CHAPTER 13 DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 {37 } 01211149920TAXONOMY -It is the science of describing, naming and class the organisms share. ifying organisms according to the cl Carl Linnaeus was the scientist who clas groups. ied every organism into a number of taxonomic He developed a binomial system for naming organisms; the first part is the genus and the second partis the speci Kingdom is the most general, consisting of the most varied organisms, and species is the most specific, consisting of organisms that are the most similar. ‘The more characteristics the organisms share, the more closely related they are. There are & levels of classifications: Domain — Kingdom — Phylum — Class —> Order — Family — Genus — Species * 1f2 organisms belong to the same order, they must also belong to the same class. 2 members of the same genus should be more closely related than organisms of the same class or family. The most inclusive taxonomic category will be the broadest; the kingdom includes more than one phylum. The sequence is important; class is the fourth level and family is the sixth level of organization, * Domains represent the largest differences between organisms based on DNA analysis (sequence of nucleic acids) which reflects the evolutionary history and relationships between organisms. There are 3 domains. Domain Bacteria, Domain Archaea, Domain Eukarya. = The first 2 domains both are prokaryotes while the third domain includes all the eukaryotes and it contains the familiar 4 kingdoms (Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia). DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { a8 } 012111499201) Domain bacteria: It has | kingdom (Eubacteria) ‘*Allare unicellular prokaryotes with no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Bacterial DNA isa single, cireular chromosome, double stranded, but the ends of the strands are joined in a circle, This helps to protect the DNA from damage. Its DNA contains exons only. ‘* Some are photosynthetic autotrophs (cyanobacteria; blue-green algae), while others are heterotrophs. Auxotroph is an organism that requires supplementary nutrition. Most bacteria are not auxotrophs (wild type). These bacteria can synthesize all the building blocks in presence of a carbon source as glucose, This type grows easily in petri dish on agar plates with glucose, but it may need help by adding substance that it can’t synthesize. If certain bacteria can’t synthesize amino acid arginine, it will be denoted arg- auxotrophs. And if it can synthesize leucine, then it would be denoted leu+. The substance which can’t be synthesized by the bacteria must be added to the growth medium of the bacteria to grow. ‘* Most bacteria need oxygen (obligate aerobes). Some are poisoned by oxygen (obligate anaerobes). Some bacteria will use oxygen if itis available, but they can survive by fermentation if there is no oxygen (facultative anaerobes). * Bacteria play a role in genetic engineering as bacteria from the human intestine, Escherichia coli, used to manufacture human insulin. This bacteria form mutualistic relationship with the human body feeding on the undigested food and providing the body with vitamin K, vitamin B, folic acid. ‘+ Many bacteria are pathogens causing disease, as streptococcus that cause pneumonia, while others help the human fight disease-causing bacteria, Many bacterial diseases are treated with antibiotics and many can be prevented by vaccinations. Usually, the antibiotic interferes with the replication, translation of prokaryotic cells but not eukaryotic cel antibiotics are used to inhibit its growth. ‘* Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission in which one single celled organism splits into 2 single celled organisms of the same size. This is a great way of increasing the numbers of bacteria, but it doesn’t allow for any genetic recombination (diversity, which can lead to evolution) Bacteria can have genetic recombination (mix up the DNA) in 3 different ways; transformation (pick up new DNA from the extracellular environment), conjugation (a primitive form of sexual reproduction, where individuals replicate its DNA and exchange it with other bacteria as in resistance to antibiotics) and transduction (a virus carries DNA from one bacteria to another during infection). ‘* Bacteria can be cultured (make colonies) using nutrient agar to make laboratory experiments to show the effect of antibiotics on the bacteria or its resistance to antibiotics after certain incubation perio. DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 19 ) 01211149920‘* Bacteria are important to life on earth because they are decomposers that recycle dead organic matter, Some are used in nitrogen fixation in nitrogen cycle 2) Domain Archaea: It has 1 kingdom (Archaebacteria). They are unicellular prokaryotic with no nucleus (as bacteria) but they are different from bacteria; they share chromosomal characteristics with Domain Eukarya. They are extremophiles; can live in extreme harsh environments that most other organisms can’t tolerate, as very high temperature (extreme thermophiles), very high salt concentration (extreme halophiles) and methanogens (extreme anaerobes that release methane gas as a waste product). 