Climate Classifications Date:

 WEATHER- short term, atmospheric conditions, including temperature,

precipitation, wind, and humidity, in a particular location over a short
period of time, such as a day or a week

 CLIMATE- long term, the average of the weather in a region over a long
period of time (at least 30 years)

 Classifications of climate:
(1) CLIMATE ZONES- developed in the early
1900s by Vladimir Koppen, uses temperature,
precipitation, and plant communities
o Tropical, ex. Brazil
o Moderate, ex. Italy
o Polar, ex. Nunavut
o Dry, ex. Egypt
o Continental, ex. Toronto
(2) ECOREGIONS- new climate zones, focus on the
ecology of the regions (landforms, soil, plants,
animals, urban centres, climate, human factors
etc.), describes the climate and ecosystem of a
region in its current state

(3) BIOCLIMATE PROFILES- a series of graphs that

show temperature and moisture conditions at a
given location, only describe climate and its
projected climate 40-80 years into the future
Earth’s Climate System- 4 Components Date:
 CLIMATE SYSTEM- Earth’s global system that includes air, land, liquid
water, ice, and living things
(1) ATMOSPHERE- layers of gases surrounding Earth, thin layer (like skin on
a tomatoe), 100km above Earth’s surface, air is a mixture of gases
a) TROPOSPHERE- alt. 0-10km, air we breath is 78% N2(g), 21% O2(g), 1%
Ar/CO2/He/H/O3, SMOG (gases & particles, ex. Drive Clean program)

b) STRATOSPHERE- alt. 10-50km, contains OZONE LAYER (O3(g), protects

living organisms from damaging UV radiation, ex. ozone “hole” in
Antarctic from CFCs from refrigerators, AC, spray cans etc. will take
50yrs to replenish)

c) MESOSPHERE- alt. 50-80km, little gas

d) THERMOSPHERE- alt. 80+, little gas

(2) HYDROSPHERE- all water on and around

Earth; includes oceans, lakes, H2O(vap) in
atmosphere, ice at poles (2%); water cycle; large
bodies of water heat/cool more slowly (HEAT
SINK- a reservoir that absorbs and stores thermal
energy)

(3) LITHOSPHERE- all solid rock, soil, and

minerals of Earth’s crust; land formations
affect climate zones (ex. windward and
leeward side of mountains and the rain
shadow effect); altitude affect climate zones
(cooler higher up)
(4) Living Things- all organisms
o use up O2 (plants & animals), CO2 (CARBON SINKS, plants)
o produce O2 (plants), CO2 (plants & animals), CH4 (methane), N2O
(nitrous oxide, soil bacteria)

Solar Radiation and The Natural Greenhouse Effect Date:

 SOLAR RADIATION- energy waves from the sun, almost all energy on
Earth is from the Sun:
o Regions at or near the equator receive more solar radiation per m2
than regions closer to poles
o THERMAL ENERGY- solar radiation absorbed by Earth’s surface as
heat, flows from substances of high temperatures to substance of low
temperatures, about 70%
o Tiny amount (less than 1%) is converted to chemical energy though
photosynthesis in plants
o 30% is reflected back into space
 NET RADIATION BUDGET- balance of energy on Earth, the amount of
energy absorbed is equal to the amount of energy emitted (even w/o a
climate system)
 Without a climate system, Earth would be much colder (world ave -20oC) ,
the climate system moderates Earth’s temperature by trapping and
storing energy from the Sun and distributing it around the world, as a
result the air temperature remains relatively constant day and night and
the poles are less cold and the equator is less hot (world average
+14.7oC)

 NATURAL GREENHOUSE EFFECT- natural process whereby gases and

clouds absorb/”trap” infrared radiation emitted
from Earth’s surface and radiate it/spread it
around, heating the atmosphere and Earth’s
surface

 GREENHOUSE GASES- any gas in the

atmosphere that absorbs lower-energy infrared
radiation
o most common are H2O(vap) and CO2(g)
o less significant ones are CH4(methane), O3(ozone), and N2O (nitrous
oxide)

