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INHERITANCE

THEME: GENETICS

TOPIC: INHERITANCE
By the end of this Chapter; the Learner should;

• Understand the process of Cell division and significance of meiosis.

• Understand the concept of inheritance using genetic diagrams.
• Understand and explain sex determination and sex linkage in humans.

Fig. 1 shows a nuclear family where the grandparent was Albino, daughter is a carrier, son
in-law is normal, and all daughters are Albino.

HEREDITY IN ORGANISMS
The term "heredity" refers to the passing down of traits or characteristics from parents to
offspring through the transmission of genetic information. It's the concept that the characteristics
of an individual are influenced by the genetic factors inherited from their parents.
In the context of inheritance, heredity refers to the way in which traits are passed down from one
generation to the next. This can include physical characteristics, such as eye color, hair color, and
height, as well as susceptibility to certain diseases or conditions.
In genetics, heredity is the study of how genes are transmitted from parents to offspring and how
they influence the development and traits of an individual. It involves the study of genes,
chromosomes, and other genetic factors that determine the characteristics of an individual.
Examples of heredity include:

- A child inheriting their parent's blue eyes or curly hair

- A family history of a certain disease, such as sickle cell anemia or cystic fibrosis
- A person's height or facial features being similar to those of their parents or
grandparents.

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CELL DIVISION PROCESS

Cell division is a process by which a cell divides to give rise to daughter cells.
During cell division, the nucleus divides into two followed by the division of the cytoplasm. The
cell membrane constricts to surround the formed cells each containing a nucleus. This results into
formation of daughter cells. There are two types of cell division; MITOSIS and MEIOSIS.

Commonly used terms in Cell Division.

1. A Chromosome is a thread like molecule in the nucleus on which the genes are carried.
2. A gene is a basic unit of inheritance for a given trait eg Height, Skin Colour, Eye colour
etc.
3. An allele is one of the alternative forms of the same gene responsible for determining
contrasting traits eg. Tallness, Dark skin, Blue eyes, red colour blindness etc.
4. Dominant allele (eg. T) is an allele whose trait is expressed in the phenotype of a
heterozygote.
5. Recessive allele (eg. t) is an allele whose trait is suppressed in the phenotype of a
heterozygote but Expressed only in the phenotype of a homozygote.
6. A Homozygote is an organism whose given gene consists of identical alleles in the
genotype eg. TT or tt.
7. A Heterozygote is an organism whose given gene consists of different alleles in the
genotype eg. Tt.
8. A genotype is a genetic composition in the cell of an organism that causes traits to be
expressed eg TT, Tt, Hh,hh,tt or PP etc.
9. A phenotype is an observable trait of an organism caused by it’s genetic composition.
MITOSIS

This is a type of cell division where a cell divides to give rise to two daughter cells each having
the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell and each having exactly the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell.

Cell Division occurs in a cell in Four Stages; before they start, the cell undergoes Interphase.
This is a Preparation stage through which the following Processes occur:

• Chromosomes are drawn into long threads of chromatids.

• The genetic material or chromosomes replicate to ensure similar genetic Information for
the two cells.
• The cell manufactures and stores energy through respiration in preparation for cell
division.
• The centrioles replicate if present.
During the Second stage; Prophase

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• The nuclear membrane disintegrates and disappears towards the end of

Prophase.
• Each Chromosome divides into two Chromatins lying parallel to each other and attached
together at the centromere.
• The Nucleolus disappears
• The centromeres migrate to opposite poles and begin to produce spindle fibers which
form a spindle equator at the center.
• The nuclear membrane disintegrates and disappears towards the end of prophase.

During the Second Stage; Metaphase:

• The Chromosomes move to the center of the cell and arrange themselves at the spindle
equator.
• Sister chromatids face opposite poles of the spindle fibers.
During the Third Stage, Anaphase:

• Centromeres divide and the two chromatids of each chromosome move to opposite poles.
• Each chromatid now becomes a chromosome.
• Spindle fibers shorten as they pull the chromatids apart.
During the Fourth Stage, Telophase:

• The Chromosomes reach and settle at the poles.

• The cell divides by constriction of the cell membrane in animals or by forming a cell wall
plate in plants.
• The nuclear membrane reappears in each new cell.
• The nucleolus also reappears in each new cell.
• Spindle fibers disappear.