3) Domain Eukarya: They are eukaryotes, all organisms have a nucleus and internal organelles. It includes 4 Kingdoms. The classification of organisms into different kingdoms is based on the structure of organisms’ cells and how the organisms obtain nutrition. A) Kingdom Protista: F Itincludes the widest variety of organisms. Most are single-celled but many are primitive multicelled organisms, Some animal-like protista are called protozoan and some are plant- like called algae (multicellular, as red, brown or green algae), - They include heterotrophs (as amoeba and paramecia) and autotrophs (as euglenas, which have a red eyespot to locate light and chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis). Also, diatoms are unicellular organisms that are autotrophic phytoplanktons, > Amoeba engulf its food by phagocytosis, while paramecia have a ciliated oral groove that facilitates the creation of the food vacuole. Excretion occurs by simple diffusion. > Amoeba reproduce asexually by binary fission, Paramecia reproduce sexually by conjugation. > Protista move by various means: amoeba use pseudopods, paramecia use cilia, euglena use flagella, Protista may cause serious diseases like amoebic dysentery (caused by amoeba) and malaria (caused by protozoan Plasmodium), DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885, { aa } 01211149920B) Kingdom Fungi: y All are heterotrophic eukaryotes. They can be either unicellular (as yeast) or muticellular. Fungi have cell walls made of chitin, not cellulose. They have no means of movement ry out extracellular digestion by secreting hydrolytic enzymes outside the body After digestion, the building blocks of the nutrients are absorbed into the body of the fungus by diffusion. ‘They are important in the ecosystem as decomposers, some are parasit combine s. Certain fungi algae in mutualistic, symbiotic relationship forming lichen. They reproduce asexually by budding (as yeast) under anaerobic conditions, the most fit yeast produce the most buds. They can reproduce also by spore formation (as bread mold) or fragmentation where a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into whole new individuals. They also reproduce sexually. Another example is the mushroom and the fungus that cause athlete's foot. Some fungi are poisonous, called aflatoxin, which may cause cancer. Some may be useful as penicil fungus used to make penicillin antibiotie that kills certain bacteria C) Kingdom Plantae: ‘They are multicellular, nonmotile and autotrop! eukaryotes, Their cell wall is made of cellulose. Some plants have vascular tissue (tracheophytes) and some have no vascular tissue (bryophytes), Examples include mosses, ferns, and cone-bearing and flowering plants. Plants provide nutrients, habitat and energy for all other organisms. D) Kingdom Animalia: ¥ ‘They are heterotrophic, multicellular eukaryotes. Animals are divided into 2 major groups, invertebrates (don’t have a backbone) and vertebrates (belong to the phylum chordata). They are grouped in 35 phyla but the most common are 9, The way of classifying animals is based on anatomical features (homologous structures) & embryonic development. Most ate motile; can move on their own, Most animals reproduce sexually. In most species, a small flagellated sperm fertitizes a larger nonmotile egg. They have specialized sense organs which help them to respond quickly to their environment. Animals depend on plants for food; depend on bacteria and fungi to recycle the nutrients found in dead organisms. Sponges are considered the simplest animals. DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 32 } 01211149920Evolutionary trends in animals: Organisms began as tiny primitive and single-celled. They lived in the oceans; the first multicellular eukaryotes evolved about 1.5 billion years ago. The appearance of each phylum of animals represents the evolution of a new and a successful body plan. The important trends include: 1) Specialization of tissues: specialized cells, tissues and organs. «) The cell is the basic unit of all forms of life. Ex: a neuron. 1) A tissue is a group of simi cells that perform one particular function. Ex: facial nerve, ©) Ao organ is a group of different tissues working together to perform related jobs. Ex: brain. «)) An organ system is a group of organs working together to do a certain job, Ex: nervous system, > Sponges (porifera) consist of loose united cells which are not considered a tissue because the cells are unspecialized. They possess cells that can sense and react to the environment but have no real nerve or muscular tissue, > Cnidarians like the hydra and jellyfish possess only the most primitive and simplest forms of tissues. Flatworms have organs but no organ systems. More complex animals, like annelids (earthworm) and arthropods (grasshopper) have organ systems. > In some animals called protostomes, the cells in the early embryo divide in a spiral manner. Ex: roundworms, annelids, mollusks and arthropods, Other animals, called deuterostomes, the cells divide in a radial pattern, and they include echinoderms and chordates. In protostomes, the mouth opening is the first to be formed, followed later by the anus, In deuterostomes the anus is formed first followed by the mouth (differ in the origin). DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 322 } 012111499202) Germ layers: ‘They are the main layers that form various tissues and organs of the body. They are formed early in the embryonic development and include: «}) Petodernn: the outermost layer, it becomes the skin and nervous system (nerve cord and brain). b) Mesoderm: the middle layer, it becomes the blood, muscles and bones. ) Endoderny: the innermost layer, it becomes the viscera or the organs of digestive system, > Examples of animals with only 2 cell layers are porifera and cnidarians. Their bodies consist of ectoderm, endoderm and mesoglea (middle glue) which holds the 2 layers. together. The more complex animal phyla are triploblastic, have 3 true cell layers. 