MGY-002

REMOTE SENSING AND

IMAGE INTERPRETATION
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Sciences

Block

1
INTRODUCTION TO REMOTE SENSING
UNIT 1
Principles of Remote Sensing 5
UNIT 2
Interaction of EMR with Earth and Atmosphere 23
UNIT 3
Spectral Signature 41
Glossary 55
Programme Design Committee
Prof. V. N. R. Pillai Prof. Saumitra Mukherjee Prof. Anji Reddy
Former Vice-Chancellor School of Environmental Sciences Environment Science &
IGNOU, New Delhi JNU, New Delhi Technology
JNT University, Hyderabad
Prof. K. R. Srivasthan Dr. V. K. Panchal
Former ProVice-Chancellor Associate Director Mr. Sandeep Kumar Srivastava
IGNOU, New Delhi Defence Terrain Research Associate Director & Head
Laboratory, DRDO, Delhi Geomatics Solutions
Prof. Geeta Kaicker Development Group
Director, School of Sciences Prof. S. K. Pande C-DAC, Pune
IGNOU, New Delhi School of Studies in Geology &
Water Resource Management Dr. Benidhar Deshmukh
Prof. J. K. Garg Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University School of Sciences
Dean, University School of Raipur IGNOU
Environment Management
G.G.S. Indraprastha University Dr. Seema M. Parihar Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
New Delhi Associate Professor School of Sciences
Kirori Mal College IGNOU
Maj. Gen. (Dr.) R. Siva Kumar Joint Director, Developing
CEO, NSDI & Head, NRDMS Dr. Meenal Mishra
Countries Research Centre School of Sciences
Division, DST, New Delhi Delhi University, Delhi IGNOU
Dr. Shamita Kumar Late Dr. S. K. Pathan
Vice Principal Dr. M. Prashanth
Former Head School of Sciences
Institute of Environment GIDD/GTDG/RESA
Education & Research IGNOU
Space Applications Centre
Bharati Vidyapeeth University ISRO, Ahmedabad Dr. Omkar Verma
Pune School of Sciences
Mr. T. Radhakrishnan IGNOU
Prof. B. Krishna Mohan Chief Technical Officer
Centre of Studies in Resources IIITM-K, Trivandrum
Engineering, IIT-Bombay, Mumbai
Programme Coordinator: Dr. Benidhar Deshmukh
Block Preparation Team
Course Contributors Content Editor
Dr. Anant Parekh (Unit 1) Mr. V. Sivakumar (Unit 3) Dr. Abhijit Sarkar
Scientist, Indian Institute of Tropical Sr. Technical Officer Prof. Brahmprakash Scientist
Meteorology, Pune Geomatics Solutions Space Applications Centre
Development Group Ahmedabad
Dr. Samir Pokhrel (Unit 2)
C-DAC, Pune
Scientist, Indian Institute of Tropical
Meteorology, Pune
Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
School of Sciences, IGNOU
Course Coordinators: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi and Dr. Omkar Verma
Acknowledgement: We gratefully acknowledge Prof. Geeta Kaicker, Director, School of Sciences for thoroughly
reading and providing her valuable suggestions to improve this Course.

Print Production
Mr. Y. N. Sharma Ms. Mansi Bhatia for word processing
Section Officer (Pub.), SOS, IGNOU, New Delhi and graphic designing, IGNOU
March, 2012
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2012
ISBN-978-81-266-
Disclaimer: Any materials adapted from web-based resources in this module are being used for educational
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All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
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MGY-002 REMOTE SENSING AND IMAGE
INTERPRETATION
Remote sensing and image interpretation are relatively new fields. Remote
sensing is defined as a science and method of acquiring information about
Earth materials without coming in direct contact with the objects. This can be
done with the help of cameras/sensors mounted in the aircrafts or satellites.
Through remote sensing technique we can acquire data about characteristics of
the Earth in an almost continuous and two-dimensional fashion. Remote
sensors are designed in such a way that they record interaction between Earth
materials and electromagnetic radiation (EMR). Thus, it is useful for acquiring
information about Earth not only in visible light but also in other regions of
the spectrum that extend from gamma rays to microwaves. Each Earth object
has its own unique spectral characteristic (i.e. signature), which can help us to
discern them from others in remote sensing images. Process of extracting
information from remote sensing images is known as image interpretation.
This course contains four blocks. First two blocks deal with principles of
remote sensing and the other two blocks deal with image interpretation.
Block 1 “Introduction to Remote Sensing” deals with the principles upon
which remote sensing is based. It begins with the concept and historical
development of remote sensing and describes electromagnetic spectrum,
properties of EMR and radiation laws. It also provides basic understanding of
interaction of EMR with common Earth materials.
Block 2 “Sensors and Space Programmes” discusses about remote sensing
platforms and sensor systems, image resolution and major space programmes
in separate units. The block provides information on the commonly used platforms
and majority of the important sensors. It also discusses about image resolution.
Further, it provides an overview of major space programmes of the world.
Block 3 “Image Interpretation” describes elements and keys of image
interpretation, necessity of ground truth and types of remote sensing images.
The keys and elements are essential to accurately extract information present
in remotely sensed images. Information derived from image interpretation is
useful to explore and manage natural resources of the planet Earth. It mainly
discusses about visual image interpretation and introduces digital image
processing methods.
Block 4 “Processing and Classification of Remotely Sensed Images” deals
with the digital image processing concepts. It first explains the errors that
occur during the imaging and the techniques used for their rectification.
Further, it discusses image enhancement and transformation techniques, image
classifications and accuracy assessment.

Objectives
After studying this course you should be able to:
• define remote sensing and discuss its governing principles;
• describe remote sensors, their characteristics and major space programmes;
• explain visual image interpretation; and
• elucidate characteristics of digital images and their processing.
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self learning material.
Introduction to Remote
Sensing BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO REMOTE
SENSING

In MGY-001, you have been introduced to the geoinformatics including the

concepts of geospatial data, data products and formats, data analysis tools,
maps, map projections and mapping. You have also studied the spectrum of
application areas where geoinformatics can be applied.

As you now know after studying MGY-001 that there are several components of
remote sensing. Remote sensing is the main source of primary data. This block
which comprises three units, introduces you to the principles of remote sensing.

Unit 1 begins with definition of remote sensing and its brief history followed by
components involved in the process of remote sensing. Fundamental to remote
sensing and data acquisition is the energy i.e. electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and
its source. Further, this unit would introduce you to the electromagnetic radiation
and its properties and conclude by giving you an overview of some of the important
radiation laws governing EMR and remote sensing.

Remote sensors record the energy which reaches them after interacting with the
atmosphere and Earth. Unit 2 deals with the interaction of incoming EMR with
atmosphere and Earth. First, it introduces the processes which modify the incoming
EMR in the atmosphere before it reaches the Earth and sensors, and then it
discusses the processes which take place when EMR interacts with surface of the
Earth. It also mentions the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum for which the
atmosphere is transparent.

After studying interaction of EMR with atmosphere and the Earth it is now time to
understand spectral signature, which is the basis of understanding features present in
an image and identifying them. Unit 3 deals with the spectral signature which first
introduces the concept and then presents an overview of spectral signatures of
common Earth materials. Further, it also describes suitable spectral regions for
identifying vegetation, water, soil, minerals and rocks.

Objectives
After studying this block you should be able to:
• discuss the principles of remote sensing, properties of electromagnetic radiation
and related radiation laws;
• describe electromagnetic spectrum and their properties;
• elaborate on the processes that modify electromagnetic radiation in the
atmosphere and at the surface of the Earth; and
• explain spectral signatures of important Earth surface materials.
We hope that after studying this block you will acquire basic understanding of
the concept of remote sensing.

4
 Principles of Remote
UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE SENSING Sensing

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Remote Sensing
Definition
Remote Sensing System
Advantages and Limitations
1.3 History of Remote Sensing
1.4 Electromagnetic Radiation and its Properties
Electromagnetic Radiation Models
Properties of EMR
Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.5 Electromagnetic Radiation Laws
Planck’s Radiation Law
The Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann Laws
Kirchhoff’s Law
1.6 Summary
1.7 Unit End Questions
1.8 References
1.9 Further/Suggested Reading
1.10 Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In MGY-001, you have been introduced to geoinformatics, concepts of
geospatial data including maps and mapping. You also got an overview of
applications of geoinformatics. Now you will study the three main
components of geoinformatics i.e. remote sensing, GIS and GPS. In this
course you will be introduced to remote sensing while the latter two would be
covered in MGY- 003. In this unit you would be introduced to the concept and
basic principles of remote sensing. Remote sensing works on the basis of
electromagnetic radiation (EMR), hence, the characteristics of EMR and the
governing radiation laws would also be discussed.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• define remote sensing;
• list out major landmarks in the history of remote sensing;
• mention the components of remote sensing;
• describe electromagnetic energy and its properties;
• explain electromagnetic spectrum and its major divisions; and
• discuss important radiation laws governing remote sensing.
5
Introduction to Remote
Sensing 1.2 REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing can be broadly defined as the process of sensing (i.e.
Remote sensor or sensor acquiring information) from distance. It is formally defined as the science or
is a device which detects technique of obtaining information about objects on surface of the Earth
the electromagnetic
radiation reflected or
without physically coming into direct contact with them. The process of
emitted from an object. A remote sensing involves making observations and recording radiation coming
vehicle such as aircraft or from Earth features by sensors such as cameras, scanners, radiometers, etc.
satellite which carries the These sensors are mounted in platforms (such as helicopters, aeroplane, space
sensor is called platform. shuttle and satellites) located at a particular altitude above the Earth’s surface.

Refer to Unit 4, Sensors

We can relate our eyes functioning as a sensor which record information about
and Platforms, for details the objects without touching them. And, the brain is like a data storage as well
on types of sensors and as data processing device, which stores, processes and creates image of the
platforms. objects. However, remote sensing includes not only what is visual, but also
what can’t be seen with the eyes.

1.2.1 Definition
There are number of definitions of remote sensing and some of the most
referred are given below:

Sabins (1978) has defined remote sensing as “a method that employs

electromagnetic energy such as light, heat, and radio waves as the means of
detecting and measuring target characteristics”. Further, he excludes
electrical, magnetic, and gravity methods from remote sensing because they
measure force fields rather than electromagnetic radiation.

According to Lillesand and Kiefer (1979), remote sensing is “the science and
art of obtaining useful information about an object, area or phenomenon
through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with
the object, area, or phenomenon under investigation”.

Campbell (2002) has defined remote sensing as “the practice of deriving

information about the Earth’s land and water surfaces using images acquired
from an overhead perspective, using electromagnetic radiation in one or more
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, reflected or emitted from the Earth’s
surface”.

According to the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

(ASPRS), remote sensing is “the measurement or acquisition of information of
some property of an object or phenomenon, by a recording device that is not
in physical or intimate contact with the object or phenomenon under study”
(Colwell, 1983). In 1988, ASPRS adopted a combined definition of
photogrammetry and remote sensing which states that “Photogrammetry and
remote sensing are the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable
information about physical objects and the environment, through the process
of recording, measuring and interpreting imagery and digital representations
of energy patterns derived from non-contact sensor systems” (Colwell, 1997).

As you have noticed, some of the definitions refer to remote sensing as both
an ‘art’ and ‘science’. Let us now understand why it is called both ‘art’ and
‘science’. Remote sensing is a ‘science’ when information is extracted from
6
remote sensing data using mathematical and statistical methods based on some Principles of Remote
Sensing
scientific facts whereas it is an ‘art’ when the remote sensing data is analysed
using background or prior knowledge that cannot be measured and is obtained
through experience. However, remote sensing analysts usually draw inferences
from both the science and art of remote sensing analysis to derive information
from remote sensing data.

1.2.2 Remote Sensing System

You now know that remote sensing is a tool for gathering information about
objects at a distance. However, it is not just about a sensor or platform. There
are several steps in remote sensing system as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Basic components of remote sensing; A – Energy source, B – Energy

interactions with the atmosphere and sensors, C – Interaction of EMR with
Earth surface features, D – Detection of signals by the sensor, E – transmission
of remotely sensed data to ground stations, and F – processing and utilisation of
the data. Information derived from remote sensing data is generally presented
in the form of a map or table

• Source of Energy (A): The first and very important requirement for
remote sensing is an energy source which provides electromagnetic
energy to the Earth. It may be either from natural (e.g. solar radiation) or
artificial (e.g. RADAR) sources. For remote sensing, Sun’s radiations are
commonly used as a source of energy.
• Interaction of energy with the atmosphere (B): When energy travels
from its source to the Earth surface, it comes in contact with the Earth’s
atmosphere where it interacts with atmospheric constituents. The energy
reflected from Earth’s surface is received by remote sensors. In this
process the energy once again interacts with atmosphere.
• Interaction with Earth surface features (C): Energy reaching the Earth
surface through the atmosphere interacts with the Earth surface features.
The interaction and its outcome depend on the characteristics of the
features and the energy.
• Recording of energy by the sensor (D): After interacting with Earth
surface features the reflected and emitted energy travels to the sensor.
And, the sensor records the reflected and emitted energy. 7
Introduction to Remote • Transmission, reception, and processing of the recorded signals (E):
Sensing
The energy recorded by the sensor is transmitted in the form of signals to
receiving and processing station on the Earth. The signals are in
electronic form and are processed and converted into an image.

