to another. The second law of
thermodynamics, the law of entropy, states that there is always a tendency for increase in entropy or
degradation from a concentrated (non-random) to a dispersed (random) form leading to dissipation of
heat. All the energy entering the earth‘s surface can be accounted for. Some energy is used in
photosynthesis; the rest is used in converting the water into vapours or heating the soil and air.
Ultimately the energy reflected back to outer space as heat. The light energy fixed by green plants in
the process of photosynthesis may be represented by the following equation:
Out of the amount of energy so fixed by green plants, some is released again in respiration. The
fixed energy, in the form of food, then passes from plant source through herbivores to carnivores. At
each stage of food transfer, potential energy is released, resulting in further loss of a large part of energy.
The energy flow, thus follows the second law of thermodynamics.
(III) BIOLOGICAL
(A)Food Chain
The transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of organisms (herbivores to carnivores
to decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten, is known as food chain.
In nature, basically two types of food chains are recognized – grazing food chain and detritus food
chain.
Food chains and energy flow are the functional properties of ecosystems which make them dynamic.
The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are linked through them.
There are two types of food chains:
(i)Grazing food chains: which starts from the green plants that make food for herbivores and
herbivores in turn for the carnivores. Ecosystems with such type of food chain are directly dependent
on an influx of solar radiation.
This type of chain thus depends on autotrophic energy capture and the movement of this captured energy
to herbivores. Most of the ecosystems in nature follow this type of food chain.
A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted below:
The phytoplanktons →zooplanktons →Fish sequence
or
the grasses →rabbit →Fox sequences are the examples, of grazing food chain

(ii) Detritus food chains: start from the dead organic matter to the detrivore organisms which in turn
make food for protozoan to carnivores etc.
The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is made up of decomposers which
are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient
requirements by degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known as saprotrophs (sapro:
to decompose).
Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into simple,
inorganic materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them.
In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow. As against this, in a terrestrial
ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain than through the GFC.
Detritus food chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels: some of the organisms
of DFC are prey to the GFC animals, and in a natural ecosystem, some animals like cockroaches, crows,
etc., are omnivores.
Parasitic food chain
Parasitic food chain is also an auxiliary food chain. It begins with the host and usually end in parasite.
(B) Food web
Simple food chains are very rare in nature because each organism may obtain food from more than one
trophic level. Thus, in an ecosystem, the various food chains are interconnected to each other to form a
network called food web. A food web illustrates all possible transfers of energy and nutrient among the
organisms in an ecosystem, whereas food chain traces only one pathway of food. Food webs are very
important in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem.
(III) ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
An important characteristic of all communities is that their composition and structure constantly change
in response to the changing environmental conditions. This change is orderly and sequential, parallel
with the changes in the physical environment. These changes lead finally to a community that is in near
equilibrium with the environment and that is called a climax community.
The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of a given area is called
ecological succession.
During succession some species colonise an area and their populations become more numerous,
whereas populations of other species decline and even disappear. The entire sequence of communities
that successively change in a given area are called sere(s). The individual transitional communities are
termed seral stages or seral communities. In the successive seral stages, there is a change in the
diversity of species of organisms, increase in the number of species and organisms as well as an increase
in the total biomass. The present-day communities in the world have come to be because of succession
that has occurred over millions of years since life started on earth. Actually, succession and evolution
would have been parallel processes at that time. Succession is hence a process that starts where no
living organisms are there – these could be areas where no living organisms ever existed, say bare rock;
or in areas that somehow, lost all the living organisms that existed there. The former is called primary
succession, while the latter is termed secondary succession.
Primary succession: Primary succession is the series of community changes which occur on an entirely
new habitat which has never been colonized before. For example, a newly quarried rock face or sand
dunes. The establishment of a new biotic community is generally slow.
Secondary succession: Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic communities have
been destroyed such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded.
Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession.
Succession of Plants
Based on the nature of the habitat – whether it is water (or very wet areas) or it is on very dry areas –
succession of plants is called hydrarch or xerarch, respectively. Hydrarch succession takes place in
wetter areas and the successional series progress from hydric to the mesic conditions. As against this,
xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series progress from xeric to mesic conditions.
Hence, both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic) – neither too
dry (xeric) nor too wet (hydric). The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
In primary succession on rocks these are usually lichens which are able to secrete acids to dissolve
rock, helping in weathering and soil formation. These later pave way to some very small plants like
bryophytes, which are able to take hold in the small amount of soil. They are, with time, succeeded by
bigger plants, and after several more stages, ultimately a stable climax forest community is formed.
The climax community remains stable as long as the environment remains unchanged.
In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the small phytoplanktons, they are replaced with time
by rooted-submerged plants, rooted-floating angiosperms followed by free-floating plants, then
reedswamp, marsh-meadow, scrub and finally the trees. The climax again would be a forest. With time
the water body is converted into land.

In secondary succession the species that invade depend on the condition of the soil, availability of water,
the environment as also the seeds or other propagules present. Since soil is already there, the rate of
succession is much faster and hence, climax is also reached more quickly.
Xerosere refers to a type of plant succession which is limited by the availability of water. It occurs in
dry areas. The series of events progress from xeric to mesic condition.
Primarily, the pioneer species secrete acids on the rocks. It is done mostly by lichens. Then rocks get
dissolved, weathering takes place. Weathering leads to soil formation. Initially, less soil is formed, so
the plants which can survive with little soil occupy the area and grow. This happens during primary
succession. Usually, bryophytes take this leading role. Over time, these small plants are succeeded by
bigger species. After some more stages like this, a stable stage is obtained and the climax community
is formed. Thus, a mesic condition is approached as a xerophytic habitat turns into a mesophytic habitat.

Hydrarch succession starts on shallow water, such as ponds and lakes, and terminates in a mature
forest, this will form a stable climax community from hydric to mesic conditions.
Stages in hydrarch succession:
1. Phytoplankton Stage

• Pioneer stage with algae, bacteria, phytoplankton, zooplankton.

• Low nutrients initially.
• Dead organisms form muck layer, enriching nutrients.
2. Submerged Stage

• Nutrient-rich bottom supports submerged plants (Hydrilla, Vallisneria).

• Dead plants deposit, making pond shallower.
3. Floating Stage

• Floating plants (Trapa, Pistia, Nymphaea) dominate.