Meiosis
Meiosis is the type of cell division that results into the formation of four daughter cells with half
the number of chromosomes in the parent cell.
OR
Meiosis is a form of cell division in which a diploid cell divides into four haploid daughter cells.
EVENTS THAT OCCUR DURING MEIOSIS
Before cell division begins, the Cell undergoes a preparatory process called Interphase. During
this Preparation;
• The DNA (Chromosomes) replicates to form another copy of itself.

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• More energy in form of ATP to facilitate the division process is manufactured by

mitochondria.
• Most cell organelles replicate (such as the centrioles, mitochondria, and chloroplast) but
not the nucleus.
• The Chromosomes become thinner and invisible (this form is called Chromatin)
Meiosis occurs in two steps; MEIOSIS 1 and MEIOSIS 2. Each of these steps occurs in four
stages, I.e. Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.

STEP 1 (Meiosis I)
Stages
Prophase I
• The Chromosomes shorten and become visible (at this point, each is made of a pair of
sister Chromatids)
• Homologous chromosomes pair up; one from the male parent and the other from the
female parent. These carry the same genes.
• Homologous chromosomes join at points called chiasmata, where they break and reunite
to have genes from each chromosome crossover to the other and they are exchanged.
• The nucleus and the nucleolus disappear and spindle fibres form

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Metaphase I

• The pair of chromosomes in which crossing over has occurred arrange themselves
around the middle of the cell, at the equator of the cell.

Anaphase I

• Spindle fibres pull the homologous Chromosomes apart towards each opposite poles
forming two haploid sets.

Telophase I

• Homologous chromosomes arrive at opposite poles. They are now haploid sets but each
chromosome is still made of two sister Chromatids.
• The nucleus reappears and in animals, the cell pinches inwards to divide the cytoplasm to
form two daughter cells while in plants, the cell wall formation occurs.

After the first step, it may be necessary for the cells to undergo another interphase, a Preparation
stage but this usually happens only in animal cells but this time, there’s no replication of DNA.

STEP II (Meiosis II)

Stages
Prophase II
• The Chromosomes shorten and become visible. (Still made of sister chromatids)
• The nucleus and the nucleolus disappear and spindle fibres form.
• Centrioles move to the opposite poles as guided by the spindle fibres.
Metaphase II

• Chromosomes line up separately around the equator of the spindle fibres.

Anaphase II

• The centromeres divide and the spindle fibres pull the chromatids to opposite poles, with
centromeres in leading.

Telophase II

• The chromatids arrive at the opposite poles, they uncoil and become invisible.
• Spindle fibres disappear and centrioles replicate.
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
The cell pinches inwards to divide the cytoplasm (in animal) or cell wall formation occurs (in
plants). Finally, four daughter cells from the original single parent cell are formed.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
Meiosis is crucial for sexual reproduction and has several significant consequences:

1. Genetic diversity: Meiosis shuffles and recombines genetic material, increasing genetic
diversity among offspring, which helps populations adapt to changing environments.
2. Crossing over and recombination: Meiosis allows for the exchange of genetic material
between homologous chromosomes, increasing genetic variation.
3. Random assortment: Meiosis randomly sorts chromosomes, further increasing genetic
diversity.
4. Sexual reproduction: Meiosis enables sexual Reproduction by allowing the diploid set in the
body cells to be halved into the haploid set in gametes which then become diploid again after
fertilization.

GENETIC DIAGRAMS
These are illustrative diagrams that show how alleles are passed down to the offspring from
parents. Each allele is represented by a symbolic letter e.g. T for tallness and t for shortness, A
for albinism and a for a normal condition. Etc.

Scenario 1: Aaron, rich man in Kamwenge rears rabbits and sells them to a nearby restaurant for
money. In his cage are Rabbits with black fur and those with grey fur. One season, Aaron decided

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to separate the grey from the black rabbits and they all kept on giving birth to grey and black
rabbits respectively. When he allowed the black male rabbit to mate with the grey haired one, all
of the offspring had black fur.

Task 1: Using genetic diagrams, explain the findings of Aaron when he had all offspring with
black fur.

Since the black rabbits produce black ones when they mate with grey rabbits, it means that the
Black fur allele is dominant
Let the allele for black fur be B
Let the allele for grey fur be b

Since the dominant allele B is present in every gamete formed, all the offspring will be Black.