• Utilisation of the data (F): The processed image is interpreted and

analysed to extract information about the object of interest.

The above mentioned components comprise the remote sensing system and
underline the importance of energy and its interaction with atmosphere and
Earth features.

1.2.3 Advantages and Limitations

After understanding the concept of remote sensing let us now look at its
advantages and limitations.
Remote sensing has several advantages as listed below:
• it provides a synoptic view
• it is a cost effective means of data collection
• it can provide data in wavelengths beyond the sensing capability of
human eye
• it can acquire data of inaccessible areas
• it is an unobtrusive means of data collection which does not change
characteristics of the object or phenomenon being observed
• it provides historical data sets which is useful to know characteristics of
an object in a given point of time in past.
Advantages of remote sensing have been oversold and despite having several
advantages remote sensing has following limitations:
• it is sometimes found that appropriate data is not available or easily
acquired particularly in the tropical regions where cloud cover obstructs
acquisition of image because not all sensors can ‘see’ through cloud
Optics is the branch of
• remote sensing equipments can become uncalibrated with time resulting
physics which involves the
behaviour and properties into errors in data collected.
of light, including its
interactions with matter. 1.3 HISTORY OF REMOTE SENSING
Aeronautics is the science
that involves the study,
Let us now get an idea about historical developments of remote sensing. The
design, and manufacturing era of remote sensing is considered to have begun in 1858 when a balloonist,
of flight or the techniques G. Tournachon (alias Nadar) took photographs of Paris from his balloon. Later,
of operating aircraft. messenger pigeons, kites, aeroplanes, rockets and unmanned balloons were
also used for early imaging. However, history of remote sensing can be linked
Spectrometry is the
measurement of radiation
with the development and understanding of optics and aeronautics. Aristotle
intensity as a function of (300BC) is credited with the first experiments on optics. Galileo Galilei
wavelength and is often (1609) and Sir Issac Newton (1666) scientifically explained optics and
used to describe spectrometry. The systematic aerial photography began during the World War I
experimental for military surveillance and reconnaissance purposes. During World War I,
spectroscopic methods.
aeroplanes were used on a large scale for these purposes as the aeroplanes
were proved more reliable and stable platforms for Earth observation than
8
balloons. However, the important developments of aerial photography and Principles of Remote
Sensing
photo interpretation took place during World War II. During this time span, the
development of other imaging systems such as near-infrared photography,
thermal sensing and radar also took place. RADARSAT is a
constellation of pair of
Canadian Remote Sensing
The development of artificial satellites in the later half of the 20th century satellites.
allowed remote sensing to progress to a global scale. As a consequence
UARS (Upper Atmosphere
various Earth resources (e.g. Landsat) and weather (e.g. Nimbus) satellites and
Research Satellite) was a
more recent missions such as RADARSAT and UARS provided global NASA operated orbital
measurements of various data for civil, research, and military purposes. observatory whose
Table 1.1 gives a brief historical overview of development in the remote mission was to study the
sensing technology. Space probes to other planets have also provided the Earth’s atmosphere,
particularly the protective
opportunity to conduct remote sensing studies in extra terrestrial
ozone layer.
environments; synthetic aperture radar aboard the Magellan spacecraft
provided detailed topographic maps of Venus, while instruments aboard
SOHO allowed studies to be performed on the Sun and the solar wind, just to SOHO (Solar and
Heliospheric Observatory)
name a few examples. is a spaceborne solar
observatory jointly
Table 1.1: Major milestones in the history of remote sensing developed by European
Space Agency (ESA) and
Year Milestones
National Aeronautics and
1800 Discovery of infrared by Sir W. Herschel Space Administration
(NASA) of USA to study
1801 Theory of the perception of the colour by Thomas Young
the Sun from its deep core
1839 Beginning of practice of photography to the outer corona and the
solar wind. Launched in
1859 Photography from balloons
1995 it began its normal
1873 Description of electromagnetic spectrum by J.C. Maxwell operations in May 1996.
Originally planned as a
1909 Photography from airplanes
two year mission, it still
1916 Aerial reconnaissance during the World War I continues to operate after
1935 Development of radar in Germany over fifteen years
in space. Till date it has
1940 Applications of non-visible part of electromagnetic spectrum during World War II discovered over
1959 First space photograph of the Earth by Explorer-6 2100 comets.

1960 Launch of the first TIROS meteorological satellite

1970 Skylab remote sensing observations from the space
1972 Launch of the first Earth resource satellite (Landsat-1)
Refer to Unit 4 Sensors
1972 Rapid advances in digital image processing and Platforms, for details
1982 Launch of new generation of Landsat sensors (Landsat-4) on platforms, orbits and
types of sensors.
1986 Launch of French Earth observation satellite (SPOT-1)
1986 Development of hyperspectral sensors
1990 Development of high resolution space borne systems
1995 Launch of RADARSAT
1998 Advancements towards low cost one-goal satellite missions
1999 Launch of MODIS Terra EOS, Landsat-7 ETM+ and Earth observation
satellites by commercial space agencies (IKONOS)
2000 Launch of SRTM
2002 Launch of ENVISAT, SPOT-5 and Launch of MODIS Aqua
2006 Launch of RADARSAT-2
9
Introduction to Remote It would be appropriate here to also list major milestones in the history of
Sensing
Indian remote sensing as given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Major milestones in the history of Indian remote sensing

(source: [Link]
Year Milestones
1920 First use of aerial photography
1962 Establishment of a rocket launching station
1972 Establishment of the Department of Space
1975 Launch of the First Indian satellite ‘Aryabhatta’
1979 Launch of the Earth observation satellite ‘Bhaskara’
1982 Launch of INSAT-1A
1988 Launch of the First Indian Remote Sensing Satellite programme, IRS-1A
1991 Launch of IRS-1B
1994 Launch of IRS-P2
1995 Launch of INSAT-2C
1997 Launch of IRS-1D
1999 Launch of OCEANSAT-1 (IRS-P4)
2001 Launch of the GSAT-1 and Technology Evaluation Satellite (TES)
2002 Launch of KALPANA (METSAT)
2003 Launch of RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-P6)
2005 Launch of CARTOSAT-1 (IRS-P6)
2007 Launch of CARTOSAT-2
2008 Launch of Chandrayaan-1
2009 Launch of ANUSAT, OCEANSAT-2 and RISAT-2
2010 Launch of CARTOSAT-2B
2011 Launch of YOUTHSAT, RESOURCESAT-2 and Megha-Tropiques

Recent developments include, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, with the
development of computer processing of satellite images. Following the
successful demonstration flights of Bhaskara-1 and Bhaskara-2 satellites
launched in 1979 and 1981, respectively, India began to develop the
indigenous Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) series of satellites to
support the national economy in the areas of agriculture, water resources,
forestry and ecology, geology, marine fisheries and coastal management. Data
from the IRS series is received and disseminated by several countries all over
Refer to Unit 4 Sensors the world. With the advent of high-resolution satellites new applications in the
and Platforms, for details areas of urban sprawl, infrastructure planning and other large scale
on types of orbits. applications for mapping have been initiated. The IRS series of satellites is the
Refer to Unit 5 Image
largest constellation of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation
Resolutions, for more today in the world. These satellites are placed in polar sun-synchronous orbit
details on spectral and and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions.
temporal resolution.
In the next section, you will be introduced to the various sources of the
electromagnetic energy and their characteristics.

10
Check Your Progress I Spend Principles of Remote
5 mins Sensing
1) List out the steps of remote sensing system.
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1.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND ITS The unit of EMR is

Wm-2ster-1μm-1 i.e. the rate
PROPERTIES of transfer of energy (watt,
W) recorded at a sensor
The most familiar form of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is visible light. per square metre on the
We see the world around us with the help of information reaching to our eyes. ground, for one steradian
The sense associated with eyes is known as sight or vision and is stimulated (i.e. solid angle) from a
point on Earth’s surface to
by light. Eyes convert the incoming light into electrical signals and convey
the sensor, per unit
them to brain, which creates picture/image in our mind after processing. wavelength being
Similarly, as discussed in the last section, sensors record energy which has measured.
interacted with Earth surface features. This energy serves as the main
communication link between the sensor and the object. In this section, we will
discuss about the electromagnetic energy and its properties.

As you know, energy is the ability to do work. When a work is carried out,
energy is transferred from one body to another or from one place to another.
These energy transfers take place in three ways, i.e. conduction, convection
and which occurs when one body transfers its kinetic energy to another by
colliding with it. Heating and boiling of water in a bowl is the example of
convection in which the kinetic energy of water molecules is transferred from
one place to another by physical movement of the molecules. Heating of an
iron rod at one end and transfer of heat to the other end of the rod is an
example of conduction wherein energy transfer takes place by direct contact.
Another way of energy transfer takes place in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. When you feel heat despite standing away from a fire is an example
of radiation. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require a
medium to transfer energy through. Radiant energy is defined as the energy
carried by electromagnetic radiation. And, you should remember that
everything that has a temperature above absolute zero radiates energy.

For remote sensing, Sun is the source of electromagnetic radiation (EMR). You will learn about solid
angle in section 1.5 of this
The Sun may be assumed to be a blackbody with surface temperature around unit.
6000°K. When Sun is used as an energy source for remote sensing it is known
as passive remote sensing but when artificial source of electromagnetic energy Refer to section 1.5 for the
is used it is known as active remote sensing. Examples of active remote concept of blackbody.
sensing are radar and lidar.

It would be useful here to understand the basic properties of EMR because

electromagnetic energy forms the basic source for remote sensing.
11
Introduction to Remote
Sensing
1.4.1 Electromagnetic Radiation Models
To explain the nature of EMR and its propagation through space and its
interaction with matter two different models, i.e. Wave model and Particle
model have been given.

a) Particle Model of Electromagnetic Energy

The particle model of electromagnetic energy was given by Sir Isaac
Newton in 1704. According to this theory light behaves as a stream of
Sir Isaac Newton, an En- particles or corpuscles and travels in straight line. He also knew that light
glish physicist, mathemati- had wave like characteristics based on his experiments. Following are the
cian, astronomer and a phi- properties of the particle model of electromagnetic energy:
losopher, described univer-
sal gravitation and the three • light travels in straight lines
laws of motion. He built the
first practical reflecting tele- • light can be reflected
scope. • light can travel through a vacuum

b) Wave Model of Electromagnetic Energy

The wave model was formulated by Maxwell in 1862. According to this
theory, light travels like a wave which has electric and magnetic fields.
This model is able to explain phenomenon such as propagation,
dispersion, reflection, refraction and interference of electromagnetic
Max Planck was a German waves. Eventually, work of some scientists seemed to point out that there
physicist who is regarded as were aspects of light that could be explained more clearly using a wave
the founder of the quantum model.
theory, for which he
received the Nobel Prize in
c) Wave Particle Duality
Physics in 1918.
Scientists like Huygens (1690) and Young (1804) had given definite proof
Dispersion is the separation
of light into its different that light behaves like a wave. Planck and Einstein showed that light must
coloured rays. Rainbow is be a particle. It seems as though one must be right, and the other wrong.
the most familiar example Both aspects (wave and particle) make up light at the same time. This
of dispersion, which causes leads us to the current way of describing light, the model known as Wave
the spatial separation of a
Particle Duality. Wave particle duality postulates that all matter exhibits
white light into components
of different wavelengths both wave and particle properties. Albert Einstein was able to come up
(i.e. colours). with a solution as long as he assumed that energy came in little pieces,
Reflection is the throwing called Quanta. This led Einstein to come up with a theory that joined the
back of light, heat, or idea of Quanta to an explanation of light. This meant the light came in
sound without absorbing it little pieces that were named photons. This also helped to explain the
by a body or surface.
phenomenon called Blackbody Radiation.
Refraction is the bending
of electromagnetic rays as
they pass from one
1.4.2 Properties of EMR
medium into another. Electromagnetic fields have many interesting properties. These properties
A blackbody is a matter make them very unique and enrich the science of remote sensing. Let us now
which absorbs all discuss about these properties in brief. Three characteristics of EMR, which
electromagnetic energy are particularly important for understanding the concept of the remote sensing,
incident upon it and does
not reflect nor transmit
are wavelength, amplitude and frequency.
any energy.
• wavelength is the distance over which the wave’s shape repeats (Fig. 1.2).
Blackbody radiation is
It is usually determined by considering the distance between consecutive
defined as thermal
radiation of a blackbody. corresponding points of the same phase, such as crests or troughs. It is
measured in μm and denoted by Greek letter ë.
12
• frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time Principles of Remote
Sensing
(Fig. 1.2). It is measured in Hertz (Hz) and denoted by Greek letter í .