• Block sunlight → submerged plants die.
• Pond becomes more shallow due to silt and decay.
4. Reed-Swamp Stage
• Amphibious plants (Typha, Phragmites) grow.
• Dense vegetation reduces light and water depth.
5. Sedge Meadow Stage
• Marshy land with grasses and sedges (Cyperaceae, Gramineae).
• Water decreases → soil becomes mesic.
6. Woodland Stage
• Shrubs and small trees (Salix, Alnus) appear.
• Soil becomes rich in humus and nutrients.
7. Climax Stage
• Formation of stable forest community.
• Dominated by woody trees.
• Balanced, climate-dependent ecosystem.
In secondary succession the species that invade depend on the condition of the soil, availability of
water, the environment as also the seeds or other propagules present. Since soil is already there, the rate
of succession is much faster and hence, climax is also reached more quickly.
What is important to understand is that succession, particularly primary succession, is a very slow
process, taking maybe thousands of years for the climax to be reached. Another important fact is to
understand that all succession whether taking place in water or on land, proceeds to a similar climax
community – the mesic.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF VARIOUS ECOSYSTEMS
Homeostatis, Management and Optimization of Ecosystem
Ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and self-regulation as their component population and
organisms. However, they have a delicate balance of inputs and outputs, and this balance is often
insufficient to avoid instability. The term homeostatis (homeo = same; statis = standing) is generally
applied to the tendency for biological system to resist change and to remain in a state of equilibrium.
An essential feature of such regulatory mechanism is the process of feedback operating both at the level
of individual and the entire system.
Many of the large-scale human activities- industrial, agricultural or transport - tend to alter the natural
balance of biotic and abiotic components in a stable ecological system. These activities frequently lead
to acceleration of hydro geochemical cycles, disturbance of input-output balances, accumulation of
toxic substances such as hydrocarbons, metals and gases, overproduction or depletion of certain
essential substances, and eutrophication. All these involve simplification of ecosystem resulting into
shortening of food webs, decrease in species diversity and counteraction of forces of natural selection
and organic evolution has developed a theory of ecosystem stability based on energy-matter constraints
in living systems.
Some important features of the theory are:
1. Ecosystems have a zerostate trending tendency, pertinent to stability. The concept of stability
incorporates two ideas, (a) resistance to change, and (b) restoration to the near original state after the
change has occurred;
2. Curtailment of energy and material inputs tends to lead decay or extinction of ecosystems to zero
state; such decay is guaranteed by the second law of thermodynamics;
3. Ecosystems have only one free (unforced) equilibrium, the zero state;
4. Ecosystems tend to revert to nominal, no equilibrium dynamics when perturbed by uniformly
vanishing disturbances;
5. Ecosystems have only one forced steady state;
6. Ecosystems are structurally stable;
7. Ecosystems adapt and evolve in small degrees by parameter variation within fixed structure, and
8. Ecosystems adapt and evolve in large degrees by structure variation.
Proper management is essential for maintaining the stability of the ecosystem. This will require an
adequate knowledge of the nature and kinds of system components, functional relationship between
them, and the degree of tolerance and resistance to the environmental strain and stress has listed the
following features contributing to stabilization of ecosystem:
(a) tolerance to extreme and harsh conditions, (b) ability for rapid recovery upon the recurrence of
favourable growth conditions, (c) flexible and opportunistic feeding habitat, (d) nomadic migration
of animals, etc.
Similarly, some destabilizing features include: (i) sensitivity to damage to reserves, (ii) sensitivity to
lagging components, (iii) low density, biomass and productivity, and (iv) sensitivity to soil erosion.
Evolution of Ecosystems
Life began on earth more than three billion years ago. The first ecosystems then were populated by tiny
anaerobic heterotrophs that lived on organic matter synthesized by abiotic processes. Following the
origin and population explosion of algal autotrophs, which converted a reducing atmosphere into an
oxygenic one, organisms have evolved through the long geological ages into increasingly complex and
diverse systems that (i) have achieved control of the atmosphere and (ii) are populated by larger and
more highly organized multi cellular species.
Within this community component, evolutionary change is believed to occur principally through natural
selection at below the species level, but natural selection above this level may also be important,
especially (i) co evolution, i.e., the reciprocal selection between interdependent autotrophs and
heterotrophs, and (ii) group or community selection, which leads to the maintenance of traits favourable
to the group. Similarities between major biomass or ecosystems in respect to ecosystem structure and
function can be attributed to evolutionary convergence as a consequence of their evolution under similar
environmental conditions.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Major Ecosystems
Various ecosystems like a pond, a lake, a river, a stream, a spring, an estuary, the sea, a forest, grassland,
a desert, a coral reef and a cropland are operating as self-sufficient interacting systems in the biosphere.
These ecosystems have a more or less similar fundamental plan of their gross structure and function.
However they differ in respect of their species composition and productivity rates. In brief, organization
pattern of some of the major ecosystems is described here.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystems: Terrestrial ecosystems are classified into various types based on
temperature and annual rainfall. A few examples of terrestrial ecosystems are listed below:
a. Grassland Ecosystems
b. Forest Ecosystems
c. Desert Ecosystems
d. Cropland Ecosystems
2. Aquatic Ecosystems: Aquatic ecosystems are majorly two types:
a. Freshwater/Inland Ecosystems
b. Marine/Saltwater Ecosystems
1. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
A. GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS
• Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae) however, sedge
(Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) families can also be found along with variable proportions of
legumes, like clover (legume) and other herbs.
• Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica.
• Grassland cover around 25% of the earth’s surface.
WHAT IS GRASSLAND ECO-SYSTEM?
A grassland ecosystem is the collection of plants, animals and micro-organisms that live within an
environment where grasses are the primary form of vegetation. Examples of grassland ecosystems
include the prairies of western North America, the Pampas of Argentina and the Russian steppes.
CHARACTERS OF GRASSLAND
• Grasslands are dominated by grasses with few or no tress.
• They develop in areas where there is not enough rain for a forest, therefore referred to as a traditional
landscape.
• Grasslands are found in both temperate and tropical areas where rainfall is between 250mm-900mm
per year.
 • Annual average temperture from -5 to 20°C.
• Some grassland occurs in colder (-20 °C) and hotter (30°C) climatic conditions.
• It can be natural or a result of human activity.
• Grasslands are also one of the most endangered biomes and easily turned to desert.
• In Australia they are one of the most threatened habitats.
IMPORTANCE OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
• They are natural carbon sink.
• Important for raising livestock for human consumption and for milk and other dairy products.
• Grasslands provided home to many different animals that were hunted and domesticated.
• They maintain biodiversity.
• Protects restored habitat for many plants and animals including pheasant, ducks, songbirds and
endangered species.
COMPONENTS OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
1. Abiotic components
These include nutrients present in soil and the atmosphere. Thus the elements like C, H, O, N, P, S, etc.
are supplied by carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates and sulphates present in air and soil of the
area.
2. Biotic components: These are as follows:
Fauna of the Grasslands
• Grassland have high number of invertebrates than any other taxonomic group
• Most reptiles and amphibians are predators Few bird species inhibit grasslands
• Small mammals like moles, shrews, squirrels are present in North American Grassland
Plants of the grasslands
• • When rainy season arrives, many grasslands become coated with flowers, some of which
can survive well into winter with the help of underground storage organs and thick stem
bases.
• • Grasslands are the most agriculturally useful habitat to humans.
• • Soils tend to deep and fertile, perfect for cropland and pastures.
a) Producers
They are mainly grasses, as species of Dichanthium, Cynodon, Desmodium, Dactyloctenium, Digitaria,
Setaria, Sporobolus, etc. Besides them a few forbs and shrubs also contribute to primary production.
b) Consumers: These are as follows:
i) Primary consumers
The herbivores feeding on grasses are mainly such grazing animals as cows, buffaloes, deers, sheep,
rabbit, mouse, etc. Besides them, there are also present some insects as Leptocorisa, Dysdercus,
Oxyrhachis, Cicindella, Coccinella, some termites and millipeds, etc. that feed on the leaves of grasses.
 ii) Secondary consumers
Snake, lizard, birds, jackals, fox, etc. are common secondary consumers which feed on herbivores.
iii) Tertiary consumers
These include hawks which feed on secondary consumers.
c) Decomposers
Several fungi (Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Rhizopus, Fusarium, etc.),
actinomycetes and bacteria decay the dead organic matter of different forms of higher life. They bring
about minerals back to the soil, thus making them available to the producers.
TYPES OF GRASSLANDS
1. Tropical and subtropical grasslands
• These grasslands can be classified as the savannas and shrublands biome.
• The rainfall level for that grassland type is between 90-150 centimeters per year.
• Grasses and scattered trees are common for that ecoregion, as well as large mammals, such as
wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and zebra (Equus zebra).
• Example: Notable tropical and subtropical grasslands include the Llanos grasslands of South
America.
2. Temperate grasslands
• Mid-latitude grasslands, including the prairie and Pacific grasslands of North America, the Pampas
of Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, and the steppes of Europe.
• Temperate grasslands are the home to many large herbivores, such as bison, gazelles, zebras,
rhinoceroses, and wild horses. Carnivores like lions, wolves, cheetahs and leopards are also found in
temperate grasslands.
• Other animals of this region include deer, prairie dogs, mice, jack rabbits, skunks, coyotes, snakes,
foxes, owls, badgers, blackbirds, grasshoppers, meadowlarks, sparrows, quails, hawks and hyenas.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TEMPERATE AND TROPICAL GRASSLAND