3) Body symmetry: 2 beetle has. coral polyp has. {2 sponge has boateral symmetry radial symmetry ‘no symmetry > Primitive animals show radial symmetry (cnidarians). Complex animals exhibit bilateral symmetry in which the body is organized along a longitudinal axis with right and left sides that mirror each other. y Bilateral symmetry enables animals to move faster (rapid motility) to escape or to capture their prey successfully. Most bilateral symmetrical animals are triploblastic (flatworms) Echinoderms are an exception because they are an advanced phylum and exhibit bilateral symmetry as larvae (embryo) but revert to radial symmetry as adults, DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 223 } 012111499204) Development of a head (cephalization) Along with bilateral symmetry comes the development of a head end (anterior) and a rear end (posterior). Sensory apparatus and a brain or simply ganglia are clustered at the anterior end. Digestive, excretory and reproductive structures are located at the posterior end, Simple animals (sponges and enidarians) don't have a head end. Animals from flatworms up to chordates all show the 5) Body cavity formation: The coelom is a fluid-filled body cavity that is completely surrounded by the mesoderm tissue, It provides a space for the organ system like the digestive tract or the cardiovascular system. Animals are classified into: ) Aeoelonmatess Primitive animals as enidarians, platyhelminthes (flatworms, tapeworms) don't have coelom. 1b) Pyeudocoelonates: Nematodes or roundworms have fluid-filled tube between the endoderm and the mesoderm. ©) Covlommates: True coelom, The most complex in the kingdom Animalia (annelida, mollusca, arthropoda and chordate). DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 308 } 01211149920Trends in Animal Development o Seen eecnices No symmetry or radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry No head Head with sensory apparatus Mesogiea holds two cells layers ‘Three cells layers, including mesoderm together Acoelomate Pseudocoetomate or coelomate No true tissues, ‘True tissues, organs, and organ systems Much specialization Motil + Characteristics of Apimalia: There are 9 common phyla: 1. Phylum Porifera: Sponges No symmetry, have no nerve or muscle tissues, are sessile (don't move), filter nutrients from the water drawn into a central cavity. They consist of 2 cell layers only; ectoderm and endoderm connected by noncellular mesoglea. They have specialized cells but no true tissue or organs, each cell carries out many functions. They reproduce asexually by fragmentation & sexually (hermaphrodites; they contain both male and female reproductive organs). 2. Phylum Cnidartang? hydra and jellytistr tN) > It shows radial symmetry, body plan of the hydra is the polyp (vase shaped) which is mostly sessile, The body plan of jellyfish is medusa (inverted bowl-shaped) which is mostly motile, Movement first evolved in this phylum. They have primitive contractile fibers that allow them to propel themselves through water. DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 35 } 01211149920> They consist of 2 cell layers only, All cnidarians have unique cells called enidocytes that contain stingers called nematoeytes. The hydra feeds by moving its tentacles and stinging its prey that swims near it, Cells, lining the gastrovascular cavity, secret digestive enzymes into the cavity to help in extracellular digestion They also carry out intracellular digestion inside body cells by lysosomes. ‘Their body has one opening to the environment, ‘They reproduce sexually or asexually by budding. > They have no circulatory system because every cell is in direct contact with the environment. Gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion, Their nitrogenous waste is, ammonia. > They respond to the environment by a primitive nervous system called nerve net where impulses travel in all directions from any site, The entire body of the hydra will respond by shrinking into a tiny ball on knocking the dish a hydra is put in: Flatworms inclu 3. Phylum Platyhelmi 1g Tapeworms, Planaria, flukes. ‘They are the simplest animals with bilateral symmetry, an anterior end and 3 distinet cell layers. The digestive cavity has only one opening for both ingestion and egestion (as enidarians), so food can't be processed continuously. ‘They have a solid body; have no room for digestive or respiratory systems to circulate food or oxygen (acoelomate). Flatworms have solved this problem in a unique way; the body is so flat and thin, so that many body cells can exchange nutrients and wastes by diffusion with the environment. ste Its nitrogenous ws in the form of ammonia and is excreted by the flame cells. 