• amplitude is the maximum extent of a vibration or oscillation (Fig. 1.2).

(a) Albert Einstein was a

German-born theoretical
physicist. He is often
regarded as the father of
modern physics for his
achievement in developing
the theory of general
relativity. He received
Nobel Prize in Physics in
1921for his contribution to
theoretical physics, and
(b) especially for his
Fig. 1.2: Sinusoidal wave of (a) short wave length (high frequency) and (b) long wavelength discovery of the law of the
(low frequency) photoelectric effect.

Some of the other properties of EMR are listed below:

• the electric (E) and magnetic (F) fields are always perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the wave (as shown in Fig. 1.3). Thus, the wave is a
transverse wave Transverse waves: These
waves move perpendicular
• the electric field is always perpendicular to the magnetic field (Fig. 1.3) to the direction of energy
transfer.

Sinusoidal: A smooth
repetitive succession of
waves or curves. This
wave pattern occurs often
in nature, including ocean
waves, sound waves, and
light waves.

Fig. 1.3: Propagating electromagnetic (EM) wave with speed C in x direction and
electric and magnetic field corresponding to EM wave (source:
[Link]/glossary/index_e.php?id=3104)

13
Introduction to Remote • the cross product of electric and magnetic fields always gives the
Sensing
direction of travel of the wave
Light emitted by the Sun, • the variations of fields are sinusoidal, so also are the transverse waves.
a flame or a lamp is
created by electric charges Moreover, the fields vary with the same frequency and in phase with each
that vibrate in different other (Fig. 1.3)
directions and create an
electro-magnetic wave that • the speed (c) at which electromagnetic waves move in vacuum is
vibrates in a variety of 299,792,458 m/s (~ 3×108 m/s). If you send a beam of light along an axis
directions. We can assume and ask your friends to measure its speed while they move at different
the light waves as speeds along that axis, either in the direction of the light or opposite it,
vibrating in a vertical and
horizontal plane as shown
they will all measure the same speed for the light. This result is amazing
in the figure below. and very different from what would have been found if your friends had
measured the speed of any other type of wave. For other waves, the speed
of the observers relative to the wave would have affected their
measurements
• if you measure the travel time of a pulse of EMR from one point to
another, you are not really measuring the speed of the EMR but rather the
When a light wave distance between those two points
vibrates in more than one
plane it is known as
• the plane containing the E vectors is called the plane of oscillation of the
unpolarised light. In wave, hence, the wave is said to be plane polarised in the y direction in Fig.
polarised light the 1.3 which shows an electromagnetic wave with vertical (linear) polarisation.
vibrations occur in a single
plane. The unpolarised 1.4.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum
light can be transformed
into polarised light using As you have studied, EMR is a form of energy exhibiting wave like behaviour as it
some filters and this travels through space. EMR ranges from very high energy radiation such as gamma
process of transformation rays and X rays through ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared radiation and
is known as polarisation.
microwaves to radio waves. The range of frequencies of EMR is known as
There are numerous electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 1.4). You should note that the division of the
applications of polarised electromagnetic spectrum is for practical use. The gamma rays and X rays are
light. Use of a pairs of potentially dangerous and also the ultraviolet light is powerful enough to cause
sunglasses to eliminate the sunburn. Human eyes use visible light to see objects. We can feel infrared radiation
glare resulting from
sunlight reflecting off the
as heat. We employ microwaves in microwave ovens and radio waves are used for
water of a pond is a good communications. All the types of EMR are wave forms which travel at the speed of
example. The glare from light. The radiation can be defined in terms of either their wavelength or frequency.
the water is result of Shorter wavelength radiations (infrared or shorter) are generally described in terms
concentration of light of its wavelength, whereas longer wavelength radiations (microwave, etc.) are
aligned parallel to the
water surface. To block
generally described in terms of its frequency.
such plane polarised light,
a filter must be used which In remote sensing, mostly visible, infrared and microwave bands are used. Fig. 1.4
has a vertically aligned shows the electromagnetic spectrum, which covers the wavelength (frequency) from
polarisation axis. 10-12 to 104 m (1020 to 104 Hz). Table 1.3 gives details of nomenclature of
microwave and radio wave frequencies used in remote sensing and Table 1.4 gives
the information on microwave bands used in the microwave sensors.

14
 Principles of Remote
Sensing

Fig. 1.4: Electromagnetic spectrum with wavelength and frequency information of

different spectrum bands (source: [Link]/resource/tutor/
fundam/index_e.php)

Table 1.3: Nomenclature of microwave and radio wave frequency

Abbre- Full Form Frequency Wavelength

viation

EHF Extremely High Frequency (Microwaves) 30-300 GHz 1mm-1cm

SHF Super High Frequency (Microwaves) 30-3 GHz 1cm-10cm

UHF Ultra-High Frequency (Microwaves) 3GHz-300 MHz 10cm-1m

VHF Very High Frequency 300-30 MHz 1m-10m

HF High Frequency 30-3 MHz 10m-100m

MF Medium Frequency 3MHz-300 kHz 100m-1km

LF Low Frequency 300-30 kHz 1-10km

VLF Very Low Frequency 30-3 kHz 10-100km

VF Voice Frequency 3kHz-300 Hz 100-1000km

ELF Extremely Low Frequency 300-30 Hz 1000-10000km

Table 1.4: Nomenclature of the microwave bands as used in the

microwave sensors

Band Wavelength Frequency

mm-Band 1-7.5mm 40-300 GHz

Ku-K-Ka-Band 0.75-2.5 cm 12-40 GHz

X-Band 2.5-4 cm 8-12 GHz

C-Band 4-8 cm 4-8 GHz

S-Band 8-15 cm 2-4 GHz

L-Band 15-30 cm 1-2 GHz

15
Introduction to Remote Check Your Progress II Spend
Sensing 5 mins
1) List out the basic properties of EMR.
A blackbody is an ideal ......................................................................................................................
surface which absorbs the
entire radiations incident ......................................................................................................................
upon it. It is a perfect
......................................................................................................................
absorber and a perfect
radiator observing all the
incident radiation 1.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION LAWS
reflecting none and
emitting radiation at all Remote sensing is based on properties of electromagnetic energy. The
wavelengths. Because no
light is reflected or
properties of EMR interacting with matter are systematised in a simple set of
transmitted, the object rules called radiation laws, which define quantitative aspects of the properties
appears black when it is of electromagnetic energy. These laws apply when the radiating body is what
cold. physicists call a blackbody radiator. So, before studying radiation laws, let us
understand what a blackbody is. Generally, blackbody conditions apply when
Solid angle (Ù) is a two- the radiator has very weak interaction with the surrounding environment and can
dimensional angle in be considered to be in a state of equilibrium. Although stars do not satisfy
three-dimensional space perfectly the conditions to be blackbody radiators, they do to a sufficiently good
that an object subtends at
approximation that it is useful to view stars as approximate blackbody radiators.
a point. Hence, it is a three
dimensional cone and is a Let us now understand the concept of blackbody. All materials above absolute
measure of how large that zero (-273.14°) temperature emit radiation. If you look at two different kinds
object appears to an
of material, each at the same temperature, you will find that the radiation
observer looking from that
point. In other words, it is being emitted by them is different. This led physicists to invent the perfect
the angle that, seen from emitter, known as a blackbody, which emits the maximum amount of radiation
the center of a sphere, at each wavelength. Although some materials come very close to being perfect
includes a given area on emitters in some wavelength ranges, no real materials are a perfect blackbody.
the surface of that sphere.
Fortunately, the radiation inside a cavity whose walls are thick enough to
The value of the solid
angle is equal to the size prevent any radiation from passing directly through them can be shown to be
of that area divided by the the radiation that would be emitted by a blackbody (Fig. 1.5). By observing
square of the radius of the the radiation inside the cavities, physicists knew the empirical relationship
sphere (Ù = A/r2). A small between blackbody radiation and the two variables on which it depends, i.e.
object nearby may subtend
temperature and wavelength.
the same solid angle as a
larger object farther away
(for example, the small/
near Moon can totally
eclipse the large/remote
Sun because as observed
from a point on the Earth,
both objects fill almost
exactly the same amount
of sky).

Fig. 1.5: Illustration showing concept of a blackbody. Radiation passing through the
small cavity is completely absorbed in a blackbody

We will now discuss the fundamental laws of radiation which are important
for understanding EMR and more relevant to remote sensing.
16
Planck made the revolutionary assumption that an oscillating atom in the wall of a Principles of Remote
cavity can exchange energy with the radiation field inside a cavity only in discrete Sensing
bundles called quanta or photon. He defined a constant (h) to relate frequency (í )
to radiant energy (Q) as given below:
Q = hí ........................................... (1)
where,
Q = Radiant energy,
í = frequency, and
h is known as Planck’s constant.
With this assumption, he showed that the radiation being emitted by a blackbody is
given by Planck’s Radiation Law, which governs the intensity of radiation emitted
by unit surface area into a fixed direction (i.e. solid angle) from the blackbody as a
function of wavelength for a fixed temperature. The Planck’s Law can be expressed
through the following equation:
2c2 h
Bl (T) = hc ..................................... (2)
l5
e l kT
-1
where,
Bë(T) is known as spectral radiant exitance (in Wm2sr–1μm–1) at wavelength
ë (in μm) and temperature T (in K),
h is Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10–34 J.s)
c is the velocity of light (2.998 × 108 ms–1), and
k is the Boltzmann constant (1.380 × 10–23 JK–1). Emission is the process by
which a body emits EMR
Radiant exitance is the power of electromagnetic radiation per unit area usually as a consequence
radiated by a surface. When it is considered for a specific frequency in the of its temperature only.
spectrum it is called spectral radiant exitance.
Transmission is the
As shown in Fig. 1.6, the Planck’s Law gives a distribution that peaks at a certain passing of radiation
wavelength. The peak shifts to shorter wavelengths for higher temperatures, and through a substance
the area under the curve grows rapidly with increasing temperature. without significant
attenuation.

Absorption is a process
by which radiation is
converted to other types of
energy (especially heat) by
a material. It causes
reduction in strength of an
electromagnetic wave
propagating through a
medium.

Fig. 1.6: Blackbody radiation curve for objects at different temperature. Note the shift in
maximum emission peak
17
Introduction to Remote
Sensing
1.5.2 The Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann Laws
The behaviour of blackbody radiation is described by the Planck’s law. From the
Planck’s law, one can derive two other radiation laws i.e. the Stefan-Boltzmann
law and the Wien’s displacement law. These two laws illustrated below are very
important in remote sensing to understand characteristics of EMR:

Stefan-Boltzmann law defines relationship between total emitted radiation (E) and
temperature and is expressed as:

E = σT 4 ........................................................ (3)

where,
E = radiant energy per surface unit measured in Watts m-2 leaving a blackbody
ó = 5.6697 × 10–5 (Watts m–2 k–4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and
T = absolute temperature of the blackbody in Kelvin (K).
The Wien’s displacement law defines the relationship between the wavelength of
the radiation emitted and the temperature of the object and is expressed as:

ë max = ...................................................... (4)

where,
ëmax is the wavelength at which radiance is maximum (unit of the ë is in
Angstroms), and
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin (K).

The Wien’s Displacement law gives the wavelength of the peak of the
radiation distribution, while the Stefan-Boltzmann law gives the total energy
being emitted at all wavelengths by the blackbody (which is the area under the
Planck’s law curve). Thus, the Wien’s law explains the shift of the peak to
shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases, while the Stefan-Boltzmann
law explains the growth in the height of the curve as the temperature
increases. Notice that this growth is very large, since it varies as the fourth
power of the temperature.

1.5.3 Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff, a physicist, demonstrated in 1860 that a body acts as a perfect
blackbody if
• the sides of the body are maintained at a constant absolute temperature
(temperature of blackbody)
• a very small hole in comparison to the dimensions of the body is made in
the body itself.
We know from the principle of conservation of energy that when a surface
intercepts incident (incoming) radiation it interacts with it and some amount of
radiation is reflected, absorbed and transmitted. This can be expressed as
Ei = Er + Ea + Et ............................................... (5)
18
 where, Principles of Remote
Sensing
Ei is incident radiation
Er is reflected radiation
Ea is absorbed radiation, and
Et is transmitted radiation
Equation (5) can be written as

E i E r E a E t .......................................... (6)
= + +
Ei Ei Ei Ei

Or 1 = ñ + á + ô .......................................... (7)
where,

is a coefficient of reflection (reflectivity),

is a coefficient of absorption (absorpitivity), and

is a coefficient of transmission (transmissivity).

Values of ñ, á and ô ranges between 0 and 1 and from Equation (7) we

understand that transparent bodies
öö energy
æEmitted only transmit (ô = 1), or opaque bodies do
EE by the real body at T 0
reta = çç ÷ t
ar ÷ not transmit (ñ + á = 1). You 0should note that there is no existence of any body
EEii ÷
èEmitted
÷
øø energy
which by the black
shows body
constant at T
behaviour in all the wavelengths. Hence, reference to a
definite wavelength or spectral range (band width) is always used.