Temperate Grassland Tropical Grassland

Located in the temperate latitude Located in the tropical latitude

The grass is tall (3m) coarse and spiky which is

Grass is very short, soft, juicy and nutritive neither juicy nor nutritive and there are scattered
deciduous trees

They have treeless plains as rainfall is less Soil is not very fertile
 Temperate Grassland Tropical Grassland

Soil is very fertile Very dry climate

3. Flooded grassland
• Grasslands that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like the Everglades of Florida, the Pantanal of
Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay or the Esteros del Ibera in Argentina, are classified with flooded
savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome and occur mostly in the tropics and subtropics.
• The species that live in these grasslands are well adapted to the hydrologic regimes and soil conditions.
• The Everglades (in florida)- the world's largest rain-fed flooded grassland - is rich in 11,000 species
of seed-bearing plants, 25 species of orchids, 300 bird species, and 150 fish species.
• Water-meadows (area controlling irrigation) are grasslands that are deliberately flooded for short
periods.
4. Montane grasslands
• High-altitude grasslands located on high mountain ranges around the world, like the Páramo of the
Andes Mountains.
• They are part of the shrublands biome and can be tropical, subtropical, and temperate.
• The plants and animals, that can be found in the tropical montane, are able to adapt to cool, wet
conditions as well as intense sunlight.
5. Tundra grasslands
• Similar to montane grasslands, polar Arctic tundra can have grasses, but high soil moisture means.
• However, during the Pleistocene glacial periods (commonly referred to as ice ages), a grassland
known as steppe-tundra or mammoth steppe occupied large areas of the Northern Hemisphere.
• These areas were very cold and arid and featured subsurface permafrost (permanently frozen layer of
earth hence tundra) but were nevertheless productive grassland ecosystems supporting a wide variety
of fauna.
• As the temperature increased and the climate became wetter at the beginning of the Holocene much
of the mammoth steppe transitioned to forest, while the drier parts in central Eurasia remained as a
grassland, becoming the modern Eurasian steppe.
6. Desert and xeric grasslands
• Also called desert grasslands, they are composed of sparse grassland ecoregions located in the deserts
and xeric shrublands biome.
• Temperature extremes and low amount of rainfall characterize these kinds of grasslands.
• Therefore, plants and animals are well adapted to minimize water loss.
❖ THREATS TO GRASSLAND ECO-SYSTEM
• Continuous global warming could turn current grasslands into deserts as rainfall patterns change.
 • Development of urban areas, increasingly cutting grassland habitat.
• Invasive species: drought-heardy, cold-resistant, and herbicide-tolerant varieties of soybeans, wheat
and corn allow crops to expand into native grassland.
• Poor agriculture practices: without crop rotation.
• Monocropping: Where only one crop is grown, pests and disease can spread easily, creating need for
potentially toxic pesticides.
• Grazing livestock
❖ CONSERVATION OF GRASSLANDS
• Preventing illegal wildlife hunting
• Prevents grassland from turning into brush land
• Prevent grassland fires
• Prevent overgrazing by cattles and introduced stall feeding
• Creating protected areas such as Parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
• Continue education efforts
• Restore wetlands
B. FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Forests are natural plant communities with dominance of phanerophytes and occupy nearly 40% of the
land. In India, the forests occupy roughly 10% of the total land area.
What Is a Forest Ecosystem?
A forest ecosystem is an ecosystem of forests and resources. Forests are renewable natural resources.
Forests are formed by a group of plants that are structurally defined by their trees, shrubs, herbs,
climbers, and ground cover. Soil, animals, insects, microorganisms, and birds are the most important
interacting units of a forest ecosystem. In India, the forests occupy about 18-20% of the total land area.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM
1. Warm temperatures and sufficient rainfall are characteristics of forests, resulting in the formation of
numerous ponds, lakes, etc.
2. The forest maintains climate and rainfall.
3. The forest supports many wild animals and protects biodiversity.
4. The soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients, which support the growth of trees.
FUNCTIONS OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM
1. Goods Obtained from Forests: There are various types of food products such as honey, wild meat,
fruits, mushrooms, palm oil and wine, and medicinal plants obtained from forests. Other than edible
parts, we can obtain timber, wood biomass, cork, etc. from forests. The fuel can be extracted from old
trees that are buried under the soil.
2. Ecological Functions: Forests play an important role in maintaining ecological factors such as
climate, carbon storage, nutrient cycling, and rainfall.
3. Culture and Social Benefits: The tribal people who live in the forests treat forests as nature
goddesses. The traditional beliefs and spirituality save wild animals from hunters and cutting down of
trees by urban people. A few modern people visit forests for recreation.
COMPONENTS OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM-
1. Abiotic Components of the forest include inorganic and organic components present in the soil along
with temperature, rainfall, light, etc.
2. Biotic Components are represented by producers, consumers, and decomposers
1. Abiotic components
These include inorganic and organic substances present in the soil and atmosphere. The climate
(temperature, light, rainfall, etc.) and soil (minerals) vary from forest to forest. In addition to minerals
the occurrence of litter is characteristic feature of majority of forests.
2. Biotic components
a) Producers
These are mainly trees that show much species diversity and greater degree of stratification especially
in tropical moist deciduous forests. Besides trees, there are also present shrubs and ground vegetation.
In these forests, the producers include the dominant tree species such as Tectona grandis, Butea
frondosa, Shorea robusta and Lagerstroemia parviflora. In temperate coniferous forests, shrubs and
ground flora are insignificant. In temperate deciduous forests the dominant trees are species of Quercus,
Acer, Betula, Thuja, Picea, etc., whereas in temperate coniferous forests, the producer trees are species
of Abies, Picea, Pinus, Cedrus, Juniperus, Rhododendron, etc.
b) Consumers
These are as follows:
i) Primary consumers