4, Phylum Nematodes: Roundwot ‘They are unsegmented worms with bilateral symmetry but little sensory apparatus, Many are parasitic. [Link] is used as an animal model in studying genes and embryonic development. DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 32 } 012111499205. Phylum Annelids: segmented worms like Earthworm and Leeches Nervous system of the annelid (earthworm) subesophageal ventral nerve cord ganglion ‘+ They have simple clusters of neurons known as ganglia, Many ganglia fuse in the head region to form a primitive brain, which consists of 2 dorsal fused ganglia, one on either side, ‘connected to a ventral nerve cord running back along its length to motor neurons and sensory cells in each segment, ‘+ Digestive tract is a tube beginning with the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop (where the food is stored), gizzard (thick muscular walls to grind the food) and intestine (where absorption occurs). The tube ends with the anus through which the indigestible part of the food is expelled out, DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 637 } 012111499206. erect gangton fran) ae ane Ichas closed circulatory system because the blood never leaves the blood vessels. Blood flows toward the head in a dorsal vessel, and then it flows to 5 vessels called aortic arches which pump the blood to a ventral vessel that transports it toward the posterior. Blood contains hemoglobin and carries oxygen. The circulatory system comes very close to the surface skin allowing diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide through the moist skin (external respiratory surface); the earthworm should keep itself in a moist environment. Water, as well as salts, can also be moved through the skin by active transport Ithas nephridia for excretion of the nitrogen waste, urea that leaves the earthworm through pores in the skin, They are hermaphrodites (reproduce sexually) by fertilization. They also reproduce asexually by regeneration. The earthworm plays an important ecological role as it burrows in the ground and creates tunnels that aerate the soil. They have bilateral symmetry. In nematodes, Platyhelminthes, annelids: they have hydrostatic skeleton, a closed body ‘compartment filled with fluid. Muscles are arranged longitudinally down the length of the body and in circular rings around the body. Contraction of the circular muscles lengthens the body, while longitudinal muscle contraction shortens the body. Muscles change the shape of this fluid-filled compartment enabling the animal to move from place to place. Phylum Mollusks: squids, octopuses, shugs, clams and snails They have soft body, often protected by a hard caleium-containing shell for protection (secreted bya specialized tissue called mantle). They have open circulatory system with blood-filled spaces called hemocoels ( nephridi s). They have bilateral symmetry, Most mollusks have gills and t HERI 4 DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 928 } 012111499207. Phylum Arthropods: Insecta (grasshopper, ants, moths, beetle), Crustacea (shrimp, crab, lobster, crayfish), Arachnida (spider, scorpions), Centipede & millipede: It contains the largest number of animal species. There are nearly 1 mill insects. in different species of (© Insects (terrestrial arthropods) have developed tracheal respiratory system which is an adaptation not found in aquatic crustaceans stich as erayfish. They are segmented into head, thorax, and abdomen. They have more sensory apparatus than annelids in the form of antennae and compound eyes, giving them more speed and freedom of movement. © Class Arachnida has cephalothroax (fused head & thorax) and abdomen but with no antenna, co They have chitinous exoskeleton, common to both insects and crustaceans, which protect the animals and help in rapid movement with the help of the muscles attached to the exoskeleton. © They have jointed appendages (walking legs) that are connected to the exoskeleton, © They have open circulatory system consisting of tubular heart, one dorsal vessel that pulsate keeping the blood moving throughout the body of the inseet, The blood normally leaves the artery and moves through interconnected sinuses or hemocoels (spaces surrounding the organs). © The digestive tract consists of specialized mouth parts for tasting, biting, and crushing food, then a crop, gizzard and intestine ending with anus. © The digestive tract is also responsible for removing the nitrogenous wastes (uric acid) by the Malpighian tubules (which are bathed in the fluid of their open circulatory system) that empties into the digestive tract, The digestive tract reabsorbs all of the water that was lost in the excretory process, converting urea to uric acid which is excreted along with the solid waste produced by digestion, © They have internal respiratory surface in which air enters the body through spiracles and travels through a tem of tracheal tubes into the hemocoels where diffusion occurs. passively, DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 329 } 01211149920Phylum Echinoderms: Sea Stars (starfish) and Sea Urel ‘© Most of them are sessile or slow moving. They have bilateral symmetry as an embryo but revert to the primitive radial symmetry as an adult, Their water vascular system creates hydrostatic support for the tube feet, the locomotive