Before discussing the Kirchhoff’s law it is necessary to introduce the term

emissivity (å). Emissivity expresses the efficiency with which the body
irradiates. It is defined as

................ (8)

Or, å = M/Mb .................................................................. (9)

where,
å is emissivity,
M is emittance of a given object,
Mb is emittance of a blackbody at the same temperature, and
T0 is absolute zero temperature.
Emissivity is dimensionless and its value lies between 0 and 1. The value of 0
refers to a non-radiating source and 1 refers to a blackbody. Since the
blackbody absorbs all the energy and at the same time emits radiation with
higher efficiency, its value of emissivity is equal to 1.

Kirchhoff demonstrated that in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic

19
Introduction to Remote spectrum, the emissivity of an object generally equals its absorptance, i.e.
Sensing
á =å ................................................................. (10)

From the above equation it can be said that good absorbers are good emitters and
good reflectors are poor emitters. Hence, from Equations (7) and (10) we can
express that

ñ + å + ô = 1 .......................................................... (11)

Since, most real world materials are usually opaque to thermal infrared radiation,
we can assume transmittance ô = 0, hence

ñ+å=1 ............................................................ (12)

You should remember that this equation is important as it describes why objects
appear as they do on thermal infrared images. Since, the terrain theoretically does
not lose any incident energy to transmittance, all energy leaving the object accounts
for by the relationship between reflectivity (ñ) and emissivity (å).

1.6 SUMMARY
In the present unit you have studied that:
• Remote sensing is an art and science of obtaining information about objects
from a distance.
• Remote sensing, which started with the understanding of optics, has now led to
the development of multispectral, hyperspectral and microwave remote sensing
satellites.
• Remote sensing processes include energy source or illumination, radiation and
its interaction with the atmosphere, interaction with the target, recording of
energy by the sensor, transmission, reception and processing, interpretation,
analysis and application.
• EMR is of primary interest in remote sensing. Sun is the most important source
of EMR and the full moon is the next strong source of EMR.
• Models of light were divided into two groups, i.e. particle model and wave
model.
• In EMR the electric and magnetic fields are always perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the wave.
• The range of frequencies of EMR is known as electromagnetic spectrum
and covers the wavelength from 10-12 to 104 m (1020 to 104 Hz).
• Kirchhoff’s radiation law regulates the relationship among the coefficients
of reflection, transmission, absorption and emission.
• Planck’s radiation law defines the behaviour of the energy emitted by a
surface as a function of wavelength and temperature.
• Stefan-Boltzmann’s radiation law furnishes the total quantity of energy emitted
by a surface calculated on the whole electromagnetic spectrum, for any
20
 temperature. Principles of Remote
Sensing
• Wien’s displacement law points out the wavelength value in correspondence
with the maximum electromagnetic emission at a defined temperature.

1.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What is remote sensing?
2) What are the basic properties of electromagnetic radiation?
3) Discuss in brief about electromagnetic radiation laws.

1.8 REFERENCES
• [Link]
• [Link]/glossary/index_e.php?id=3104
• [Link]/resource/tutor/fundam/index_e.php
All the above websites were retrieved between May 14 and October 30, 2011.

1.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READING

• Halliday, D., Resnick, R. and Walker, J. (2001), Fundamentals of Physics,
John Wiley and Sons, 592p.
• [Link]
• Joseph, G. (2005), Fundamental of Remote Sensing, University Press,
486p.
• [Link]/pdf/02_Chapter01.pdf.

1.10 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I
1) The processes of remote sensing are illumination by an energy source,
interaction of energy with the atmosphere while travelling to the Earth,
interaction of EMR with the Earth surface features, interaction of energy
with the atmosphere while travelling to the sensor, recording of energy by
the sensor in form of signals, transmission of the signals to ground
station, reception and processing by ground station, and utilisation by
users.

Check Your Progress II

1) The basic properties of EMR are frequency, wavelength and amplitude.

Unit End Questions: (Hints)

1) Refer to section 1.2.

21
Introduction to Remote 2) Refer to section 1.4.
Sensing
3) Refer to section 1.5.

Appendix 1: Some common prefixes for standard units of measurement

Prefix Symbol Multiplier Common name

giga G 109 billion(US)
mega M 106 million
kilo k 103 thousand
centi c 102 hundredth
milli m 103 thousandth
micro μ 106 millionth
nano n 109 thousand millionth

22
 Principles of Remote
UNIT 2 INTERACTION OF EMR WITH Sensing

EARTH AND ATMOSPHERE

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Energy-Atmosphere Interaction
Refraction
Scattering
Absorption
2.3 Energy-Earth Interaction
Reflection
Transmission
2.4 Important Terminologies
Radiant Energy
Radiant Flux
Radiant Intensity
Irradiance and Exitance
Radiance
Albedo
2.5 Activity
2.6 Summary
2.7 Unit End Questions
2.8 References
2.9 Further/Suggested Reading
2.10 Answers

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have studied about history and processes of remote
sensing and electromagnetic energy and its properties. You have also studied
about the models of electromagnetic radiation (EMR). Now you know that
EMR is the basis of remote sensing and most of the remote sensing sensors
use Sun’s energy (radiation) for collecting information about objects on the
Earth’s surface. Sensors record the radiation coming from the Sun after
interacting with the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface. Particles and gases in
the atmosphere can affect the incoming light or radiation. The radiation
reaching the remote sensor is modified significantly because of the processes
taking place in the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface. This unit discusses in
detail about how these radiations interact in the atmosphere and at the Earth’s
surface. An account of the important terminologies used in remote sensing is
also given.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• explain the interaction of EMR with atmosphere; 23
Introduction to Remote • describe how absorption and scattering together attenuate the electromagnetic
Sensing
radiation through different mechanisms;
• discuss atmospheric windows and their importance; and
• describe how the radiation interacts with the Earth’s surface.

2.2 ENERGY-ATMOSPHERE INTERACTION

On hot sunny days, the As you know the word ‘atmosphere’ refers to the gas layers surrounding the Earth.
atmosphere near the Constituents of atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ozone, water
Earth’s surface is very hot vapour and other gases. EMR coming from the Sun has to pass through the Earth’s
because of the turbulent
hot air with different
atmosphere twice before being detected by the satellite sensor – once on its
densities and hence journey from the Sun to the Earth and second time after being reflected / emitted by
different refractive the Earth’s surface to the sensor. Particles and gases present in the atmosphere
indices. The difference in interact with the incoming light and reflected / emitted radiation. Our interest in this
refractive indices makes interaction is related to the fact that atmospheric components diffuse, refract,
the air bubbles act as
lenses, slightly deviating
reflect, absorb and emit EMR changing the original radiance of the objects
the transmitted light. This observed by a remote sensor. The interaction of EMR with the atmosphere is
deviation causes the important to remote sensing for two main reasons:
mirage effect as seen in
the following figure. • information carried by EMR reflected/emitted by the Earth’s surface is
modified while traversing through the atmosphere, and
• interaction of EMR with the atmosphere can be used to obtain useful
information about the atmosphere itself.

Fig. 2.2: Mirage seen in the

The change in incident radiation on its way towards satellite sensor is
road in a hot sunny day governed by several atmospheric effects as shown in Fig. 2.1. These effects are
(source: [Link] caused by the mechanisms of refraction, reflection, scattering, absorption and
[Link])
transmission.

Fig. 2.1: Interaction of EMR in the Atmosphere

We will now discuss about these mechanisms.

2.2.1 Refraction
Atmospheric refraction is the deviation of electromagnetic wave from a
straight line as it passes through the atmosphere due to variation in air density,
which varies with altitude. Atmospheric refraction near the ground produces
mirages (Fig. 2.2) and can change the look of distant objects. Atmospheric
refraction causes astronomical objects to appear higher in the sky than they are
in reality. It affects complete spectrum of EMR in varying degrees. For
example, in visible light, blue is more affected than red. The amount of atmospheric
24
example, in visible light, blue is more affected than red. The amount of Interaction of EMR with
Earth and Atmosphere
atmospheric refraction is a function of temperature, pressure and humidity.
The presence of turbulence in the air makes atmospheric refraction
inhomogeneous. This is the cause of twinkling of the stars and deformation of If the sun (or moon) is low
the shape of the Sun at sunset and sunrise (Fig. 2.3). Atmospheric refraction is above the horizon, the
minimum in the zenith and maximum at the horizon. In day-to-day life, we optical path of light
through the atmosphere is
often experience refraction; e.g., when we insert a spoon in a water-filled
very long, and the
bowl, it appears slightly elevated (Fig. 2.4). atmosphere usually has a
layered structure of
different temperature
gradients and pressure.
Refraction of the light by
these layers can cause the
sun’s disk to be deformed,
flattened or distorted
(Fig. 2.3).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.4: (a) When white light passes through a prism, its components, i.e., VIBGYOR
are visible on the other side of the prism illustrating the refraction Fig. 2.3: Deformities seen in
phenomenon; (b) Another example from everyday life is when you insert a Sun’s shape when it is in
spoon or straw in a glass of water, it appears slightly bent at the water surface; horizon (source:
and (c) Representation of refraction of light at the interface of two media [Link])

2.2.2 Scattering
Anisotropy is the property
Most of the light that reaches our eyes comes not directly from its sources but of being directionally
indirectly by the process of scattering. You see diffusely scattered solar dependent, as opposed to
radiation when you look at clouds or at the sky. The land and water surfaces isotropy, which implies
and the objects surrounding us are visible through the light they scatter. An identical properties in all
electric lamp does not send us light directly from the luminous filament but directions.
usually glows with the light that has been scattered by the glass bulb. Unless
you look at a source, such as the Sun, a flame, or an incandescent filament Isotropic:Scattering is
with a clear bulb, you see light that has been scattered. In the atmosphere, you different from reflection in
see many colourful examples of scattering generated by molecules, aerosols, the sense that the direction
associated with scattering
and clouds containing droplets and ice crystals. Blue sky (Fig. 2.5), white is unpredictable whereas
clouds, and magnificent rainbows and halos, to name a few, are all optical the direction of reflection
phenomena due to scattering. Scattering is a physical process associated with is predictable.
the light and its interaction with matter. It occurs at all wavelengths covering
the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Scattering redirects
incident EMR and deflects
reflected EMR from its
path.

Aerosols are airborne

particulate matter.

Fig. 2.5: Scattering of blue colour from sunlight 25

Introduction to Remote continuously abstract energy from the incident wave and re-radiates that energy in
Sensing
all directions. Therefore, a particle may be thought of as a point source of the
scattered energy. In the atmosphere the particles responsible for scattering cover
the sizes from gas molecules (~10-8cm) to large raindrops and hail particles (~1
cm). The relative intensity of the scattering pattern depends strongly on the ratio of
Scattering is a very particle size to wavelength of the incident wave. If scattering is isotropic, the
important consideration in
remote sensing scattering pattern is symmetric about the direction of incident wave. A small
investigations because it anisotropic particle tends to scatter light equally into the forward and rear
can severely reduce the directions. When the particle becomes larger, the scattered energy is increasingly
information content of concentrated in the forward directions with greater complexities.
remotely sensed data to
the point that the imagery Radiation scattered from a particle is a function of several things such as shape, size
loses contrast and then it and index of refraction of particle, wavelength of radiation, and surface geometry.
becomes difficult to For a spherical scatterer, the scattered radiation is a function of only viewing angle,
differentiate one object
index of refraction, and the size parameter defined as
from another.
÷ = 2 ð r /ë .................................... (1)
where,
÷ is the size of particle,
Scattering is a process in
which EMR interacts with r is the radius of the sphere, and
particles or large gas ë is the wavelength of the radiation.
molecules present in the
atmosphere and cause it to Depending on the size parameter, the following two types of scattering take place.
be redirected in all
• Selective scattering
direction from its original
path by reflection and • Non-selective scattering
refraction.
a) Selective Scattering
Scattering depends on When the scattering is wavelength-dependent, it is known as selective
several factors such as the
scattering. Selective scattering are of two types – Rayleigh scattering and
wavelength of the
radiation, the abundance Mie scattering.
of particles or gases, and • Rayleigh Scattering
the distance the radiation
travels through the Rayleigh scattering is named after the English physicist, Lord Rayleigh,
atmosphere. who offered its explanation. Rayleigh scattering is caused by very small
particles and gas molecule with radii for less than the wavelength of EMR
of interest (Fig. 2.6). Primarily, it occurs due to oxygen and nitrogen
molecules in the sky; thus it is also known as molecular scattering.
Rayleigh scattering can be considered to be elastic scattering since the
photon energies of the scattered photons is not changed. Scattering in
which the scattered photons have either a higher or a lower photon energy
is called raman scattering. Usually, this kind of scattering involves
exciting some vibrational modes of the molecules, giving lower scattered
photon energy, or scattering off an excited vibrational state of a molecule
which adds its vibrational energy to the incident photon.
The intensity of light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength of the light.
I α 1 / ë4 ................................................ (2)
where,
I and ë are scattering intensity and wavelength of incident radiation,
respectively.