These are the herbivores that include smaller animals feeding on tree leaves as ants, flies, beetles, leaf
hoppers, bugs, spiders, etc., and larger animals grazing on shoots and/ or fruits of producers as elephant,
neelgai, deer, moles, squirrels, shrews, flying foxes, mongooses, etc.
ii) Secondary consumers
These are the carnivores like snakes, birds, lizards, fox, etc. feeding on the herbivores.
iii) Tertiary consumers
These are the top carnivores like lion, tiger, etc., that eat carnivores of secondary consumers level.
c) Decomposers
These are wide variety of microorganisms including fungi (species of Aspergillus, Polyporus,
Alternaria, Fusarium, Trichoderma, etc.), bacteria (species of Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Clostridium,
etc.), and actinomycetes (species of Streptomyces). Rate of decomposition in tropical and subtropical
forests is more rapid than in the temperate ones.
d) Nutrient Cycle: The nutrient cycle is cyclic. For the proper functioning of ecosystems, nutrients are
required. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen constitute about 95 to 98 % of the mass of living
organisms. About 15 to 20 other elements are also needed in relatively small amounts. These are
recycled repeatedly between the living and non-living components of the ecosystem.
e) Energy Flow: In a forest ecosystem, the grass, which draws its nutrition from sun, soil and water, is
eaten by the grasshopper, which in turn is eaten by frogs, snakes, and vultures in succession (different
trophic levels).
In this process of eating and being eaten, nutrients are passed from one step to the next in a food chain.
The flow of energy that occurs along a food chain is called energy flow. The pyramid of energy
represents the total quantity of energy at each trophic level of a food chain. The flow of energy is always
unidirectional.
What Are the Types of Forest Ecosystems?
There are a few types of forest ecosystems listed below:
1. Tropical Evergreen Rainforest: Only a small percentage of tropical forests are rainforests where
average rainfall is 80-400 inches in a year. This forest is characterized by deep and dense vegetation
consisting of tall trees reaching different levels.
2. Tropical Deciduous Rainforest: The main characteristic of tropical deciduous rainforest are broad-
leaved trees along with dense bushes, shrubs, etc. Two main seasons – summer and winter – are
distinctly visible there. This type of forest is found in many parts of the world. A large variety of flora
and fauna are found here.
3. Temperate Evergreen Forest: Temperate evergreen forest is a type of forest that is characterized by
a smaller number of trees but an adequate number of ferns and mosses.
4. Temperate Deciduous Forest: Temperate deciduous forest evolves in the moist temperate region
with sufficient rainfall. Here also, winter and summer are well defined, and trees shed their leaves during
winter. Dominant trees are maple, oak, peach, etc.
5. Taiga/Boreal: Situated just south of the Tundra, Taiga is characterized by evergreen conifers. The
average temperature is below the freezing point for almost half of the year.
C. DESERT ECOSYSTEM
• Desert ecosystems are among the most extreme and least-favorable habitats on the planet, with
severe climatic conditions. The ecosystem is ecologically relevant to only those species that are
specifically adapted to such severe conditions and contribute to the Earth’s environmental
equilibrium.
• The desert ecosystem is characterized by limited water supplies, sparse vegetation, and
intensive temperature variations. They may not be only made up of dunes but also can be rocky,
cold, or dominated by shrublands.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DESERTS
• Deserts are defined as arid climatic zones receiving less than 250 mm of rainfall annually. This
low level of precipitation limits the presence of surface water which strongly affects soil
composition, vegetation, and the life of organisms residing in that habitat.
• Aridity– The precipitation rate is much less than the evaporation rate which creates a deficit
between both phenomena and thus leads to aridity.
• Extreme temperatures– Hot deserts have scorching day temperatures and cool nights whereas
cold deserts have chilly winter temperatures and extreme summers.
• Sparse vegetation– The vegetation is sparse with plants adapted to retain water and endure
harsh conditions.
 • Soil- Soils in deserts are dry, sandy, or stony with very little or no organic matter and poor
water-holding capacity.
• Wind-wind erosion is more prevalent in desert areas sculpting dunes, rock outcrops, and desert
pavements.
• Based on climatic and geographical conditions, deserts are classified into four broad categories.
The types are as follows-
TYPES OF DESERTS
a. Hot and dry deserts: They are characterized by
• High temperatures– Hot and dry deserts are characterized by high temperatures that are
approximately 45 degrees Celsius or above during the daytime.
• Very low Precipitation– The precipitation is less than 100 mm per year in some regions.
• Low humidity– Low humidity leads to large diurnal temperature ranges.
• Vegetation– The natural vegetation is distributed with drought-tolerant plants such as cacti,
acacias, and small shrubs.
• Examples of hot and dry deserts: Sahara, Thar, Sonoran, and Mojave.
b. Semi-Arid Deserts
Semi-arid deserts experience a little more rainfall and more moderate temperatures than hot
deserts. They are generally transitional regions amid deserts and grasslands.
• Temperature– Temperature ranges between 10°C and 38°C.
• Precipitation: It ranges between 250-500 mm of rainfall per annum.
• Vegetation: It comprises shrubs, grasses, and xerophilous perennials.
• Animal life: Comprises rodents, reptiles, and small carnivorous mammals.
• Examples of Semi-Arid Deserts: Sagebrush steppes of Utah and Montana (USA), and regions
of Central Asia.
c. Coastal Deserts
Coastal deserts are present along the western coastlines of continents where cold ocean currents
bar moisture from reaching land.
• Climate: Cool and dry with regular fog but scarce rain.
• Temperature: Coastal deserts are cooler than hot deserts, with high aridity nonetheless.
• Vegetation: Dispersed, usually sustained by fog drip rather than rain.
• Examples of Coastal Deserts: Atacama Desert (Chile), and Namib Desert (Namibia).
d. Cold Deserts
Cold deserts are present at elevated altitudes and latitudes, which are marked by:
• Cold winters: Winters are characterized by snowfall and below-zero temperatures.
• Cool summers: Summers are characterized by warm or mild temperatures in the growing
season.
 • Precipitation: It is usually in snow form.
• Vegetation: Mosses, lichens, and shrubs that are resistant to cold.
• Examples of Cold Deserts: Gobi Desert (China and Mongolia), Great Basin Desert (United
States), and Antarctica (polar desert).