Task 2: Using genetic diagrams explain what would happen if Aaron allowed these black
offspring to mate with themselves.
(Still considering the alleles B and b)

Scenario 2: On determining the genotype of Mr. KASIM, it is realized that he is homozygous for
the dominant allele of tallness but his wife is homozygous for shortness. Their son, Patrick
always wondered why he is tall yet his mother is short. Moreover all his siblings are tall.
Task: Since tallness and shortness are different alleles that give an Expression of the Gene of
Height; explain to Patrick his condition, using genetic diagrams.

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Let the allele for tallness be T

Let the allele for shortness be t

Expln: Since the man tested homozygous for the dominant gene, TT, all his offspring shall be
tall.

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE AND CO-DOMINANCE

CO-DOMINANCE is a situation when two or more alleles of the same gene dominate and
result into a phenotype that shows a combination of both.
Examples include:
• Blood types in humans; A, B, AB and o, a person with allele for A blood and an allele for B
blood has blood type AB.
• When a chicken with white feathers breeds with a chicken with black feathers, an offspring
chicken will have both white and black feathers.
Incomplete dominance is a situation when two alleles of the same gene become neither dominant
nor recessive but results into a phenotype that is a blend of both alleles. Such as:
• A true breeding red flower and a true breeding white flower results in an offspring with pink
flowers.
In co-dominance both alleles dominate which results into a phenotype that shows a combination
of both.
Scenario: A genetist named Gregor Mendal artificially allowed red flower pea plants to pollinate
those with pink flowers. He did this because he was curious about the way how characteristics
are passed from one generation to another. This experiment produced an offspring with only pink
flowers. This result was too complicated for Gregor to cogitate.

Task: Using genetic diagrams and suitable symbols explain the results to Gregor and tell him
how the pink colour comes about. State the resultant phenotypic ratio.

Let the allele for red flowers be R

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Let the allele for white flowers be W

In case the F1 generation is selfed, a mixture of red, pink and white flowers pea plants will be
given as the offspring.
F1 Selfed

NB: The phenotypic ratio differs from that of simple genetics (Complete dominance); the F2
generation offspring becomes 1:2:1 instead of 3:1.
SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMANS
In humans, sex is determined by the X and Y chromosomes. These two form the last pair among
the 23 pairs in human cells. In females, this last pair is made up of X and X Chromosomes while
in males, it is X and Y chromosomes.
During sperm formation, each sperm carries on of either X or Y but the ovum carries specifically
the X chromosome only in females. During fertilization, if, by chance the sperm carrying the Y

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chromosome enters the ovum first, the child becomes a boy (X with Y) and if this sperm is the
one carrying the X chromosome, the child becomes a girl (X and X).
In humans, the chance of giving birth to a boy or a girl is 50% and this is determined but not
controlled by the male parent. It cannot be controlled. It’s totally by chance.

Scenario: Charles IV, the king of England is at the verge of dying without having an heir to fill
his throne. Diana, an apprentice in the kingdom happens to fall in love with the king and
becomes pregnant. The conspiracy unravels and the committee decides that if a girl is born, she
will be killed in order to protect the legacy of the loyal family but if it’s a boy, he will be granted
life, made a prince and his mother made queen.

Task: Calculate the percentage chance for the baby being a boy. Use genetic diagrams.

In this case we don’t let the alleles to be a certain symbol because sex has its own special
symbols X and Y.

Percentage chance of Number of boys X

100 Producing a boy = Number of chances

= 2 Boys X 100
4 Chances
= 50%
Conclusion: The chance for the child being a boy is equally available as that of the child
being a girl.

SEX LINKAGE
Linkage is a situation when genes responsible for certain traits are located on the same
chromosome and are therefore inherited together.

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Sex linkage is a situation where the genes responsible for certain traits are located on the sex
chromosomes usually X, such that they must only be inherited by people of the same sex. They
include red-green colour blindness, premature balding and haemophilia in males.

Scenario: In cats, the genes controlling the coat colour are carried on the X chromosomes and are
co-dominant. A black coat female mated with an orange-coat male produced a litter consisting of
black male and tortoise-shell female (orange with black patches) kittens.
Task: Using genetic diagrams and suitable symbols, explain the results. State the resultant
phenotypic ratio.