structure. ‘* Echinoderms reproduce by sexual reproduction with external fertilization, They can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation and regeneration. Any piece of a sea star that contains part of the central canal will form a completely new organism. ‘© Sea stars have an endoskeleton consisting of calcium plates. An endoskeleton grows with the body (in contrast, an exoskeleton doesn’t grow with the body and must be shed periodically (molting), and so the insect will lose its advantage). ish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds (Aves), Mammals > Chordates are vertebrates that have a notochord (a rod that extends along the length of the body and serves as a flexible axis). They have internal endoskeleton, made of bone and cartilage that grows as the animal grows and a dorsal hollow nerve cord. The tail aids in movement and balance. The coccyx bone in humans is a vestige of a tail. They have closed circulatory system. > In most vertebrates, soft cartilage in the embryo is slowly replaced by bones, but in shark, skates and rays, the skeleton never changes to bone, so they are called cartilaginous fish, > Bony fish have true bone skeletons, breath through gills, lay large number of eggs which lack shells, > Amphibians are well adapted to both land and water, Their eggs lack shells and must be laid in the water. They have an aquatic larval stage and undergo a metamorphosis into a terrestrial adult. They breathe through lungs and/or skin. Amphibians include frogs and salamanders, > Reptiles are terrestrial animals with thick, scaly skin adapted to resist water loss. They live well in dry areas although some live in water. Their eggs have shells to resist dehydration. ‘They breathe through lungs. Reptiles include crocodiles, lizards and snakes. DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885. 01211149920 { 330 }¥ Birds lay shelled eggs. They have a beak instead of jaws and teeth. They have high metabolic rate, light weight to fly, four-chambered heart, uniquely adapted lungs to supply the intense metabolic needs of flight. Birds include owls, eagles, sparrows and penguins. Mammals nourish their babies with milk from mammary glands of mothers. They have hair or fur, Most are placental mammals (the embryo develops internally in a uterus connected to the mother by a placenta where nutrients diffuse from the mother to the embryo). The marsupials including kangaroos are born very early (during embryonic development). ‘The baby kangaroo (joey) completes its development while nursing in the mother’s poueh through the nipples. Monotremes (considered intermediate link between classes), egg-laying mammals like the duck-billed platypus and the spiny anteater, drive nutrients from a shelled egg. After the babies hatch, the mothers nourish their young with milk. Rodenta is an order of mammals that include mice, rats, squirrels, prairie dogs and guinea Pigs. Birds and mammals are homeotherms or endotherms (warm-blooded). They maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the changes in environmental temperatures. All other chordates (fish, amphibians, reptiles) are ectotherms (cold-blooded) and are not able to raise their body temperature, Although being warm-blooded requires a lot of energy, it helped the birds and mammals to survive in a cold environment, Mammals and birds can be active at any time but reptiles can be active only when the temperature permits it DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 31 } 01211149920* Characteristics of Primates (as humans): They are a subset of mammals. They have opposable thumbs which make it possible to do fine~ motor tasks. Nails have replaced claws, Hands and fingers contain many nerve endings that are sensitive. The eyes of a primate are forward facing and set close together. Front facing eyes enable face-to-face communication. Close set eyes are responsible for overlapping fields of vision, which enhance depth perception and hand-eye coordination. Although mammals devote much energy to the parenting of young, primates provide the most intense parenting of any mammal, Primates usually have single births and feed their young for a long time. Primates include humans and apes (monkeys as gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, gibbons). > Body temperature regulation: Animals regulate their body temperature by changes in their behavior. 1. A snake can warm itself in the sun and cool off by hiding in the shade, 2. Animals on a cold prairie in winter huddle (get close together) to decrease heat loss 3. Bees swarming (move in a large group) to raise the temperature inside the hive. 4, Dogs pant and sweat through their tongues. Elephants lack sweat glands, but they wet down their thick skins by bathing and spraying ‘water on themselves and flapping their ears which are rich in capillaries. 