Desert Ecosystem Six Biogeographic Domains

Deserts across the world are grouped into different biogeographic domains based on their location,
climate, and ecological features. There are six main desert regions:
Australian Deserts: These deserts are located in the interior of Australia and are extremely dry. They
have very low population density, often less than one person per square kilometre, making them some
of the least populated deserts in the world.
Afrotropical Deserts: These deserts are found mainly in Sub-Saharan Africa and also extend into parts
of the Arabian Peninsula. Human activities have put pressure on these ecosystems, especially in regions
like Madagascar and the Horn of Africa.
Indo-Malay Region: This region includes deserts like the Thar Desert and areas around the Indus
Valley. It has a high human population, and human impact on the environment is quite strong. It is also
known as the Oriental region.
Neotropical Deserts: These deserts are spread across South America, Central America, and the
Caribbean.A large portion lies in South America, but only a small part (about 6%) is protected, which
raises concerns for conservation.
Nearctic Deserts: These are found in North America, covering a large area. Due to urban development,
especially in cities like Phoenix, human population and activities are increasing in these desert regions.
Palearctic Domain: This is the largest desert domain in the world, covering about 63% of all desert
areas. It includes famous deserts like the Sahara Desert. These deserts are known for their extreme
dryness and difficult terrain, and in some areas, there are mountains, basins, and varied landscapes.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM ADAPTATIONS
Adaptations in Desert Plants

• Desert plants have developed special features (adaptations) to survive in very hot and dry
conditions.
• One of the most important adaptations is water storage. Many plants, like cacti, store water in
their thick stems or leaves so they can survive for long periods without rain. They also have a
waxy coating on their surface, which helps reduce water loss.
• Some desert plants have very long roots (taproots) that go deep into the ground to reach
underground water. Others have shallow roots that spread widely to quickly absorb rainwater
when it falls.
• Many plants also have small leaves or no leaves at all. This reduces the loss of water through
evaporation. In some cases, leaves are modified into spines (like in cactus) which also help
protect the plant from animals.
• Certain desert plants can become dormant (inactive) during very dry periods and start growing
again when it rains.
• For example, the cactus is well adapted to desert life. It can grow tall, store large amounts of
water, and live for many years even in extreme conditions.
• Another example is the Mugma Tree, which has small upward-growing leaves. These leaves act
like a funnel during rainfall, directing water towards the base of the plant, where it is absorbed
by its roots.
Additional Adaptations

• Some plants open their stomata at night to reduce water loss (CAM photosynthesis)
• Seeds of some plants remain inactive for years and grow only after rainfall
• Light-colored surfaces help reflect sunlight.
Adaptations in Desert Animals
1. Desert animals survive in very harsh conditions such as extreme heat during the day, cold
nights, and very little water availability. To live in such an environment, they have developed
special adaptations.
2. One of the most important adaptations is water conservation. Many desert animals can survive
for long periods without drinking water. For example, the camel can go for many days without
water because it stores fat in its hump, which can be converted into energy and water.
3. Camels also have several physical adaptations:
✓ Long legs that keep their body away from the hot sand
✓ Thick fur that protects them from heat during the day and cold at night
✓ Closable nostrils to prevent sand from entering
✓ Long eyelashes to protect their eyes from dust and sunlight
✓ Wide, padded feet that help them walk on sand without sinking
4. Many desert animals are nocturnal, meaning they are active at night when temperatures are
lower. This helps them avoid the extreme daytime heat.
5. Animals like the desert fox survive by living in burrows. Burrowing helps them stay cool during
the day and protects them from predators.
The desert fox also has large ears, which help in releasing excess body heat. Its light-colored
fur reflects sunlight and provides camouflage in the sandy environment.
6. Reptiles such as snakes and lizards are common in deserts because they can survive with very
little water. They get most of their moisture from the food they eat.
7. Some animals, like the kangaroo rat, can survive without drinking water at all. They obtain
water from seeds and produce very little urine to conserve water.
8. Many desert animals show behavioral adaptations such as:
✓ Panting to reduce body heat
✓ Hiding in shade or burrows during the hottest part of the day
✓ Becoming inactive (aestivation) during extremely dry conditions
9. Some animals also migrate seasonally to areas with better conditions when food and water are
scarce.
10. Desert animals often have light-colored bodies, which help reflect sunlight and keep their
bodies cooler.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM SIGNIFICANCE