 The natural greenhouse effect has helped maintain Earth’s climate for
millions of years in a range to support life
Air Circulation Date:
 Thermal energy is transferred throughout the atmosphere
 CONVECTION CURRENTS- circular currents in air and other fluids cause by
the rising of warm fluid and the sinking of cold fluid

o warm air rising exerts low atmospheric pressure

 o cold air sinking exerts high atmospheric pressure

o air travels from areas of high pressure (clear/sunny, cool) to areas of

low pressure (cloudy, warm)

 WIND- the movement of air as a result of convection currents, subject to

friction

 CORIOLIS EFFECT- the deflection wind from

straight-line path (from poles to equator)
by the rotation of Earth, causes moving air
or wind to turn right in the northern
hemisphere and left in the southern
hemisphere
 GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS- caused by the unequal heating of the Earth’s
atmosphere (equator vs poles) and the deflection of wind by the Coriolis
Effect

o POLAR EASTERLIES- blow west

o WESTERLIES - blow east, cold ex. Ontario
 o TRADE WINDS - blow east, above/below equator, warm
o DOLDRUMS- band of low winds on the equator

 JET

STREAMS- bands of fast-moving air in the

stratosphere, not subject to friction (b/c so high up) so much faster,
changes in the jet streams affect the formation of severe weather events
(ex. squalls, storms, cylones)
Ocean Circulation Date:
 Thermal energy is transferred throughout the hydrosphere

 THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION- the continuous flow of water around the

world’s oceans driven by differences in water temperatures (“thermo”)
and salinity (“haline”):

o Poles, salty (ice rejects salt and water

freezes as freshwater, so remaining water is
saltier) + cold = dense water that sinks

o Equator, less salty + warm = less dense

water flows to poles to replace sinking water
o Acts like an enormous conveyor belt
 OCEAN CURRENT- water movement over great distances due to
thermohaline circulation, winds, breaking waves, Coriolis force, and TIDES
(gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun)

 Ocean current direction and strength are influenced by depth contours,

shoreline configurations, and interaction with other ocean currents

 Ocean currents play a dominant part in determining climate zones, ex.

Gulf Stream makes northwest Europe much more temperate than any
other region at the same latitude
Indicators and Effects of Climate Change
Global Warming
• GLOBAL WARMING
– Overall increase in the average
world temperature of the
atmosphere and oceans
– Measured over past 100 years
– Accelerated increase since
1960s

Melting Polar and Glacial Ice

• ICE CAPS- ice mass that covers less
than 50 000 km² of land area, ex.
mountain tops
• GLACIER- large persistent body of ice
accumulated over many years, often
centuries
• Both are made up of freshwater
• Over the last few decades, the ave. size of
glaciers all over the world have decreased
• Ex. Loss of ice shelf in Antarctic equivalent
to Ontario & Quebec combined in Sep.
2007
• Affects polar bear and Inuit habitats
Rising Sea Level and Ocean Acidity
• Since 1993, sea level has been rising almost 2x as faster than
previous 30 years
• Melting ice adds to seawater
• Thermal expansion of water due to rising temperatures makes the
volume of existing water greater
• Affects coastal regions

• Oceans absorb 30-50% of CO2 produced from fossil fuel emissions

• CO2 -> carbonic acid, which decreases ocean pH
• Affects ability of
– corals and other organisms to build shells and hard skeletons
– fish and plankton to reproduce
Changing Weather Patterns
• Wind patterns (speed, frequency, direction) have fluctuated
unpredictably for several years
• May be responsible for melting Arctic ice
• Ex. increased intensity of tropical storms
 • Precipitation (rain and snow) has
– Increased in some areas, ex. flooding
– Decreased in other areas, ex. desertification