26
 Interaction of EMR with
Earth and Atmosphere

The sky appears blue

because as sunlight passes
through the atmosphere,
the shorter wavelengths
(i.e. blue) of the visible
spectrum are scattered
more than the other
(longer) visible
Fig. 2.6: Angular patterns of the scattered intensity for Rayleigh scattering wavelengths. However,
(source: [Link]/~see/weather/almanac/arc2008/[Link]) during sunrise and sunset,
the sky appears red
Since the extent of scattering is inversely proportional to the 4th power of because during the sunrise
wavelength, shorter wavelengths such as blue light in the visible and sunset the light has to
travel farther through the
spectrum are affected the most. Rayleigh scattering is also responsible for atmosphere than at midday
red sunsets. During sunsets, sunlight passes through a longer path of air and the scattering of the
than at noon. Since the violet and blue wavelengths are scattered more shorter wavelengths is
during their longer path through the air than at noon, hence, what we see more complete; this leaves
at sunset is the residue, i.e., the wavelengths of sunlight that are hardly a greater proportion of the
longer wavelengths light
scattered away specially the oranges and reds. (red) to penetrate the
atmosphere.
• Mie Scattering
Mie scattering occurs when the particles in the atmosphere are of the
same size as the wavelengths being scattered. It is caused by particles
with radii between 0.1 and 10μm such as dust, smoke and salt (aerosols).
Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie
scattering, which tends to affect longer wavelengths. Mie scattering
occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger
particles are more abundant, and dominates when cloud conditions are
overcast. The amount of scattering is greater than Rayleigh scattering.
The violet and blue light are scattered away more with an increasing
amount of smoke and dust particles in the atmosphere and only the longer
orange and red wavelength light reaches our eyes.

b) Non-Selective Scattering
Non-selective scattering are wavelength-independent. It is caused by
particles (water droplets and ice fragments in cloud) whose radii exceed
10μm. The scattering is independent of the wavelength; all the
wavelengths are scattered equally and not just blue green and red. Non-
selective scattering takes place in the lower portion of the atmosphere
where there are particles more than 10 times the wavelength of the
incident EMR. The most common example of non-selective scattering is
the appearance of clouds as white. As clouds consist of water droplet
particles and the wavelengths are scattered in equal amount, the clouds
appear as white.

Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this type of scattering and
thus cause fog and clouds to appear white to our eyes because blue, green, and
red light are all scattered in approximately equal quantities.
Scattering creates an effect of haziness in remote sensing images, which reduces
contrast in images. It also creates ‘adjacency effect’ in which signal recorded in a
27
Introduction to Remote pixel partly incorporates the scattered signal from the neighbouring pixels. It is
Sensing
required to introduce an important term here, i.e., ‘path radiance’. The radiation
that has been scattered in the Earth’s atmosphere and has reached the sensor
Distortions in remote without contacting the Earth’s surface is known as path radiance. It is essential to
sensing image due to remove the path radiance from remote sensing images before any image analysis
atmospheric phenomena
particularly for multi-date images.
and the relevant
correction processes are 2.2.3 Absorption
discussed in Unit 11 of
MGY-002. By the time EMR is recorded by a sensor, it has already passed through the Earth’s
atmosphere twice (once while travelling from the Sun to the Earth and second time
while travelling from the Earth to the sensor). When light travels through
Strength of absorption atmosphere, a gradual reduction in its intensity occurs. The reduction in intensity
is represented by
with distance in a medium (i.e., atmosphere) is called attenuation of light as
absorption cross section
shown in Fig. 2.7. This attenuation occurs mainly because of the scattering and
ó a in units of cm2. It is
basically division of absorption of light in atmosphere. Absorption is the process by which radiation
absorption coefficient (radiant energy) is absorbed and converted into other forms of energy such as heat
and number density or chemical energy. Absorption is wavelength-dependent. Absorption of light
(number of molecules occurs because part of the incident light is transformed into the energy of motions of
per unit volume). It the atoms in the medium. It can take place in the atmosphere or on the terrain.
represents a molecule’s
effective area for
absorption of radiation.

Fig. 2.7: Attenuation of a light wave in an absorbing medium

To understand it better, let us take an example. Grass appears green because it

scatters green light more effectively than red and blue light. Apparently, red
and blue light incident on the grass is absorbed. The absorbed energy is
converted into some other form, and it is no longer present as red or blue light.
In the visible spectrum, absorption of energy is nearly absent in molecular
atmospheres. Clouds also absorb very little visible light. Both scattering and
absorption removes energy from the beam of light. Thus, beam of light is
attenuated, and we call this attenuation extinction.
There are three main atmospheric constituents, which absorb solar radiation.
The three constituents are ozone (O3), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water vapour
(H2O). Ozone gas, which plays an important role in the Earth’s energy
balance, has maximum concentration in the stratosphere (at the altitude of
about 20 to 30 km). Ozone absorbs high energy; it prevents short wavelength
portion of the ultraviolet spectrum to transmit through the lower atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide, which occurs mainly in lower atmosphere, absorbs radiation
in the mid and far infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Maximum
absorption occurs in the region from about 13 to 17.5 μm. Abundance of water
vapour significantly varies with time and location. However, it is commonly
present in the lower atmosphere. Water vapour contributes significantly to the
absorption of radiation particularly in several bands in the region between 5.5 and 7
28 μm.
It is important to note here that all media show some absorption. Media which Interaction of EMR with
Earth and Atmosphere
absorb all wavelengths more or less equally are said to show general
absorption whereas media which absorb some wavelengths more strongly than
others are said to show selective absorption.
The ability of a medium to absorb energy is measured as the absorptance and
is expressed as
Absorbed radiation
Absorptance (α) = —————————
Incident radiation
From remote sensing point of view, absorption in the visible, near Infrared and
thermal Infrared regions of EMS is important. Significant amount of
absorption in visible and near infrared (NIR) band is basically due to
molecular oxygen and ozone, water vapour, carbon dioxide and some other
minor gases. Water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and
chlorofluorocarbons absorb radiation in thermal infrared band.
As you know, windows are used as a motion for air ventilation and lights.
Similarly, there are certain portions of electromagnetic spectrum where light
can travel through atmosphere with much absorption. The absorption by
various constituents in the atmosphere results in limiting portions of the EMR
from reaching the Earth. Hence, the Earth’s atmosphere is not completely
transparent to EMR. For remote sensing, this limits us to portions of the EMS
where radiation is not strongly absorbed. This portion of the atmosphere is
called Atmospheric Windows.
Position, extents and effectiveness of atmospheric window are determined by
the absorption spectra of atmospheric gases. Energy outside the atmospheric
windows is severely attenuated by the atmosphere and hence cannot be
effective for remote sensing. The most important atmospheric windows are the
visible window (0.4 – 0.7 μm), the 3.7 μm window, the microwave windows
(2 – 4 mm and >6 mm), and the 8.5 –12.5 μm window as shown in Fig. 2.8.
The visible window is mainly affected by ozone absorption and by molecular
scattering. The 8.5 – 12.5 μm infrared window is punctuated by the 9.6 μm
ozone absorption band, and is affected by water vapour absorption.

Fig. 2.8: Atmospheric windows in the EM spectrum. Chemical notations (CO2, O2, etc.)
indicate the gases responsible for blocking the radiation at a particular
wavelength (source: [Link]
RemoteSensing/ remote_04.php)

The dark (black) areas in Fig. 2.8 denote regions of the EMS where
atmosphere absorbs most of the radiation and light (grey) areas are the
29
Introduction to Remote The dark (black) areas in Fig. 2.8 denote regions of the EMS where
Sensing
atmosphere absorbs most of the radiation and light (grey) areas are the
atmospheric windows.

The infrared channels are most often between 1 and 30 μm. The most
common infrared band for meteorological satellites is in the 10 – 12.5 μm
window, in which the atmosphere is relatively transparent to radiation
upwelling from the Earth’s surface. Even in the atmospheric window regions,
scattering by the atmospheric constituents produces spatial redistribution of
energy.

In a broad sense, remote sensing of the Earth’s surface is generally confined to

certain wavelength regions as given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1:Remote sensing of the Earth’s surface with respect to wavelength

region
S. No. Atmospheric Window (μm) Region
1 0.3 – 0.4 μm UV
2 0.4 – 0.7 μm Visible
3 0.7 – 3.0 μm Reflected infrared
4 3.0 – 5.0 μm Thermal infrared
5 8.0 – 11.0 μm Thermal infrared
6 1.0 mm – 1.0 m Microwave

Spend Check Your Progress I

5 mins
1) Point out the mechanisms that are responsible for interaction of EMR and
atmosphere.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

2) What do you mean by scattering?

......................................................................................................................
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30
by the Earth’s surface. The absorbed short wave (visible) radiation by Earth’s Interaction of EMR with
Earth and Atmosphere
surface is emitted as a long wave radiation (infrared band). The complete process is
shown in Fig. 2.9. This physical process changes the magnitude, direction,
wavelength, polarisation and phase of the EMR. These changes are detected by the
remote sensor and enable the interpreter to obtain useful information about the
object of interest. The remotely sensed data contain both spatial information (size,
shape and orientation) and spectral information (tone, colour and spectral
signature).

There are three major regions in EMR-Earth interaction that are important in
remote sensing. The visible and NIR spectral band from 0.3 ìm to 3 ìm is
known as the reflective region. In this band, the Sun’s radiation sensed by the
sensor is reflected by the Earth’s surface. The band corresponding to the
atmospheric window between 8 ìm and 14 ìm is known as the thermal
infrared band. The energy available in this band for remote sensing is due to
thermal emission from the Earth’s surface. Both reflection and self-emission
are important in the intermediate band from 3 ìm to 5.5 ìm.

Fig. 2.9: Interaction of EMR with Earth’s surface

In the microwave region (1-30 cm) of the spectrum, the sensor is normally a
radar, which is an active sensor, as it provides its own source of EMR. The
EMR produced by the radar is transmitted to the Earth’s surface and the EMR
reflected (back-scattered/radar return) from the surface is recorded and
analysed. The microwave region can also be monitored with passive sensors,
called microwave radiometers, which record the radiation emitted by the
Earth’s surface and its atmosphere in the microwave region. We will now
discuss about two phenomenon i.e., reflection and transmission.

2.3.1 Reflection
When light travelling in a medium (i.e., atmosphere) encounters a surface
leading to a second medium (Earth’s surface), part of the incident light is
returned to the first medium from which it came. This phenomenon is called
reflection. In other words, reflection is the phenomenon in which the incident
radiation is returned back to the same medium due to the discontinuity of
electromagnetic characteristics at the interface of two media. Reflection occurs
when a ray of light is re-directed as it strikes a surface as shown in Fig. 2.10.
Understanding of reflection is important, since about a third of the energy from the
sun is reflected.
31
Introduction to Remote
Sensing

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.10: An illustration of reflection of light. You can see inverted images of the (a) letters
and (b) the glass object on the floor. You are able to see the inverted images of the
objects on the shiny floor because of the reflection of light (c) (èi is angle of
incident ray and èr is angle of reflected ray)

Let us recall the laws of reflection here. As you know, the first law of reflection
states that if the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that occurs is
called specular or regular reflection. The laws of reflection are as given below:
• the incident ray (èi), the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface
at the point of the incidence lie in the same plane as shown in Fig. 2.10(c). This
plane is called the plane of incidence.
• the angle of reflection(èr) (the angle which the reflected ray makes to the same
normal) is equal to the angle of incidence (the angle which the incident ray
makes with the normal) as shown in Fig. 2.10(c).

The ability of a medium to reflect energy is measured as the reflectance and it is

defined as a ratio between reflected radiation and incident radiation [ñ(ë)]:

Reflectance radiation
Reflectance ñ(ë) = —————————
Incident radiation

Reflectance [ñ(ë)] is the ratio of reflected energy to incident energy and hence
is a measure of how much radiation is reflected off a surface. Its value ranges
from 0 to 1. Value of 0 means that 0% of incident radiation is reflected off the
surface and the value of 1indicates that 100% of the incident radiation is
reflected.
Spectral reflectance [ñ(ë)] is the ratio of reflected energy to incident energy as
a function of wavelength. Various materials of the Earth’s surface have
different spectral reflectance characteristics. Spectral reflectance is responsible
for the colour or tone in a photographic image of an object. Trees appear green
because they reflect more of the green wavelength. The values of the spectral
reflectance of objects averaged over different, well-defined wavelength
intervals comprise the spectral signature of the objects or features by which
they can be distinguished. To obtain the necessary ground truth for the
interpretation of multispectral imagery, the spectral characteristics of various
natural objects have been extensively measured and recorded.