• Desert ecosystems support a wide variety of plants and animals. Even though conditions are
harsh, many unique species live here and are specially adapted to survive.
• These plants and animals are interdependent. They form food chains and food webs, which help
in maintaining the ecological balance of the desert.
• Desert soils contain microorganisms like bacteria, which play an important role in nutrient
cycling. Some of these bacteria can store carbon dioxide (CO₂), helping the desert act as a
carbon sink and reducing the amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere.
• Deserts are rich in mineral resources such as natural gas, oil, and valuable minerals. These
resources are important for economic development and energy production.
• Deserts have unique landforms such as sand dunes, rocky plateaus, and oases. These features
make deserts geographically important and interesting to study.
• The presence of oases supports human settlements and agriculture in otherwise dry regions by
providing water and fertile land.
D. CROPLAND ECOSYSTEM
This is an artificial or man - engineered ecosystem aimed primarily to grow a single species of one‘s
choice. To secure maximum production, man makes much planned manipulation in the physico-
chemical environment. These include addition of fertilizers to the soil, use of chemicals for disease
control, proper irrigation practices, etc. This may include the dominant species like maize, sugar-cane,
jowar, paddy, vegetables, etc.
COMPONENTS
The following are the main components of a maize cropland ecosystem:
Abiotic components
These include the climatic conditions of the region, where the crop may grow most successfully, and
the various minerals and gaseous elements such as C, H, O, N, P, K in soil and atmosphere. Maize
generally grows best in slightly alkaline soil with good aeration.
Biotic components
These occur in the following order:
a) Producers
In the field, in addition to dominant species of maize, a number of weeds like Cynodon dactylon,
Launaea nudicaulis, Euphorbia hirta, Cyperus rotundus, Digitaria species., and Alysicarpus also
contribute to primary production of the field.
b) Consumers
These are as follows:
i) Primary consumers
These are herbivores. The smaller animals include chiefly the insects as aphids, thrips, beetles, etc.,
which feed and lay their eggs on maize leaves. The larger animals include birds, rats, rabbits and man
feeding on leaves, flowers and fruits on the crop.
ii) Secondary consumers
These are carnivores like frogs and some birds that eat insects.
iii) Tertiary consumers
Snakes and hawks belong to this category which can eat frogs and small birds, respectively.
c) Decomposers
Several microbes such as actionmycetes, fungi and bacteria found in soil and climate decompose dead
organic matter of plants as well as animals and help in circulation of minerals making available them
to producer again.
(2) Aquatic Ecosystem
An ecosystem which exists in a body of water is known as an aquatic ecosystem. The communities of
living organisms which are dependent on each other and the aquatic surroundings of their environment
for their survival exist in the aquatic ecosystems. The aquatic ecosystems are mainly of two types, the
freshwater ecosystems and the marine ecosystems.
(a) Marine Ecosystem
Marine ecosystems are the biggest ecosystems. They cover around 71% of earth’s surface and also
contain almost around 97% of the total water present on earth. High amounts of minerals and salts are
generally present in the water in the marine ecosystems and to better understand the amount and
composition of the different minerals and salts in the water in different marine ecosystems. Marine
ecosystems differ from freshwater ecosystems in that they contain saltwater, which usually supports
different types of species than does freshwater. Marine ecosystems are the most abundant types of
ecosystems in the word. They encompass not only the ocean floor and surface but also tidal zones,
estuaries, salt marshes and saltwater swamps, mangroves and coral reefs.
Abiotic components
Marine environment, as compared with fresh water, appears to be more stable in chemical composition
due to being saline (35 parts of salts by weight per 1000 parts of water, while salinity of fresh water is
less than 0.5%), and moreover other physico-chemical factors such as dissolved oxygen content, light
and temperature are also different. About 27% is NaCl; most of the rest consists of Ca, Mg, and K salts.
Water is strongly buffered. The concentration of dissolved nutrients is low and constitutes an important
limiting factor to determine the size of marine populations. Waves of various kinds and tides prevail
there. Like ponds and lakes, ocean show distinct zonation.
Biotic components
This category includes phytoplanktons and larger marine plants. The former group includes diatoms
and dinoflagillates. The latter group includes sea weeds (algae) belonging to chlorophyceae,
phaeophyceae and rhodophyceae; and angiosperms. Ruppia, Zostera, Posidonia, Halophila, Enhalus,
etc. are true marine angiosperms while various species of Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, Carapa,
Aegiceros, etc., represent the mangrove complex- tidal woodlands
a) Consumers
These are heterotrophic macroconsumers, being dependent for their nutrition on the primary producers.
These are:
i) Primary consumers
The herbivores that feed directly on producers are chiefly crustaceans, mollusks, fish, etc.
ii) Secondary consumers
Carnivorous fishes, such as Herring, Shad, Mackerel, etc. are included in this group.
iii) Tertiary consumers
Fishes like Cod, Haddock, etc. are the tertiary or top consumers.
b) Decomposers
They are chiefly bacteria and some fungi which participate actively in decomposition of dead organic
matter.
Estuarine ecosystem
An estuary is a semiclosed coastal body of water that has a free connection with sea. It is strongly
affected by tidal action, and within it sea water is mixed with fresh water from land drainage. River
mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes and bodies of water behind barrier beaches are some of the
examples. Estuaries are generally productive because of water flow subsidises an abundant of nutrients.
The chief biotic components of estuarine ecosystem are as follows:
a) Producers
Macrophytes- marsh grasses, sea weeds, sea grasses, benthic algae and phytoplankton.
b) Consumers
Oysters, crabs, several kinds of shrimp and many commercial sport fish.
(b) Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystems are very small in magnitude as compared to the marine ecosystems as these
covers only 0.8% of the earth’s surface and only account for 0.009% of the total water present on earth.
There are three basic kinds of freshwater ecosystems and these are Lentic, Lotic, and Wetlands. The
lentic ecosystems are slow-moving or still water like ponds or lakes. Lotic ecosystems are fast-moving
water like rivers. The wetlands are those systems where soil remains saturated for a long period of time.
Many different species of reptiles, amphibians, and around 41% of the world’s fish species live in these
ecosystems. The faster moving waters contain more dissolved oxygen than the slow moving waters and
hence support greater biodiversity.
Pond Ecosystems – These are usually relatively small and contained. Most of the time they include
various types of plants, amphibians and insects. Sometimes they include fish, but as these cannot move
around as easily as amphibians and insects, it is less likely, and most of the time fish are artificially
introduced to these environments by humans.
River Ecosystems – Because rivers always link to the sea, they are more likely to contain fish alongside
the usual plants, amphibians and insects.
These sorts of ecosystems can also include birds because birds often hunt in and around water for small
fish or insects.
POND ECOSYSTEM
A pond is a quiet body of water that is too small for wave action and too shallow for major temperature
differences from top to bottom. It usually has a muddy or silty bottom with aquatic plants around the
edges and throughout. However, it is often difficult to classify the differences between a pond and a
lake, since the two terms are artificial and the ecosystems really exist on a continuum.
Generally, in a pond, the temperature changes with the air temperature and is relatively uniform. Lakes
are similar to ponds, but because they are larger, temperature layering or stratification takes place in
summer and winter, and these layers turnover in spring and fall.
A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or artificial, that is usually smaller than a lake.
They may arise naturally in floodplains as part of a river system, or they may be somewhat isolated
depressions (examples include vernal pools and prairie potholes). Usually they contain shallow water
with marsh and aquatic plants and animals. A few animals also make their home in ponds, including
both alligators and beavers. The type of life in a pond is generally determined by a combination of
factors including water level regime (particularly depth and duration of flooding) and nutrient levels,
but other factors may also be important, including presence or absence of shading by trees, presence or
absence of streams, effects of grazing animals, and salinity.
Ponds are frequently human-constructed. In country side farmers and villagers dig a pond in their
backyard or increase the depth of an existing pond by removing layers of mud during summer season.
A wide variety of artificial bodies of water are classified as ponds. Some ponds are created specifically
for habitat restoration, including water treatment. Others, like water gardens, water features and koi
ponds are designed for aesthetic ornamentation as landscape or architectural features. Fish ponds are
designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy. Standing
bodies of water such as puddles, ponds, and lakes are often categorized separately from flowing water
courses, such as a brook, creek, stream or river.
Nutrient levels and water quality in ponds can be controlled through natural process such as algal
growth, or through artificial filtration, such as an algae scrubber.
 A small artificial garden pond at the Dhopa Talab Palace in Bareilly, India
Ponds get their energy from the sun. As with other ecosystems, plants are the primary producers. The
chlorophyll in aquatic plants captures energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water to
organic compounds and oxygen through the process of photosynthesis. Nitrogen and phosphorus are
important nutrients for plants. The addition of these substances may increase primary productivity.
However, too many nutrients can cause algal blooms, leading to eutrophication.
CHARACTERISTICS
One of the most important features of ponds is the presence of standing water, which provides habitat
for wetland plants and animals. Familiar examples might include water-lilies, frogs, turtles and herons.
Often, the entire margin of the pond is fringed, and these wetlands support the aquatic food web, provide
shelter for wildlife, and stabilize the shore of the pond. Some grazing animals like geese and muskrats
consume the wetland plants directly as a source of food. In many other cases, however, the pond plants
fall into the water and decay.
A large number of invertebrates then feed on the decaying plants, and these invertebrates provide food
for wetland species including fish, dragonflies and herons. The open water may allow algae to grow,
and these algae may support yet another food web that includes aquatic insects and minnows. A pond,
therefore, may have combinations of three different food webs, one based on larger plants, one based
upon decayed plants, and one based upon algae. Hence, ponds often have a large number of different
animal species using the wide array of food sources. They therefore provide an important source of
biological diversity in landscapes.
Vernal ponds are ponds which dry up for part of the year. Naturally occurring vernal ponds do not
usually have fish. They are called vernal ponds because they are typically at their peak depth in the
spring ("vernal" means to do with the spring). The absence of fish is a very important characteristic,
since it provides amphibians with breeding locations free from predation by fish. Hence, introducing
fish to a pond can have serious detrimental consequences. In some parts of the world, such as California,
the vernal ponds have rare and endangered plant species.
COMPONENTS
PRODUCERS
1. Phytoplankton, literally “wandering plants,” are microscopic algae that float in the open water and
give it a green appearance. They carry out photosynthesis using carbon dioxide that is dissolved in the
water and release oxygen that is used by the bacteria and animals in the pond. Phytoplankton are not
actually plants-they are protists!