Let the allele for black coat be B

Let the allele for orange coat be O

The phenotypic ratio of the offspring is 2 tortoiseshell females: 2 black coated males.

Scenario: Hemophilia in humans is controlled by a sex linked Gene on the X Chromosomes. The
queen Victoria of UK from 1837 to 1901 was a carrier for haemophilia and her offspring
inherited the allele.

Task: Assuming that Prince Albert of Saxe-coburg-gotha whom she got married to was a normal
man, show, by use of genetic diagrams and suitable symbols, the chance of having a hemophiliac
prince.

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Let the allele for hemophilia be h

Let the allele for normal be H

The chance that the prince was haemophiliac is 50% since of the two chances of producing a
boy, only one chance the boy is normal.

Scenario: Oscar is a biology teacher at Harvard High School who knows very well that his wife
is a carrier for Hemophilia. They gave birth to a baby boy and since then, Oscar has been
wondering whether his son is hemophiliac or not. One day, his son got a scratch that went deep
into his skin and he bled and this bleeding was severe because his blood failed to clot.

An image showing a family of a hemophiliac son

TASK:
Using genetic diagrams show how the condition came to their son and suggest a possible
solution.

Sample activity of integration

People always wonder why sometimes some children resemble / take up the characteristics of
one of their parents while others don’t. Some believe that when people stay together for long

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they start to resemble each other while other people oppose it. There is also a belief that failure to
produce a boy is the mother’s fault. Some of these issues have caused conflicts in families.

Task:
As a genetist write a newspaper article to clear these confusions.

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VARIATION & SELECTION

Variation is any difference between individual organisms of any species caused either by genetic
differences or by the effect of environmental factors on the expression of genetic potentials.
It allows some individuals within a population to adapt to the changing environment.
There are two types of genetic variations.
[Link] variations.
These are variations that show a gradual change in individuals without a clear-cut difference
between the two extremes.
It results into formation of intermediates.
Such variations include height, intelligence, skin Color, yield in plants, etc.
In such variations, organisms are usually very many around the mean/averagepoint.
GRAPHICAL ILLUSTRATION OF CONTINUOUS VARIATION

2. Discontinuous variation.
This is a variation, which shows a clear-cut difference between the two extremes without
intermediates.
This results into expression of only two phenotypes.
Examples of discontinuous variations include, tongue rolling, blood groups, sex, etc
CAUSES OF VARIATION
Some variations are inherited and are called inherited variations while others are occupied as a
result of the environment hence called environmentalvariations.
Examples of inherited variations are; blood groups, eye Color, albinism, hair, etc.
Examples of environmental variations are knowledge, etc.
Environmental factors that cause variations
✓Diet
✓Pathogens
✓Altitude
✓Light
Factors that cause inherited variations
✓Mutation
✓Crossing over
✓Fertilization
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Mutation
This is a sudden/spontaneous change in the structure and composition of a gene or chromosome.
Types of mutation
i)Chromosome mutation: this is a sudden change in the number or structure of a chromosome.
ii)Gene mutation: This is a sudden change in the chemical nature of a gene.

Examples of gene mutation/genetic disorders are albinism and sickle cell anemia.

Albinism
CAUSE:
Albinism is caused by a mutation in one of several genes involved in production or distribution
of a pigment called Melanin.
The defect may result in the absence or reduced amount of Melanin production. The defective
gene passes down from both parents to the child leading to albinism.
SYMPTOMS:
Absence of Color in the hair

Skin or eyes lighter than normal Coloring of the hair, skin or eyes

Patches of skin that have an absence of Color

Vision problems
Treatment
No known medical cure. But early intervention for infants and children can improve their
quality of life. Treatment depends on individual needs because each child is unique and different
stages of life may require different services.
The most recommended treatment is Team Care. Involves relying on a team of specialists to
provide medical care and help the child develop skills as fully as possible.
Depending on the needs of the child, the team of specialists may include a speech pathologist,
developmental pediatrician, pediatric cardiologist.