6, Humans shiver and jump around to keep warm, * Patterns of circulation: DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 332 } 012111499204a) In Fish: The circulatory system is one closed loop. The blood is pumped from the heart to the gill capillaries, where oxygen is picked up from the surrounding water. The blood continues on to the body tissues and the vessels become capillaries again to allow for nutrient and gas exchange in the tissues. Then the deoxygenated blood is returned to the 2-chambered heart and pumped to the gills once more. This system is inefficient because the blood loses a Jot of its momentum in the gill capillaries, affecting the delivery of oxygen to the tissues. b) Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds & Mammals: Have overcome this problem by evolving two circuits within the circulatory system: The Pulmonary circulation & the Systemic circulation. = After the blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs to be oxygenated, itis returned to the heart before it is pumped out to the rest of the body. 1) Amphibian & Reptile hearts: ‘They are ine!ficient because there is no distinction between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Their hearts have three chambers: two atria for receiving blood from the lungs & the body, and one ventricle for pumping that blood back out. The heart allows the oxygen-rich blood returning from the lungs to mix with oxygen-poor blood returning from the systemic circulation, The blood pumped to the body never contains as much oxygen as it could. 2) The avian “bird” & mammalian hearts: Have four chambers: It consists of two halves, one for oxygenated blood and the other for deoxygenated blood (advantage). Each half has one atrium and one ventricle, separated by one-way atrioventricular valves, Respiration: Fish, birds and mammals have evolved specialized structures for gas exchange. 1, Fish gills: The fish pumps water across the gills in which 2 & CO2 are exchanged across the gill walls. Fish gills are efficient because blood flows through the gills against the current of the water (concurrent exchange), The water is always more oxygen rich than the blood in the gills. The concentration gradient allows oxygen to move from the water to the blood in the gills. Y Terrestrial vertebrates have evolved internal structures for gas exchange known as lungs, Lungs are basically inverted gills. They are internal because the gas exchange surface would quickly dry up if exposed to air, a problem that fish doesn’t face. DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { aay } 012111499202. Birds: = They have evolved an even more efficient breathing system that uses air sacs to maintain a constant unidirectional flow of air across the lung surfaces. Bird lungs don't contain dead- tend sacs like the alveoli of mammalian lungs, but rather contain millions of tiny tubes known as parabronchi, through which air is constantly flowing in one direction. 3. Mammals: The lungs are divided into millions of tiny sacs known as alveoli, which greatly increase the surface area and oxygen absorptive power. Air is sucked into the lungs, and then gaseous exchange takes place across the surfaces of the alveoli, which are surrounded by capillaries. After the blood in the capillaries gives off its CO2 & takes in 02, air is once again released from the lungs. “Excretion: is the removal of metabolic wastes as water, CO2 and nitrogenous wastes as: 1, Ammonia; very soluble in water and highly toxic, excreted generally by organisms that live in water, including hydra and fish, 2. Urea: excreted by earthworms & humans. It is formed in the liver from ammonia, 3. Uric acid: excreted by insects, reptiles and birds with a little water lose DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 234 } 01211149920‘TAXONOMY QUESTIONS Questions from 1-5 a. Simple diffusion bb, Nephridia c. Malpighian tubules d. Flame cells ce. Nephrons 1. Grasshopper's method of exeretion. 2. Human's method of exeretion, Planaria's method of excretion, 4, Earthworm's method of excretion. 5. Protozoa's method of excretion. Questions from 6-10 a, Binary fission b, Budding exual reproduction d. Regeneration ¢, Parthenogenesis 6, Reproduction of bacteria. 7. Increase genetic variation 8. Reproduction of yeast cells. 9. Development of an egg without a sperm. 10. Ability to regrow a missing body part Questions 11-12 refer to the following experiment A group of 24 frogs was separated into two equal groups. Group A was placed in an environment with the temperature 2 °C. Group B was placed in a similar environment, but the temperature was kept at 18 °C. Both groups were given equal amounts of food at the start of the experiment and every 24 hours, Before each daily feeding, the excess food from the previous feeding was removed and measured. Thus, it was possible to determine the daily consumption of food by each group. Each day, the frogs in each group were checked for heartbeat and breathing rate, At the end of the experiment, the accompanying bar graphs were prepared. DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 01211149920 { 335 }11, What was the primary question that the seientist was probably studying in this experiment? a, How do living things adapt to a change in temperature? b, In what ways do frogs adapt to a change in temperature? c. How much oxygen does a frog need when the temperature changes? d. How much blood is circulated through the heart of a frog when the temperature changes? e. How much food does a frog need? 12. Under natural conditions in a pond environment, the frogs in Group A would most likely react to the lower temperature a, Reproducing b. Hibernating ¢. Hopping around more actively to keep them 4. Seeking more insect prey e. Increasing their kick reflex cc) Temperture ey Tempersine co) a iets 20 as 30 as wo average Hotbot per Mite tt $$. Average fo tne (rams) 13. Although the duckbill platypus lays eggs, it is classified as a a. Bird b. Reptile c. Rodent d. Mammal e. Primate 14. Two classes of vertebrates that always breathe by means of lungs are a. Birds and amphibians b. Birds and insects c, Mammals and amp! . Mammals and insects . Birds and mammals jans 15. The most numerous group of animals is the a. Amphibians b. Sponges c. Reptiles 4. Birds ¢. Arthropods 01211149920 DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 336 }16. Why are insects and spiders classified as arthropods? a. They are carnivorous b. They have jointed legs c. Endoskeleton 4. They are closed circulation ce. Their eyes are simple. 