2. Periphytic algae are microscopic algae that attach themselves to substrates and give the rocks and
sticks a greenish brown slimy appearance. They also carry out photosynthesis and produce oxygen,
often near the bottom of the pond where it can be used by decomposers.
3. Submerged plants grow completely under water Floating plants include plants that float on the surface
and plants that are rooted on the bottom of the pond but have leaves and/or stems that float.
4. Emergent plants are rooted in shallow water but their stems and leaves are above water most of the
time.
5. Shore plants grow in wet soil at the edge of the pond.

CONSUMERS
✓ Zooplankton are microscopic animals that eat phytoplankton or smaller zooplankton.
✓ Some are single-celled animals, tiny crustaceans, or tiny immature stages of larger animals.
✓ Zooplankton float about in the open water portions of the pond and are important food for some animals.
Invertebrates include all animals without backbones. Macroinvertebrates are big enough to be seen with
the naked eye. Some of them are only found in clean water.
✓ Vertebrates are animals with backbones. In a pond these might include fish, frogs, salamanders, and
turtles.

DECOMPOSERS
Animal waste and dead and decaying plants and animals form detritus on the bottom of the pond.
Decomposers, also known as detritovores, are bacteria and other organisms that break down detritus
into material that can be used by primary producer thus returning the detritus to the ecosystem. As this
material decomposes it can serve as a food resource for microbes and invertebrates. During decay
microbes living on detritus can pull nutrients from the overlying water thus acting to improve water
quality. In the process of breaking down detritus, decomposers produce water and carbon dioxide.
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

Ponds, being small, are easily disrupted by human activity such as hikers. Drainage of ponds is a
frequent problem in agricultural areas, such as in the prairie potholes of India. Although ponds are a
useful source of water for cattle, overgrazing and wading can turn a pond into a muddy hole. Nutrient
sources such as fertilized pastures, human sewage, and even lawn fertilizer can cause explosive growth
of algae, and the loss of rooted plants and many other aquatic species. Roads near ponds can kill large
numbers of amphibians and turtles that may migrate to and from the pond as part of their annual
breeding cycle. Many well-intentioned people introduce fish to ponds, being unaware that some species
of fish eat aquatic plants, stir up sediment and eat the young of amphibians and many invertebrate
species. The gentle slope of land into ponds also provides an expanse of habitat for wetland plants and
wet meadows. The construction of retaining walls, or lawns, can severely degrade the life in a pond.

In some landscapes, ponds are artificially constructed, perhaps to provide wildlife viewing
opportunities, or to treat wastewater, or as part of a golf course. The design of a pond determines how
productive it will be for wildlife. In general, gently sloping shorelines with broad expanses of wetland
plants not only provide the best conditions for wildlife, but they help protect water quality from sources
in the surrounding landscapes. It is also beneficial to allow water levels to fall each year during drier
periods. Roads and houses should be kept as far away as possible. Another important way to add ponds
back into landscapes is to restore rivers so that they can flood and meander to create large numbers of
natural ponds, including vernal pools and wetlands, in river valleys.

USES OF POND

Globally, the most important service provided by a pond, at many scales, is the production of fish and
other wildlife. These are often also a source of food for humans, as well as an important source of
recreation. At the same time, these ponds help maintain water quality by recycling nutrients. In the
Indian subcontinent, Hindu temples usually have a pond nearby so that pilgrims can take baths. These
ponds are considered sacred.
In medieval times in Europe, it was typical for many monastery and castles (small, partly self-sufficient
communities) to have fish ponds. These are still common in Europe and inEast Asia (notably Japan),
where koi may be kept.
Waste stabilization ponds are used as a low-cost method for wastewater treatment. In agriculture,
treatment ponds may reduce nutrients released downstream from the pond. They may also provide
irrigation reservoirs at times of drought.
 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
The concept of ecological pyramids was developed by Charles Elton (1927), the pioneer British
Ecologist. There is some sort of relationship between the number, biomass and energy content of the
primary producers, consumers of the first and second orders and so on to top carnivores in the
ecosystem. This relationship may be represented graphically by means of pyramids which is referred to
as ecological pyramids, where the first or producer level forms the base of the pyramid and the
successive levels (the tiers) making the apex. Ecological pyramids are of three general types: (i)
Pyramid of numbers, showing the number of organisms at each trophic level (number m- 2), (ii)
Pyramid of biomass, showing the total dry weight or any other suitable measure of the total amount of
living matter (g m-2), and (iii) Pyramid of energy, showing the amount of energy flow and/or
productivity at successive trophic levels (calories m-2 year-1).