The spectral reflectance is dependent on wavelength. It has different values at

different wavelengths for a given terrain feature. The reflectance
characteristics of the Earth’s surface features are expressed by spectral
32 reflectance, which is given by:
The spectral reflectance is dependent on wavelength. It has different values at Interaction of EMR with
Earth and Atmosphere
different wavelengths for a given terrain feature. The reflectance
characteristics of the Earth’s surface features are expressed by spectral
reflectance, which is given by:
ñ(ë) = [ ER(ë) / EI(ë) ] x 100 ....................................... (3)
where,
ñ(ë) is spectral reflectance (reflectivity) at a particular wavelength,
ER(ë) is energy of wavelength, reflected from object, and
EI(ë) is energy of wavelength, incident upon the object.
The plot between ñ(ë) and ë is called a spectral reflectance curve. This varies
with the variation in the chemical composition, physical conditions and EM
properties of the object, which results in a range of values. The spectral
response patterns are averaged to get a generalised form, which is called
spectral response pattern for the object concerned. Spectral signature is a term
used for unique spectral response pattern, which is characteristic of a terrain
feature. Fig. 2.11 shows a set of typical reflectance curves for three basic types
of Earth surface features, viz., the healthy vegetation, the dry bare soil (grey-
brown and loamy) and clear lake water.

Fig. 2.11: Typical spectral reflectance curves for vegetation, soil and water (source:
Liliesand and Kiefer, 1993)

The spectral characteristics of these three main Earth surface features are
discussed below.
Nature of reflection depends on sizes of surface irregularities (i.e., roughness
or smoothness) with respect to the wavelength of the radiation considered. If
the surface is smooth in comparison to wavelength, then specular reflection
occurs (Fig. 2.12a). In specular reflection, almost all the incident radiation is
redirected in a single direction. For such reflection, angle of incidence is equal
to the angle of reflection. Specular reflection can occur with surfaces such as
smooth metal and calm waterbody. If the surface is rough relative to the
wavelength, then energy is scattered more or less equally in all directions as
shown in Fig. 2.12 d. This property of light is known as diffuse reflection. So,
33
Introduction to Remote whichever angle we observe from, a perfectly diffuse reflector would have
Sensing
equal brightness in all the directions. It is largely by diffuse reflection that we
see non-luminous objects around us. Uniform grass surface is a good example
of diffuse reflectors. Perfectly diffuse reflectors are also called as Lambertian
surface since the concept of perfectly diffuse reflecting surface is derived
from the work of J.H. Lambert. He observed that the perceived brightness of a
perfectly diffuse surface does not change with the angle of view. This
behaviour of light is known as Lambert’s cosine law.
It is important to note here that the two laws of reflection are obeyed in
specular reflection. They do not hold in case of irregular or diffuse reflection.
Much of the reflection of solar radiation takes place from the top of clouds and
Johann Heinrich Lambert other materials in the atmosphere and hence a significant amount of this
(1728-1777) was a Swiss
mathematician, physicist
energy is reradiated back to space.
and astronomer. He
conducted many
experiments designed to
describe the behaviour of
light. Lambert was the first
to introduce hyperbolic
functions into
trigonometry. He was also (a) (b) (c) (d)
the first mathematician to
address the general Fig. 2.12: Different types of scattering surfaces (a) perfect specular reflector; (b) near
properties of map perfect specular reflector; (c) near perfect diffuse reflector; and (d) perfect
projections. He also diffuse reflector (Lambertian surface)
developed a theory of the
generation of the universe To have true reflection, a real discontinuity in the index of reflection is
that was similar to the required. The spatial scale of discontinuity, compared to the wavelength of the
nebular hypothesis. radiation, must also be significant for a perfect reflection to take place. The
energy reflects off at an interface, at the same angle at which it initially strikes
the surface, as seen in Fig. 2.12. Of all the interactions in the reflective region,
surface reflections are the most useful and revealing in remote sensing
In optics the refractive applications. The reflection intensity depends on the surface refractive index,
index of a substance is a
measure of the speed of
absorption coefficient and the angles of incidence.
light in that medium and is As you have now understood, reflection exhibits certain fundamental
expressed as a ratio of the
characteristics (as stated in laws of reflection) that are important in remote
speed of light in vacuum
relative to the medium i.e. sensing.
n = speed of light in a
vacuum/speed of light in 2.3.2 Transmission
medium. When electromagnetic radiation is incident on Earth’s surface, part of the
energy gets scattered from the surface (which is known as surface scattering)
and a part of the energy gets transmitted into the medium. In homogeneous
materials, the radiation is simply transmitted but in inhomogeneous materials,
the transmitted radiation gets further scattered (which is known as volume
scattering). The signal received by sensors is a combination of both the
processes, i.e., surface and volume scattering.
Transmission of radiation occurs when radiation passes through a substance
without significant attenuation (Fig. 2.13). The ability of a medium to transmit
energy is measured as the transmittance and it is defined as the ratio between
transmitted radiation and incident radiation (ô):
Trammitted radiation
Transmittance (ô) = —————————
34 Incident radiation
Introduction to Remote and moisture. Changing humidity and the dust content in the air at a given point
Sensing
throughout the year determine the annual atmospheric transmittance at that point.
The atmosphere is most transmissive in winter and least transmissive in summer. A
significant decrease in atmospheric transmittance is observed as a result of
increasing air pollution, especially when the dust content increases.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is the range of thermal infrared band?
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Spend
5 mins ......................................................................................................................
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2) Spectral reflectance is the ratio of ..............................................................

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2.4 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES

It is essential for us to get introduced to some important radiometric terminologies
which are often used in remote sensing.

2.4.1 Radiant Energy

It is the quantity of energy carried by the EMR. It is a measure of the capacity of
radiation to perform work (heat, movement, etc.). Radiant energy refers to the
quantity of energy propagating into or through a surface of a given area in a given
period of time. It is represented as Q and its unit is Joules (J). When radiant energy
is considered at a particular wavelength, it is called spectral radiant energy and is
represented as Që.

2.4.2 Radiant Flux

It is the rate of flow of radiant energy onto or through a surface. To understand it
better, it may be compared to the rate of flow of water past a position along a pipe.
It is represented by Ö and is measured in Joules per second (J s-1) or watts (W).

When the radiant flux is considered at a wavelength, it is called spectral radiant

flux and is represented as Öë. It is measured in Joules per second per micron (J s–1
m–1) or watts per micron (W m-1).

2.4.3 Radiant Intensity

We can further refine our measurement of radiant flux by including a direction.
Radiant flux leaving a source per unit solid angle in a given direction is called radiant
intensity. It is represented by I and its unit is watts per steradian (W sr-1).

2.4.4 Irradiance and Exitance

36 Now we can refine the measurement of radian flux by including the size of the area.
It is the amount of radiant flux incident (arriving) upon per unit area of a surface. It Interaction of EMR with
Earth and Atmosphere
is represented as E and its unit is watts per meter square (W m-2). When it is
considered at a wavelength, it is represented as Eë and is expressed as:
Eë = Ö ë / A …………………………. (4)

The amount of radiant flux emitted (leaving) from a unit area of a surface is called
exitance. It is represented as M. When it is considered at a wavelength, it is
represented as Më and is expressed as

Më = Ö ë / A ………………………. (5)

2.4.5 Radiance
It is the most precise radiometric measurement in remote sensing. It is the radiant
flux per unit solid angle leaving a per unit projected source area in a given direction.
In other words, it is the radiant intensity per unit of projected source area. To better
understand the concept of radiance, you can compare it with what you would see if
you were in an airplane and looking at the ground through a telescope. You would
only see the energy that exited the ground and came through the telescope in a
specific solid angle (Ù).

Radiance is represented as L and its unit is watts per meter square per steradian
(W m-2 sr-1). When the radiance is considered in a particular wavelength, it is
represented as Lë.

L l = ( l ) ………………....... (6)
f /W
A cos q

2.4.6 Albedo
It is defined as the ratio of the electromagnetic energy reflected or diffused by a
surface to the total incident energy. Albedo of objects varies from object to object.
Fresh snow has higher albedo (in the range of about 75 to 95%) and dark soil has
lower albedo (in the range of about 5 to 10%). Albedo also varies with the Sun’s
angle and the variations are large with tilted angles of the solar rays from 0º to 30º.

Some of the above discussed and frequently used terminologies are summarised in
Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Important radiometric terminologies often used in remote sensing

Term Concept Symbol Unit
Radiant Energy The quantity of energy propagating into, off of Q J
or through a surface of given area in a given
period of time
Radiant Flux Rate at which photons (quanta) strike a surface, Ö J s–1 or W
or in other words, rate of flow of radiant energy
onto or through a surface
Radiant Intensity Radiant flux leaving a source per unit solid I W sr–1
angle in a given direction

37
Introduction to Remote Table 2.2: Important radiometric terminologies often used in remote sensing
Sensing
Term Concept Symbol Unit
Radiant Energy The quantity of energy propagating into, off of Q J
or through a surface of given area in a given
period of time
Radiant Flux Rate at which photons (quanta) strike a surface, Ö J s–1 or W
or in other words, rate of flow of radiant energy
onto or through a surface
Radiant Intensity Radiant flux leaving a source per unit solid I W sr–1
angle in a given direction
Irradiance Radiant flux incident (arriving) upon per unit E W m–2
area of a surface
Radiant Exitance Radiant flux emitted (leaving) from a unit area M W m–2
of a surface
Radiance Radiant flux per unit solid angle leaving a per L W m–2 sr–1
unit projected source area in a given direction
Reflectance Ratio of reflected energy to incident energy ñ(ë) %
Albedo The ratio of the electromagnetic energy A %
reflected or diffused by a surface to the total
incident energy

2.5 ACTIVITY
You have read about interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the
atmosphere and the Earth’s surface. You are now aware of different types of
phenomenon taking place in journey of electromagnetic radiation from Sun to
Earth and back to satellite sensor. You might be enthusiastic to do some
activities to better understand these phenomena.

1) As we know now, the colour of an object is not actually within the object
itself. Rather, the colour is in the light that shines upon it and is ultimately
reflected or transmitted to our eyes. So you can try to see a yellow
coloured object (yellow is a mixture of red and green colour) in a red
light. You can note down the colour changes observed.

2) You can build your own filter wheel (using different coloured films)
through which you can examine a colour image.

3) You can observe the changes in the colour of sun rays from early morning
to afternoon and again till evening. The process of scattering will be
clearly understood to you.

2.6 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what we have studied in this unit:
• Scattering, reflection and absorption are important phenomena which take
place when EMR interacts with the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.

• In the atmosphere, scattering and absorption are the prominent

mechanisms for attenuation of the radiation.
38
 Interaction of EMR with
2.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS Earth and Atmosphere

1) How does scattering differ from absorption, although both attenuate the
radiation?
2) Define atmospheric windows and state the infrared window which is used
for remote sensing.
3) Why does the sky appear blue and Sun in the horizon red?
4) What is spectral reflectance?
Spend
30 mins
2.8 REFERENCES
• [Link] remote_04.php
• Lilliesand, T.M and Kiefer, R.W. (1993), Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation, 3rd Ed., John Willey and Sons, 820p.
• [Link]/atmospheric-radiation/[Link]
• [Link]/~see/weather/almanac/arc2008/[Link]
• [Link]
• All the websites were retrieved on May 17, 2011.

2.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READING

• Joseph, G. (2005), Fundamental of Remote Sensing, University Press,
486p.
• Jensen, J.R. (2009), Remote Sensing of the Environment, 2nd Ed., Indian
edition by Dorling Kindersley India Pvt. Ltd., 592p.
• [Link]/pdf/02_Chapter01.pdf.

2.10 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I

1) Refraction, reflection, scattering, absorption and transmission.

2) Scattering is a physical process by which a particle in the path of an EM

wave continuously abstract energy from the incident wave and re-radiates
that energy in all directions.

Check Your Progress II

1) The band corresponding to the atmospheric window between 8 ìm and 14

ìm is known as the thermal infrared band.

2) Reflected energy to incident energy.

Unit End Questions

1) Scattering is basically redistribution of incident energy through the process of

39
Introduction to Remote reflection and refraction, however in absorption the one form of EMR is
Sensing
transformed to other form through the process of emission.

2) A range of EM wavelengths to which Earth’s atmosphere is largely or partially

transparent is called atmospheric windows. The infrared window of 10 - 12.5
μm is used for remote sensing in case of meteorological satellites.

3) Sunlight reaches Earth’s atmosphere and is scattered in all directions by all the
gases and particles in the air. Blue light is scattered in all directions by the tiny
molecules of air in Earth’s atmosphere. Blue is scattered more than other
colours because it travels as shorter, smaller waves. This is why we see a blue
sky most of the time. As the Sun gets lower in the sky, its light passes through
longer distance in the atmosphere to reach you. Even more of the blue light is
scattered, allowing the reds and yellows to pass straight through to your eyes.
Hence, the Sun at the horizon appears red.

4) Spectral reflectance is the ratio of reflected energy to incident energy as a

function of wavelength.