17. The most inclusive group is a. Phylum b. Family ¢. Kingdom 4. Class ©. Order 18. At some point in their development chordates possess all of the following EXCEPT a. A dorsal hollow nerve cord b. A notochord ©. Gill slits d. tail e. An exoskeleton 19. Paramecia members of the kingdom a, Fungi b. Animalia cc, Monera 4, Protista , Plantae 20. Monera contain none of the following structures EXCEPT a, Mitochondria b. Endoplasmic reticulum ©. DNA . A nuclear membrane ¢, Golgi apparatus 21. The kingdom that contains bacteria is a, Monera b. Protista c. Fungi d. Plants, e. All of these ORMONKASHERIF 1141656685 o1211149920 { 337}22. Monera include a, Algae and bacteria b. Protozoa and bacteria c. Blue-green algae and baet 4. Brown algae and protozoa e. Fungi and protozoa 23. Some Protists a, Have characteristies of both plants and animals b. Are invisible cc, Are bacteria Are fungi ¢. Animal 24, The malaria plasmodium is a(n) a, Parasite protozoan b, Autotrophic protozoan c. Example of Monera 4. Parasite bacteria . Parasitic arthropods 25. Fungi may be all of the following EXCEPT a, Heterotrophic b, Autotrophic ¢. Parasitic 4. Saprophy ¢, Decomposers 26. The house cat is classified as Felis domestica. The name "Felix the Cat" is derived from which part of the scientific name? a, The name of the phylum b. The name of the family ¢. The name of the kingdom 4. The name of the genus e. The name of the species 27. All the following are behavioural changes to regulate body temperature EXCEPT a. shivering b. elephants bathing and spraying water on themselves ¢. animals huddling at night on the prairie d. increasing blood flow to the fingers and toes ¢. resting on a hot rock. DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885, { 01211149920 330}jes an advantage of an internal skeleton over an a. An intemal skeleton supports the animal better. b. An external skeleton can dissolve easily in wet climates, c. An external skeleton does not grow with the animal's body. 4. The internal skeleton prevents infections better than an external one. e. Animals with external skeletons are not as successful as animals with internal skeletons. 29, All the following are correct about animal systems EXCEPT a, the hydra has a two-way digestive system b, earthworms are hermaphrodites c. grasshoppers use their digestive tract to remove nitrogenous waste 4. the nitrogenous waste from the earthworm is uric acid. e. the grasshopper has chitinous plates in the gizzard that act like teeth 30. Ligaments connect to , While tendons connect to a, bone to muscle; bone to bone bb, bone to bone; muscle to bone c. muscle to muscle; bone to muscle 4. tendons to muscle; Ligaments to bone ¢. tendons to bones; musele to musele Question 31. a, Monera b, Protista c. Fungi 4. Plantae e. Animalia 31. Contains all the protozoa and most of the algae 32. Contains multicellular heterotrophic organisms with a chitin cell walls 33. Contains prokaryotic organisms 34. Contains autotrophic organisms with cells with cellulose cell walls 35. The name of the dog is Canis familiaris and that of the coyote is Canty latrans. This indicates that both the dog and the coyote are members of the . Same genus but different species >. Same species but different orders c. Same genus but different classes d. Same species but different famili ¢. Same classes but different orders oe : tH 4 DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 30 } 01211149920Questions 36-44 Refer to the terms below. a, Prokaryotes b. Fungi c. Plants 4. Animals ¢. Protista 36. Contains the most diverse eukaryotic organism: 37. Heterotrophs whose cell walls consist of chitin, 38. Included in the domain Bacteria, 39, Heterotrophs that reproduce sexually with a dominant diploid stage. 40. All are autotrophic eukaryotes. 41. The Arachae domain includes these. 42, The heterotrophic part of any lichen. 43. Includes amoebas, paramecia, and euglenas 44, Eukaryotic cells that play a vital role in reeyeling nutrient an ecosystem, 45. All the following are true of Protista EXCEPT a. all are heterotrophs b. all are cukaryotes . they include amoeba, paramecia, and euglena dd. some move by pseudopods, some by cilia, and some by flagella . they include the widest variety of organisms of any kingdom 46. Which of the following contains organisms capable of surviving extreme conditions of heat and salt concentration? a. Archaea b. Animalia . Protista 4. Fungi ¢, Plants Questions 47-52 Refer to this list of animals below. a, Platyhelminthes bb, Nematodes ©. Chordates 4d. Echinoderms e. Cnidarians: 47. Roundworms, all are parasites. 