Characteristics of the Ecological Pyramid

The following are the characteristics of an ecological pyramid:

• The ecological pyramid comprises two to four layers.

• Organisms that are dependent on the same type of food sources are placed at the same level.

• The producers are situated at the lowest level of an ecological pyramid with a huge population.

• The apex predators exist at the topmost level of an ecological pyramid with a relatively smaller
population.

• The pointed shape of the pyramid is because the supply of energy or biomass becomes less with
each passing level of the pyramid.

• In the case of the pyramid of numbers, the topmost level will have a lesser number of
individuals, but their relative body size and volume will increase.

Types of Ecological Pyramid

The ecological pyramid is of three types: the pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of biomass, and the
pyramid of energy.

PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

The relationship between the number of producers, consumers of primary, secondary and tertiary orders
constitutes the pyramid of numbers. The form of the pyramid of numbers will vary widely with different
communities, depending on whether producers are small (phytoplankton, grass) or large (oak trees).
Sometimes, number of individuals varies so widely that it is difficult to represent the entire ecosystem
on the same numerical scale. Such data could best be presented in a tabular form.

In a grassland, the producers which are mainly grasses, are always maximum in number. This number
then shows a successive decrease towards apex, as the primary consumers (herbivores), which are
rabbits, mice, etc., are lesser. in number than the grasses; the secondary consumers, the snakes and
lizards are lesser in number than the rabbits and mice. Finally, the top (tertiary) consumers, the hawks
and birds, are least in number. Thus, the pyramid becomes upright.
Similarly, in pond ecosystem, the pyramid is upright. Here the producers, which are mainly
phytoplanktons as algae, bacteria, etc. are maximum in number; the herbivores which are very small
fish, rotifers, etc., are lesser in number than the producers; and the secondary consumers (carnivores),
such as water beetles and small fish, etc., are lesser in number than the herbivores. Finally, the top
(tertiary, consumers), the bigger fish and birds are least in number.

In a forest ecosystem, however, the pyramid of numbers is somewhat different in shape the producers
which are mainly large-sized trees are lesser in number, and form base of the pyramid. The herbivores,
which are the fruit eating birds, deers, etc., are more in number than the producers. Then, there is a
gradual decrease in the number of successive carnivores, thus making the pyramid again upright one.

However, in a parasitic food chain, the pyramids are always inverted. This is due to the fact that a
single plant may support the growth of many herbivore birds and each one of these, in turn, may provide
nutrition to several hyperparasites like bugs and lice. Thus from the producers towards consumers, the
number of organisms successively shows an increase, making the pyramid inverted one. In crop
ecosystem, the pyramid is upright one where primary consumers, viz., grasshoppers are lesser in number
than the crops; frogs, snakes, and eagle- the primary, the secondary and the top consumers respectively
are present in decreasing number.

PYRAMIDS OF BIOMASS

In this type of pyramid, the relationship between different trophic levels is presented in terms of weight
of organisms (biomass).

In grassland and forest, there is generally a gradual decrease in mass of organisms at successive levels
from the producers to the top consumers. Thus, pyramids are upright.

In an aquatic ecosystem (like pond), however, the biomass of producers is least. This value gradually
shows an increase towards the apex of the pyramid, thus making the pyramid inverted one. In this case
the biomass of diatoms and phytoplanktons (primary consumers) that feed on them. The biomass of
large carnivore fishes (secondary consumers) which feed on smaller fishes is the highest of all the
trophic levels. In English Channel the biomass of primary producers is only 4 g m-2 whereas that of the
consumers is 21 g m-2. Infact, this is the case in most aquatic bodies. In lakes and sea, on the other hand,
the phytoplanktons usually outweigh their grazers (zooplanktons) during periods of high primary
productivity, as during the spring “bloom”, but at other times, as in winter the reverse may be true. This
difference in biomass trend can be explained if the time is also taken into account.
PYRAMID OF ENERGY

The pyramid of energy represents the total quantity of energy utilized by different trophic level
organisms of an ecosystem per unit area over a set period of time (usually, per square metre per year).
The primary producers of an ecosystem trap the radiant energy of the sun and convert it into potential
chemical energy. This trapped energy flows in the food chain from the producers to the top carnivores,
decreasing at successive trophic levels. If the relationship of total quantity of energy utilized in unit area
over a particular period of time by different trophic levels is diagrammatically represented, an upright
pyramid is invariably formed.

As against the pyramid of numbers and biomass, the shape of the pyramid of energy is always upright
because in this the time factor is taken into account.

In a grassland the green plants (primary producers) trap the maximum light energy in a particular area
over a fixed period of time.

Similarly, in a pond ecosystem, the phytoplanktons, in a particular area, trap and accumulate much more
energy than the herbivore fishes in the course of year because of their large numbers and quicker rate
of multiplication. Comparatively, the amount of energy utilized in a year by the top carnivores is much
less than that of herbivore fishes.

Of the three types of pyramids as discussed above, the energy pyramid gives by far the best overall
picture of the functional role of communities in an ecosystem. This is because of the fact that energy
pyramid is a picture of rate of passage of food mass through the food chain, whereas number and
biomass pyramids are pictures of standing states, i.e. organisms present at any moment. Its shape is
invariably an upright one, and not affected by variation in the size and metabolic state of individuals, if
all the sources of energy in the ecosystem are considered. The number and biomass pyramids on the
other hand, may be upright or inverted depending upon the size and biomass of the producer organisms
as compared to consumers.

Importance of the Ecological Pyramid

The ecological pyramid is important in a biological system due to the following reasons:
 • An ecological pyramid takes into account the dietary patterns of various living organisms.

• The ecological pyramids take into account the number of living creatures in an ecosystem.

• It gives clarity on how much energy is moved to start with one trophic level and then onto the
next level of the ecosystem.

• It gives data about the biodiversity of a region.

• The ecological pyramid is framed based on the food-consumer relationship.

• If the food chain order is disturbed, the biological pyramid will be disturbed, and the entire
environment will be seriously harmed.

• It helps in keeping up with equilibrium and helps in checking the entire state of a biological
ecosystem.

Limitations of the Ecological Pyramid

The following are the limitations that the system of the ecological pyramid possesses:

• The ecological pyramid does not take into account the saprophytes and treats them as non-
living components of the environment, even though they have a significant part in maintaining
the equilibrium of the environment.

• There is no inclusion of diurnal or occasional varieties in this pyramid; the idea of environment
or seasons is totally unassumed here.

• The ecological pyramid is relevant only in the event of straightforward food chains, not
considering the complex food webs.

• This pyramid specifies nothing about the pace or speed at which energy moves from one trophic
level to the next trophic level.

• Significant sources of energy like litter and humus are totally overlooked in the ecological
pyramid, even though their significance in the environment is unrivalled.

• Similar species existing at various levels in a pyramid are not considered.