Greenhouse Gases
• 99% of the atmosphere is made up of N2 and O2
• N2 and O2 are not greenhouse gases
• GREENHOUSE GASES
– Gases that absorb and prevent the escape of thermal energy
– All have three or more atoms
– Every 2000 molecule in the atmosphere
• SOURCES add and SINKS remove from the atmosphere
Water Vapour (H2O)
• Most abundant
• Responsible for 65%-85% of the
greenhouse effect
• Higher temperatures -> higher rate of
evaporation -> more H2O in atmosphere
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
• Sources:
– Animal respiration (breathing)
– Combustion of fossil fuels
• Sinks:
– Absorption by oceans
– Photosynthesis by plants, ex.
deforestation a problem
Methane (CH4)
• Produced by anaerobic bacteria (no O2)
• Examples of sources:
– Wetlands (bogs and swamps)
– Rice paddies
– Cattle (digestion)
– Decomposing landfills
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
• Forms when nitrogen-rich compounds are broken down by bacteria
• Examples of sources:
– Damp tropical soils
– Oceans
– Agricultural soil management
– Animal manure management
– Sewage treatment
– Combustion of fossil fuels
Ozone (O3)
• Occurs naturally in the upper atmosphere
• Ground level ozone
– Produced by a chemical reaction between
sunlight and chemicals in vehicle exhaust
– Can cause damage to lungs and heart
Halocarbons
• Large group of chemicals made up of carbon and halogens
• Formed only by industrial processes
• Very stable, can remain in atmosphere for
thousands of years
• Ex. chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
– Solvents, cleaners, coolants
– Refrigerators, air conditioners
– Break apart O3 molecules in ozone layer
Global Warming Potential

Natural Long and Short Term Climate Change Date:

LONG TERM CLIMATE CHANGE

(1) Continental Drift
 Over millions of years

 PLATE TECTONICS- theory

explaining the slow movement of
the large plates of Earth’s crust

 CONTINENTAL DRIFT- theory that

Earth’s continents used to be one
supercontinent (Pangae) and
continue to drift apart due to
plate tectonics

 When continents move, ocean currents and wind patterns change

 Distribution of land masses is affected, ex. Canada has most land mass
and least bodies of water therefore colder

 Uplifting/weathering of mountains affect local and regional climates, ex.

Rockies (new), Appalachians (old)

(2) Cycles
 Over hundreds of thousands of years
 ICE AGE or “GLACIAL AGE”- longer periods of time in Earth’s history when
Earth is colder and much of the planet is
covered in ice (northern and southern
hemispheres), ex. Beringia Land Bridge
between Alaska and Northern Europe (theory
humans migrated across 25 000 years ago)

 INTERGLACIAL PERIODS- short periods of

time between ice ages when Earth warms up

 Rapid change out of an ice age is due to ALBEDO EFFECT (an increase in
Earth’s temperature causes ice to melt -> more radiation is absorbed by
Earth’s surface (ice reflects radiation, water does not) -> further increases
in temperature: positive feedback)

 MILANKOVITCH CYCLES- 1941 Milutin Milankovitch, theory about how

changes in Earth’s orbit add up to cause regular
cycles of ice ages and interglacial periods:
eccentricity (shape), tilt, wobble (precision of
tilt)
SHORT TERM CLIMATE CHANGE
 Small variations in climate over tens to hundreds of years
(1) Volcanic Eruptions
o spew rocks, dust, and gases high into the atmosphere
o SO2(g) reflects the sun’s energy back into space
o Earth is temporarily cooled

(2) Air and Ocean Currents

o changes to thermohaline circulation may cause abrupt changes in
climate (ice age, ex. movie Day After Tomorrow)

o ex. EL NINO- a recurring change in the Pacific

winds and ocean currents that brings warm,
moist air to the west coast of South America,
occurs every 3-7 years

(3) Changes in Solar Radiation

Evidence of Climate Change Date:

 Most of the climate changes we are currently seeing have not happened
for thousands of years

 Climate change evidence is due to human activity!!!

(1) Rising Temperatures
o Scientists study past temperature records
(since early 1800s)

o Historical records show ave. temp. goes up

and down from year to year but has been
steadily rising in the past 50 years

o Ex. Canada, ave. temp. has increased by 1oC in the last 55 years
(2) Melting Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Sea Ice
o Over the last few decades, the ave. size
of glaciers all over the world have
decreased

o Ex. Ice shelf in Antarctic is beginning to

disappear (equivalent to Ontario &
Quebec combined in Sep. 2007),
scientists estimate summer Arctic will
be ice-free within a few years

o Drinking water problem (many depend

on fresh glacier water)

(3) Rising Sea Level

o Since 1993, sea level has been rising almost 2x as faster than previous
30 years
o Devastating floods in low-lying countries
o Melting land and glaciers and ice sheets add water to oceans (not
floating sea ice b/c already displaces water)
o THERMAL EXPANSION- increase in volume of water as its temperature
increases