48. Includes the flatworm planaria, DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885, { 01211149920 x0 }49, Jellyfish and hydra, 50. All organisms in the phyla contain stinging cells. 51. Include mammals. 52. Include monotremes and marsupials. 53. All the following are characteristics of primates EXCEPT a. opposable thumbs . nurture their young for a long time d, examples are dolphins and whales e. usually have single births. 54. The ectoderm becomes the a. nervous system b. digestive organs ¢. blood d. bones e. muscles 55. The endoderm becomes the sstive organs c. blood d. bone e. muscle Questions 56-67 a. Hydra b. Grasshopper ©. Earthworm 56. The body plan is a polyp. 57. Has an open circulatory system. 58. Has a closed circulatory system. 59. Has no circulatory system. 60. Nervous system consists of a nerve net. 61. Exchange of respiratory gases is through the moist ski 62. Uses its digestive tract to release nitrogenous wastes. 63. Uses nephridia to remove nitrogenous wastes. 64. All the members of this phylum have stinging cells. 65. This animal has a transport system but lacks capillaries. 66. Every cell in this animal is directly in contact with its environment. 67. Exchanges respiratory gases through hemocoels. DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 ¢ | } 01211149920 tQuestions 68-72 a. Urie acid b. Urea c. Ammonia 68. Most toxic 69, Exereted by humans and earthworms 70. Exereted by the digestive tracts of insects and birds 71. Exereted by the Malpighian tubules 72. Exereted by nephridia 73. Of the following, the most closely related group of organisms is known as a(n) a, Genus b. Sp ¢. Kingdom . Phylum, e. Class S 74. Starting with the largest group, the correet sequence of the following groups: 1- class; 2- family-phylum; 4-order; 5-genus; 6-species, is a, 3-4.1-6.5-2 b. 3-2-4-1-5-6 ¢, 3-1-2-4-5-6 4d. 3-1-4-2-5-6 ©. 3d-1-5-6-2 75. The Latin words of the name given to a human being, Homo sapiens, include the a, Genus and speci b. Genus and family c. Family and order d. Order and class €. Genus and class 76. Which of the following groups have the least similarities with one another? a, Members of the same kingdom b. Members of the same genus c. Members of the same phylum s of the same class ¢, Members of the same family 1 01211149920 2 J DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 { 3477. Animals that have joined appendages include which of the following? 1. spider b. Honly c. Monly 4. Land II only e.1, Hand Il 78. The lobster and spider are classified in the same phylum. Which of the following sets of characteristics do they have in common? a, Segmented body and closed circulation b, Jointed appendages and a digestive system with a single opening ¢. Jointed appendages and a chitinous exoskeleton d. six appendages and a chitinous exoskeleton e. closed circulation and jointed appendages 79. Two organisms in the same class must also be in the same a. Order b. Species ©. Genus 4, Family e. Phylum 80. Two warm-blooded groups of vertebrates are a. Mammals and sharks b, Birds and amphibians ¢. Mammals and birds d. Amphibians and reptiles e. Mammals and amphibians ified as member of the 81. Hydra an cla a, Coelenterate b. Porifera c. Planaria d. Infusoria e. Echinodermata DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 ¢ | } 01211149920 U82. The octopus and snail are alike in . having a backbone b, Having chi . Being classified as molluses d, Being classified as vertebrates, e. They are arthropods nous cell wall 83. Animals having a chitinous exoskeleton and jointed legs are classified as a, Turtles b, Echinoderms: c. Coelenterates d. Arthropods e. Chordates 84. Spiders may be distinguished from insects because they have a, Open circulation b, Jointed legs c. Eight legs 4d. A separate head, thorax, and abdomen e. Chitinous cell wall 85. Animals that possess a notochord are classi |. social insects b. Sponges ©. Arthropods d, Invertebrates e. Chordates 86. Which of the following correctly lists the phylogenic hierarchy? a. Kingdom, phylum, family, class, order, genus, species b. Phylum, family, order, class, kingdom, species, genus c. Kingdom, family, order, class, phylum, genus, species d. Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species e. family, Kingdom, order, phylum, genus, class, species 87. Members of a class are more alike than members of a. An order b. A phylum c. A genus. 4. Aspecies e. A family DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885. 01211149920 { 34a }Question 88-92 a. Phylum Echinodermata b. Phylum Arthropoda c. Phylum Chordata d. Phylum Mollusca e. Phylum cnidaria 88. Contain more species than all other animal phyla 89. Includes mammals 90. Members have foot, radula and mantle 91. Includes hydra and jelly fish 92. Include star fish and sea urchins Questions 93-96 a. Fungi b. Plantae ¢. Animalia d, Monera e. Protista 93. Include the causative orgasm of malaria 94, Kingdom of eukaryotic decomposers 98. Include prokaryotes 96. Their members have cellulose cell wall Questions 97-101 a. Frog b, Cow c. Bird d. Shark e. Snake 97. Contain placenta between mother and embryo 98. Have a light endoskeleton and can regulate their body temperature 99. No bony skeleton 100. Thick scaly skin and amniotic eggs 101. Closely related to salamander 102. Closely related to crocodile DR-MONIKA SHERIF 01141698885 ¢ | } 01211149920 U