Sickle cell anaemia

Causes: Its an inherited recessive condition that results from a mutation in a gene responsible for
production of normal Haemoglobin, the defective gene results into production of abnormal
haemoglobin which makes Red Blood Cells sickleshaped.
SYMPTOMS:
➢ Anaemia: sickle cells break apart easily and die leaving one with few red blood cells
➢ Episodesofpain: pain develops when sickle-shaped RBCs block blood flow through tiny
blood vessels to the chest, abdomen and joints
➢ Swelling of hands and feet: swelling occurs when sickle-shaped cells block blood flow to
hands and feet.
➢ Vision problems, delayed growth at puberty, frequent infections.

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Treatment
➢ No known cure. But for some children and teenagers, a stem cell transplant might help
on the disease. Management of sickle cell anaemia is usually aimed at avoiding pain
episodes, relieving symptoms and preventing complications.
➢ Children with sickle cell anaemia might receive penicillinbetween ages of 2 months to at
least 5 years. This helps to prevent infections e.g. pneumonia, which is very threatening
to children with sickle cell anaemia
➢ Adults with sickle cell anaemia might need to take penicillinfor the restof theirlives
➢ Surgical procedures include: blood transfusions and stem cell transplant
➢ Life style remedies include: drinking plenty of water, avoid temperature extremes,
exercising regularly but not over exercising, quit or avoid smoking

Examples of chromosome mutation in man

i) Turner’s syndrome: the individual has one X chromosome. This gives rise to a sterile
abnormal short female and it is due to loss of one sex chromosome.
ii) Down’s syndrome (mongolism): this is due to the increase in the number of
[Link] individual is mentally retarded with weak muscles, a big or large
head, a broad chest, stunted growth and dropped eyes
iii) klinefelter’ssyndrome: this is due to an additional X chromosome in an individual. This
results in a sterile male who may be mentally retarded.
CAUSES OF MUTATIONS.
➢ Mutations are caused by substances generally referred to as mutagens. These include;
➢ High temperatures.

➢ Chemicals such as mustard gas, colchine and caffeine.

➢ High-energy particles such as alpha and beta particles.

➢ High-energy radiations such as x-rays, gamma rays and ultra violet radiations.

➢ Note; most mutations are disadvantageous and recessive. They are rare but persistent in
the population.

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EVOLUTION
Evolution is the process by which more complex forms of organisms arise from simpler forms
over a long period of time.
This is a gradual process by which organisms change from simple to complex forms over a
period of time

ASSIGNMENT
USING BIOLOGY TEXT AND INTERNET, MAKE A WRITE UP OF THE DIFFERENT
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

NATURAL SELECTION( HOW NATURAL SELECTION LEADS TO EVOLUTION)

This is the process by which organisms that are better adapted to the environment survive to
reproduce while those less adapted fail to do so and become extinct.
This is a process by which nature selects forthe best adapted organisms and selects againstthe
less adapted ones.
When the environment changes, it affects organisms and those, which possess characters that
enable them to survive in the changing environment and pass their genes to the next generation
while those lessadapted, die over a long period of time. This occurs because organisms possess
variations(differences between them).
The survival of the best adapted and removal of the less adapted is known as survival for the
fittest.
This theory was stated by Charles Darwin.
Darwin suggested that there must be a struggle for existence where by the fit individuals (better
adapted) survive and the unfit ones die (survival for the fittest).
Over a very long period of time these organisms can change into a different species. (Evolution)

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
This is sometimes called selective breeding which is the process by which humans use animal
breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular traits (characteristics).
This is done by choosing which individual animal or plant (males and females) with the most
desirable features to sexually reproduce and bear offsprings
Examples:
Dog breeding
Breeding of bulls
Development of fleshy vegetables
Creation of high yielding crops
ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
➢ Accelerates the breeding process and produce offsprings with specific offsprings

➢ Allows for development of crops with improved yields, animals with desirable traits e.g.
docility or high milk production

➢ Leads to creation of breeds suited for particular purposes e.g. working or companionship

➢ Provides a controlled environment for breeding, enabling targeted genetic modifications

to meet human needs in agriculture and animal husbandry

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DISADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

1. Potential reduction in genetic diversity within populations, which can make organisms more
susceptible to diseases and environmental changes

2. Over emphasis on specific traits may lead to unintended consequences e.g. increased
vulnerability to new threats

3. Results into neglect of other important but non-selected traits, leading to loss of overall
fitness in the organisms

4. May result into potential unintended consequences and long term effects on the ecosystems

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