(4) Changes in Severe Weather

o Severe weather is more severe
o More intense heat waves and hurricanes
o Ex. Europe heat wave summer of 2003, thousands of people died from
heat-related causes
o Ex. Jet stream responsible for August 2010 Russian heat wave and
wildfires (huge death toll) and flooding in Pakistan!!!
(5) Changes in Precipitation Patterns
o More rain and less snow in northern hemisphere
o Southern Africa, the Mediterranean, and southern Asia are becoming
drier

(6) Changing Seasons

o Frequency of very cold days is decreasing worldwide
o Summer is getting longer and winter shorter, ex. longer growing
season in Canada

(7) Changes in Ecosystems

o Trees, shrubs, and other plants across North America are flowering
earlier in the spring
o Animals are breeding earlier in the year, ex. squirrels
o Animal and plant communities are slowly migrating towards the poles,
ex. mountain pine beetle has moved into BC and is killing the pine
trees
Anthropogenic Greenhouse Effect Date:
 ANTHROPOGENIC- resulting from human influence

 Concentrations of CO2(g) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

are higher now than they have been for hundreds of years

 The increase in greenhouse gases is caused by human activities such as:

o energy consumption: burning of fossil fuels

(coal, gasoline, and natural gas) for
transportation, heating, electricity, industry,
manufacturing, etc.

o industry
Responding to Climate Change Date:
CHANGE OUR ENERGY SOURCES
Clean energy source Description
WIND POWER wind causes the blades of wind
turbines to turn, powering
generators that produce
electricity

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY thermal energy below Earth’s

surface is used to heat homes and
other buildings

SOLAR POWER photovoltaic panels absorb

radiation from the Sun and
convert it into electricity, the
Sun’s radiation can also be used
to heat water

HYDROELECTRICITY the energy of moving water (ex.

waterfall) turns turbines to power
generators that produce
electricity, ex. Niagra Falls
 BIOFUELS biofuels use plant-based fuels to
produce energy

NUCLEAR POWER nuclear energy is created by

splitting nuclei of atoms, although
nuclear energy plants to do emit
greenhouse gases, they do
produce radioactive waste
(another problem)

BUSINESSES, INDUSTRIES, AND GOVERNMENTS

 Transportation
o Use less fuel by driving more efficiently (less idling, acceleration, &
breaking)
o Use cleaner fuels
o Use hybrid or electric vehicles
 o Public transport
o Support government-imposed restrictions

 Producing Energy
o Improve energy efficiency through technologies
o Use cleaner sources
o
 Industries
o Use more efficient equipment
o Recycle energy (ex. capture thermal energy produced by industrial processes
and using it to power other processes)
o Capture and store CO2(g) released by smokestacks
o Impose taxes and limits on fossil fuel

 Building and Contracting

o Increase energy efficiency
o Install better insulation
o Introduce rebates or tax incentives
o Use energy efficient appliances (ex. EnergGuide)

 Agriculture
o Restore polluted land
o Study and implement ways to reduce CH4 emissions in rice and cattle
farming
o Use less nitrogen fertilizer (reduce N2O emissions)

 Waste Management
o Collect CH4 from landfills and use it for energy
o Compost all organic waste
o Reduce volume of waste
o Reduce consumption
o Recycle
 Forests
o Plant more forests and replace trees that are cut down
o Reduce deforestation
o Manage forests carefully
o Create biofuels from forestry products

 KYOTO PROTOCOL- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC or FCCC ), international treaty with the goal of achieving stabilization
of greenhouse gas concentrations to prevent anthropogenic interference with
the climate system- Canada just pulled out of this agreement to avoid costs

o deforestation (less CO2 removal for photosynthesis, CO2 production

from rotting wood, CH2(g) production)

o agricultural practices (CH4(g) and N2O)

o transportation (ex. car exaust), landfills

etc…..
 Some CO2(g) produced by humans ends up in carbon sinks (oceans, forests
for photosynthesis), about half the CO2(g) and other greenhouse gases end
up in the atmosphere

 ANTHROPOGENIC GREENHOUSE EFFECT- the enhancing of the natural

greenhouse effect due to human production of greenhouse gases, human
production of CO2(g) accounts for 70% of it

 The anthropogenic greenhouse effect is causing Earth’s temperature to

rise

 Increased CO2(g) -> increased temp. (greenhouse effect) -> more CO2(g) is
released from carbon sinks (plants and oceans) (positive feedback loop)