40
 Interaction of EMR with
UNIT 3 SPECTRAL SIGNATURE Earth and Atmosphere

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 What is Spectral Signature?
3.3 Spectral Signature of Vegetation
3.4 Spectral Signature of Soil
3.5 Spectral Signature of Water
3.6 Spectral Signature of Minerals and Rocks
3.7 Summary
3.8 Unit End Questions
3.9 References
3.10 Further/Suggested Reading
3.11 Answers

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous two units, you have studied about electromagnetic radiation
(EMR) and its interaction with the Earth’s surface and its atmosphere. You
have also learned about the refraction, reflection, scattering, absorption, and
transmission of EMR. Different Earth’s features display different spectral
behaviour depending upon their interactions with EMR. This spectral
behaviour forms the basis on which Earth features on the image are identified
by an image analyst. In this unit, we will discuss about the spectral properties
and signatures of the common Earth’s surface materials such as vegetation,
water, soil, minerals and rocks.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• define spectral signature;
• explain how spectral signatures differ with object to object;
• distinguish the objects such as vegetation, water, soil, minerals and rocks
based on their spectral signatures; and
• identify and explain spectral signatures by reading graphs.

3.2 WHAT IS SPECTRAL SIGNATURE?

Spectral signatures are the combination of reflected, absorbed and transmitted
or emitted EMR by objects at varying wavelengths, which can uniquely
identify an object. When the amount of EMR (usually intensity of reflected
radiation or reflectance in percentage) coming from the material is plotted
over a range of wavelengths, the connected points produce a curve which is
known as spectral signature of the material or in other words spectral
response curve. To interpret remote sensing images, it is absolutely important 41
Introduction to Remote to start with a basic understanding of spectral signature, which means how
Sensing
different terrain features such as water, rock, soils, and vegetation, interact
with the different wavelengths (bands) of the EMR.
The spectral signature of an object is a function of the incident EMR and that
part of electromagnetic (EM) spectrum in which they are interacting. The
energy reflected back from the object is measured by instruments such as task-
specific spectrometer.
All spectral reflectance data are unique to the material and the environment in
which they are measured as shown in Fig. 3.1. Mineral/rock signatures, for
example, will vary from sample to sample. Vegetation is even more variable,
being dependent on growth stage, plant health, and moisture content.

Fig. 3.1: Spectral signatures of common Earth materials in NIR – near infrared,
SWIR – shortwave infrared regions of the electromagnetic energy (modified
after [Link]/[Link])
Let us now study spectral properties of common Earth’s surface materials
individually.

3.3 SPECTRAL SIGNATURE OF VEGETATION

As you see, vegetation appears green. We know that an object appears green
when it reflects green light (light in green region within the visible range of
the EM spectrum). In case of vegetation, reflection of green light is due to the
presence of the chlorophyll pigment in plant leaves. Presence of the
chlorophyll pigment results in unique spectral signature of vegetation that
enables us to distinguish it easily from other types of land cover (non-living)
features in an optical/near-infrared image. The reflectance of vegetation is low
in both the blue and red regions of the EM spectrum, due to absorption of blue
and red wavelengths by chlorophyll for photosynthesis. It has a peak
reflectance at the green region that gives green colour to vegetation. In the
near infrared (NIR) region, the reflectance is much higher than that in the
visible band due to the cellular structure in the leaves. Hence, vegetation can
be easily identified in the NIR region of spectrum. Typical spectral signature
of green vegetation is shown in Fig. 3.2.
42
Reflectance of vegetation changes according to the composition, maturity and Spectral Signature
health of vegetation. The amount of chlorophyll content determines the health
of vegetation. Chlorophyll strongly absorbs radiation in the red and blue
wavelengths but reflects green wavelengths. Leaves appear ‘greenest’ to us
when chlorophyll content is at its maximum. In certain seasons, there is less
chlorophyll in the leaves; so, there is less absorption and proportionately more
reflection of the red wavelengths, making the leaves appear red or yellow
(yellow is a combination of red and green wavelengths).

Fig. 3.2: Typical spectral signature of green vegetation (source: Hoffer, R.M., 1978)
The internal structure of healthy leaves acts as excellent diffuse reflectors of
near-infrared wavelengths. If our eyes were sensitive to near infrared, trees
would appear extremely bright to us at these wavelengths. In fact, measuring
and monitoring the NIR reflectance is one of the ways by which scientists can
determine how healthy (or unhealthy) the vegetation is. Spectral signatures of
healthy, stressed and severely stressed vegetation are shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3: Example of spectral signatures of healthy, stressed and severely stressed
vegetations (source: [Link]
43
Introduction to Remote The shape of the reflectance spectrum varies with the type of vegetation. For
Sensing
example, the reflectance spectra of deciduous and coniferous tress can be
distinguished based on their reflectance spectrum. Deciduous trees (Fig. 3.4a)
and coniferous trees (Fig. 3.4b) have almost similar reflectance in the visible
region, but they vary in the NIR region, where deciduous trees have higher
reflectance than coniferous tresses (Fig. 3.5). The reflectance spectrum also
depends on other factors such as the leaf moisture content, physical, chemical
characteristics and health of the plants.

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.4: (a) Deciduous tree - Maple; (b) Coniferous tree – Pine
(source: [Link]

Fig. 3.5: Generalised spectral reflectance envelopes for deciduous (broad-leaved) and
coniferous (needle-bearing) trees. Each tree type has a range of values at any
wavelength (source: Lillesand et. al, 2007)
The reflectance of vegetation in the shortwave infrared (SWIR) region (e.g.,
band 5 of Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and band 4 of SPOT- 4 sensors) is
more varied, depending on the types of plants and the plant’s water content
(Fig. 3.6). Water has strong absorption bands around 1.45, 1.95 and 2.50 μm.
Outside these absorption bands in the SWIR region, reflectance of leaves
generally increases when leaf liquid water content decreases. This property
can be used for identifying tree types and plant conditions from remote
44
sensing images. The SWIR band can be used in detecting plant drought stress and Spectral Signature
delineating burnt areas and fire-affected vegetation. The SWIR band is also
sensitive to the thermal radiation emitted by intense fires, and hence can be used to
detect active fires, especially during night-time when the background interference
from SWIR in reflected sunlight is absent.

Fig. 3.6: Typical satellite image reflectance spectrum of vegetation. Note: The labelled
arrows indicate the common wavelength bands used in optical remote sensing
of vegetation: A- blue band, B - green band; C - red band; D - near IR band;
E - shortwave IR band (modified after [Link]/~research /
tutorial/[Link]).

Spectral Characteristics of Vegetation

The spectral reflectance of vegetation can be detected in the following three
major regions of EM spectrum:
• Visible region (400-700 nm): Low reflectance, high absorption, and
minimum transmittance. The fundamental control of energy-matter
interactions with vegetation in this part of the spectrum is plant
pigmentation.
• NIR (700-1350 nm): High reflectance and transmittance, very low
absorption. The physical control is internal leaf structures.
• Middle Infrared (MIR) (1350-2500 nm): As wavelength increases, both
reflectance and transmittance generally decrease from medium to low,
while absorption increases from low to high. The primary physical
control in these middle-infrared wavelengths for vegetation is in vivo
water content. Figs. 3.7 and 3.8 show spectral reflectance characteristics
of vegetation in different conditions.

Fig. 3.7: Partitioning of vegetation spectral reflectance in the visible, NIR and MIR regions
of the EM spectrum (modified after [Link]/sf/notes/[Link]) 45
Introduction to Remote
Sensing

Fig. 3.8: Variation in the spectral reflectance characteristics of vegetation according to

leaf moisture content (modified after [Link]/sf/notes/[Link])

3.4 SPECTRAL SIGNATURE OF SOIL

In general, soil surfaces appear brown to the human eyes. Brown colouring is a
product of green and red EMR such that ‘brown’ surfaces absorb more blue
wavelength than either green or red. Furthermore, very little energy is
transmitted through soil; the majority of the incident flux is absorbed or
reflected. The technical term for these types of surface is single scatterer. In
the case of soil surfaces, the level of reflectance gradually increases with
wavelength in the visible and NIR spectral regions. You can see from Fig. 3.9
that maximum soil reflectance occurs at NIR wavelength.

Fig. 3.9: Reflectance of bare soil surfaces. A) minimally altered , B) organic dominated
and C) iron dominated (modified after Stoner and Baumgardner, 1981)

As water is relatively strong absorber of all wavelengths, particularly those

longer than the red part of the visible spectrum. Therefore, as the moisture
content of the soil increases, the overall reflectance of that soil tends to
decrease. Soil rich in iron oxide reflects proportionally more of the red than
46
other visible wavelengths and therefore appears red (rust colour) to the human Spectral Signature
eyes. A sandy soil, on the other hand, tends to appear bright white in imagery
because visible wavelengths are more or less equally reflected; when slightly
less blue wavelengths are reflected, it results in a yellow colour.

According to Stoner and Baumgardner (1981), following are the four most
important characteristics of a soil that determine its reflectance properties:
• moisture content
• organic matter content
• texture and structure
• iron oxide content
We will now discuss here how the above factors determine soil properties.

Soil Moisture Content

The presence of soil moisture reduces the surface reflectance of soil at all
visible wavelengths (Jensen, 1983). This occurs until the soil is saturated, at
which point further additions of moisture have no effect on reflectance.

Reflectance at NIR wavelengths is also negatively related to soil moisture; an

increase in soil moisture will result in a particularly rapid decrease in
reflectance due to water (H2O) and hydroxyl (OH) absorption features at
0.9 ìm, 1.4 ìm, 1.9 ìm, 2.2 ìm and 2.7 ìm. The effect of water and hydroxyl
absorption is more noticeable in clay soils because they have much bound
water and very strong hydroxyl absorption properties (Fig. 3.10).

Fig. 3.10: Variation in the spectral reflectance characteristics of soil according to

moisture content (modified after [Link]/sf/notes/[Link])

Organic Matter Content

The organic matter of soil is dark in colour and its presence will decrease the
reflectance from the soil up to an organic matter content of around 4-5%.
When the organic matter content of the soil is greater than 5%, the soil appears
black and any further increase in the organic matter will have little effect on
reflectance (Curran, 1985). 47
Introduction to Remote Texture and Structure
Sensing
Texture (the proportion of sand, silt and clay particles) is related to
structure(arrangement of sand, silt and clay particles into aggregates) and,
therefore, they will be discussed together. The relationship between texture
and structure can best be described by reference to following two contrasting
soil types (Fig. 3.11):
• a clay soil tends to have a strong structure, which leads to a rough surface
on ploughing, causing small shadows and lowering reflectance values.
• in contrast, a sandy soil exhibits weak structure, which leads to a fairly
smooth surface on ploughing with few shadows. It should be noted that
the effects of soil structure complement other properties such as low
moisture and organic matter content to increase the level of sandy soil
reflectance.

Fig. 3.11: Variation in the spectral reflectance characteristics of soil according to soil
texture (modified after [Link]/sf/notes/[Link])

Iron Oxide Content

Iron oxide gives rusty red colouration to many soils by coating or staining
individual soil particles. Iron oxide selectively reflects red light (0.6 - 0.7 ìm)
and absorbs green light (0.5 - 0.6 ìm). This effect is so pronounced that
Vincent (1973) used a ratio of red to green reflectance to locate iron ore
deposits (Curran, 1985).

Spend Check Your Progress I

5 mins
1) Now its time to undertake some experimental work. Pour yourself a glass
of water and go outside. Pick up a handful of soil and observe the colour.
It is preferable that the soil is not too organic-rich because that will make
it difficult to see any changes in colour. Wet the soil a little at a time and
observe any change in colour.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
48
 Spectral Signature
3.5 SPECTRAL SIGNATURE OF WATER
Unlike soil, the majority of the radiant flux incident upon water is not
reflectedbut is either absorbed or transmitted. At visible wavelengths of EMR,
verylittle energy is absorbed, a small amount usually under 5% is reflected
andthe majority is transmitted. If you happen to be standing in water you can
see your foot/toes through the water. Water absorbs strongly at NIR
wavelengths, leaving little radiation to be either reflected or transmitted (Fig.
3.12).

Fig. 3.12: Spectral reflectance characteristics of deep, clear water (modified after
[Link]/sf/notes/[Link])

Although water surfaces may be more homogeneous than soil surfaces, you
can still expect some variability in the reflectance of a body of water. The
following two most important factors are:
• depth of the water
• materials within the water
In shallow water, some of the radiation is reflected not by the water itself but
from the bottom of the water body. Therefore, in shallow pools and streams, it
is often the underlying material that determines the water body’s reflectance
properties.

Longer wavelengths of visible and NIR regions of EMR absorb more by water
than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green
due to stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and darker if viewed
at red or NIR wavelengths. If there is suspended sediment present in the upper
layers of the water body, then this will allow better reflectivity and a brighter
appearance of the water.

The apparent colour of the water will show a slight shift to longer
wavelengths. Suspended sediment can be easily confused with shallow (but
clear) water, since these two phenomena appear very similar. Chlorophyll in
49
Introduction to Remote algae absorbs more of the blue wavelengths and reflects the green, making the
Sensing
water appear greener in colour in the presence of algae. The topography of the
water surface (rough, smooth, floating materials, etc.) can also lead to
complications for water-related interpretation due to potential problems of
specular reflection and other influences on colour and brightness.

The three most common materials suspended in water are non-organic

sediments, tannin and chlorophyll/phytoplankton:

• non-organic silts and clays increase the reflectance at visible wavelengths

due to interaction with and scattering by soil-like particles (Fig. 3.9). If
you are lucky enough to have visited a glacier, then you may recall the
milky white colouration of a proglacial stream. This is caused by the high
concentration of fine rock flour sediment suspended in the water.

• in agricultural scenes, the main colouring agent is tannin produced by

decomposing humus. This is yellowish to brown in colour and results in
decreased blue and increased red reflectance. A good example of the
effects of tannin can be found in streams that drain peat moorlands.

• chlorophyll content must be high before changes in reflectance can be

detected (Piech et. al, 1978). Waterbodies that contain excessive levels of
chlorophyll have reflectance properties that resemble, at least in part,
those of vegetation with increased green and decreased blue and red
reflectance.

Drainage/waterbody in peat moorlands (source: http://

[Link]/[Link]?id=446).

High Chlorophyll content of water body

Fig. 3.13: Photographs of water bodies with different water content

50
 Spectral Signature
3.6 SPECTRAL SIGNATURE OF MINERALS AND
ROCKS
Rocks, like soils, are single scatterer and exhibit relatively simple spectral
properties. Unlike soils, rock reflectance is less dependent on water content
and completely independent of organic matter content, texture or structure.
Rock spectral reflectance primarily depends on their mineral composition.
Mineral reflectances measured in the laboratory (Fig. 3.14) show following
two sources of variation:
• the overall level of reflectance
• specific absorption features

Fig. 3.14: Reflectance of selected minerals

Low reflecting minerals such as goethite (an ore of iron) have spectral
properties similar to soil surfaces - low to moderate reflectance at visible
wavelengths increasing into the NIR.
High reflecting minerals, such as quartz (silicate mineral) and calcite (calcium
carbonate), exhibit almost uniformly high reflectance throughout the visible,
NIR and SWIR spectrum. Differences between high reflectance minerals
occur at specific wavelengths and these absorption features are known as
diagnostic absorption features.
See, for example, the effect of carbonate on the reflectance of calcite at
2.35ìm. Some of the most pronounced absorption features are associated with
clay minerals. As clays such as kaolinite (aluminum hydroxide silicate) may
be associated with the presence of precious metals, it was not surprising that
the mineral exploration community were the drivers behind the decision to
include a SWIR waveband on the Landsat TM sensor that measured
reflectance at 2.08 – 2.35 ìm. They are now leading the way in hyper-spectral
remote sensing at these wavelengths. Unlike other minerals, the strength of
bonding between clay particles and water produces some absorption features
at 1.4 ìm and 1.9 ìm. Photographs of a few minerals are shown in Fig. 3.15
as an example. 51
Introduction to Remote
Sensing

Fig. 3.15: Photographs of four different type of minerals

To find out more about the measurement and analysis of the rocks/mineral spectral
signature in detail, you need to understand about the spectroscopy and hyper-
spectral remote sensing. Kindly visit the US Geological Survey Spectroscopy
Laboratory web site ([Link] for details of reflection and
absorption properties of various materials (spectra).

Finally, before summarising this section, it is important to draw your attention to the
information regarding the description of the spectral properties and signatures of
vegetation, soil, rocks/minerals and water surfaces which are typical of mid-latitude
temperate climates. Those of you living or working in other parts of the world may
experience a different set of surfaces or different canopy types. For example, in arid
and semi-arid regions, you will find land surface with low vegetation cover, plenty of
rock outcrops and soil cover with green land surface rather than soil, exhibit
particular spectral characteristics with its mineral content. At high latitudes, you may
observe snow or ice cover surfaces with exceptionally high reflectance. You must
also be aware that solar elevation is generally low and therefore, objects cast longer
shadows at high latitudes.

3.7 SUMMARY
Let us now summarise what you have learnt in this unit:
• Spectral signatures are the specific combination of reflected, absorbed and
transmitted or emitted EMR at varying wavelengths, which can uniquely
identify an object.
• Vegetation has a unique spectral signature that enables it to be
distinguished easily from other types of Earth surface features in an
optical/near-infrared image. Vegetation can be easily identified in the NIR
region of EM spectrum.
• The shape of the vegetation reflectance spectrum varies with vegetation
types, leaf moisture content, physical, chemical characteristics and health
condition of the plants.
52
• Soil reflectance is high in NIR and SWIR regions of the EM spectrum. These Spectral Signature
signatures differ based on moisture, organic matter, texture, structure, and iron
oxide content of soil.

• Water has higher reflectance in visible region of the EM spectrum. Longer

wavelengths of the visible and NIR regions of EMR are absorbed more
by water than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus, water typically looks
blue or blue-green.

• Rock/minerals reflectances are completely independent of organic matter

content, texture or structure. Rock spectral reflectance primarily depends
on their mineral composition.

• Low reflecting minerals, such as geothite, have similar spectral properties

to soil surfaces.

• High reflecting minerals, such as quartz and calcite, exhibit almost

uniformly high reflectance throughout the visible, NIR and SWIR regions
of the EM spectrum.

• Spectroscopy and hyper-spectral remote sensing technology are used for

better understanding of spectral signature of specific materials.
Spend
3.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS 30 mins

1) What is spectral signature and why is it important?

2) Explain at which wavelengths does the dry soil differ from the moist soil?

3) Give reason why does a water body absorb most of the EMR?

3.9 REFERENCES
• Curran, P. J. (1985), Principles of Remote Sensing, Longman, 282p.

• Hoffer, R.M. (1978), Biological and physical considerations in applying

computer-aided analysis techniques to remote sensor data, in Remote
Sensing: The Quantitative Approach, P.H. Swain and S.M. Davis (Eds),
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 227- 289.
• [Link]
• [Link]
• [Link]
• [Link]
• Jensen J. R., (1983), Biophysical Remote Sensing – Review Article.
Annals of the Associations of American Geographers, 73(1), 111-132p.

• Lilliesand, T.M, Kiefer, R.W, and Chipman, J.W. (2007), Remote Sensing
and Image Interpretation, 5th Ed., John Willey and Sons, 820p.

53
Introduction to Remote • Piech, K. R., J. R. Schott, and K. M. Stewart, (1978), The Blue-to-Green.
Sensing
Reflectance Ratio and Lake Water Quality. Photogrammetric Eng., 11,
1752-1688p.

• Stoner, E. R. and Baumgardner M. F., (1981), Characteristic Variations in

Reflectance of Surface Soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 45: 1161-1165p.

• Vincent, R.K., (1973), Ratio Maps of Iron Ore Deposits, Atlantic City
District, Wyoming, Symposium on Significant Results obtained from the
Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 1, 379-386p.
• [Link]/sf/notes/[Link]
• [Link]/~research /tutorial/[Link]
• [Link]/[Link]
All the websites were retrieved between 1and10 May, 2011.

3.10 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READING

• Jensen, J.R. (2007), Remote Sensing of the Environment, Prentice Hall,
544p.
• Sabins, F.F. (1996), Remote Sensing, Principles and Interpretation, W H
Freeman and Company, 450p.

3.11 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I
1) You should have found that the presence of soil moisture reduces the
surface reflectance of soil at all visible wavelengths. This occurs until the
soil is saturated, at which point, further additions of moisture have no
effect on reflectance.

Unit End Questions

1) Spectral signatures are the specific combination of reflected, absorbed and
transmitted or emitted EMR by objects at varying wavelengths, which can
uniquely identify an object. It is important because this forms the basis of
image interpretation.

2) Dry soil differs from moist soil at 0.9 ìm, 1.4 ìm, 1.9 ìm, 2.2 ìm and
2.7ìm wavelengths. An increase in soil moisture results rapid decrease in
reflectance due to absorption of radiation at these wavelengths by water
and hydroxyl ion.

3) The majority of the radiant flux incident upon water is not reflected;it is
either absorbed or transmitted. At visible wavelengths of EMR, a small
amount of energy is absorbed, about 5% is reflected andthe majority is
transmitted. Water absorbs near infrared wavelengths strongly leaving
little radiation to be either reflected or transmitted.

54
 Spectral Signature
GLOSSARY

Absorption: A measure of the ability of a material to absorb electromagnetic

radiation.

Active Remote Sensing: Remote sensing methods that provide their own
source of electromagnetic radiation to illuminate any object. Radar is one
example.

Atmospheric windows: The wavelength band at which electromagnetic

radiation from space can penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere.

Attenuation: The process by which radiation is reduced in intensity when

passing through a medium. It is the combination of absorption and scattering
processes.

Band: A wavelength interval in the electromagnetic spectrum. For example, in

Landsat images the bands designate specific wavelength intervals at which
images are acquired.

Blackbody: An ideal substance that absorbs the entire radiant energy incident
on it and emits radiant energy at the maximum possible rate per unit area at
each wavelength for any given temperature. No actual substance is a true
blackbody, although some substances, such as lampblack, approach its
properties.

Electromagnetic radiation: Energy propagated in the form of an advancing

interaction between electric and magnetic fields. All electromagnetic radiation
moves at the speed of light.

Electromagnetic spectrum: Continuous sequence of electromagnetic energy

arranged according to wavelength or frequency.

Frequency: The number of wave oscillations per unit time or the number of
wavelengths that pass a point per unit time.

Incidence angle: In radar, the angle formed between an imaginary line normal
to the surface and another connecting the antenna and the target.

Infrared Radiation: Radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere

and the clouds. It is also known as terrestrial or long-wave radiation.

IR: Infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum that includes wavelengths

from 0.7m to 1 mm.

Landsat: A series of remote sensing satellites in sun-synchronous polar orbit

first launched in 1972 by USA. The Landsat satellites are the platforms for the
multi-spectral scanner, return beam vidicons and thematic mapper.

Microwave: Region of the electromagnetic spectrum in the wavelength range

of 0.1 to 30 cm.

Mie Scattering: When the particles in the atmosphere are the same size as the
55
Introduction to Remote incident wavelength, Mie scattering takes place. Dust, pollen, smoke and
Sensing
water vapour in Earth’s atmosphere are common causes of Mie scattering
which tends to affect longer wavelengths.

Mineral: A natural substance having definite chemical composition and

atomic structure and formed by inorganic process. Examples of mineral are
calcite, quartz, mica.

Near Infrared (NIR): The shorter wavelength range of the infrared region of
the EM spectrum, from 0.7 to 2.5 μm. It is often divided into very-near
infrared (VNIR) covering the range accessible to photographic emulsions (0.7
to 1.0 μm), and the short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) covering the remainder
of the atmospheric window from 1.0 to 2.5 μm.

Passive Remote Sensing: Remote sensing of energy naturally reflected or

radiated from any object.

Photon: Minimum discrete quantity of radiant energy.

Planck’s Law: An expression for the variation of emittance of a blackbody at

a particular temperature as a function of wavelength.

Polarization: The direction of orientation in which the electrical field vector

of electromagnetic radiation vibrates.

Quantum: The elementary quantity of EM energy that is transmitted in a

particular wavelength. According to the quantum theory, EM radiation is
emitted, transmitted, and absorbed as numbers of quanta, the energy of each
quantum being a simple function of the frequency of the radiation.

Radar: Acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging. Radar is an active form
of remote sensing instrument that operates in the microwave and radio
wavelength regions

Radiometer: Device for quantitatively measuring radiant energy, especially

thermal radiation.

Rayleigh scattering: The scattering of electromagnetic radiation by particles

with dimensions much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. In it the
intensity of scattered radiation is inversely proportional to the fourth power of
the incident wavelength.

Reflection: It is the process by which a surface of discontinuity turns back a

portion of the incident radiation into the medium through which the radiation
approached.

Refraction: It is the deviation of electromagnetic wave from a straight line as

it passes through the atmosphere due to the variation of refractive index in the
medium.

Rock: A natural aggregate of grains of one or more than one minerals.

Examples of rocks are granite, basalt, marble, sandstone.

Satellite: An object in orbit around a celestial body.

56
Scattering: The phenomenon in which electromagnetic properties of the Spectral Signature
medium are responsible in deflecting the radiation in a lateral direction; the
energy gets spatially redistributed. It is wavelength dependent.

Soil: The topmost layer of the Earth’s surface which consists of a mixture of
minute particles of weathered rocks, minerals, and organic matter.

Spectral reflectance signature: Spectral reflectance is the ratio of reflected

energy to incident energy as a function of wavelength.

Spectral region: The range of wavelength spectrum subdividing the

electromagnetic spectrum such as the visible, x-ray, infrared, and microwave
regions.

Spectral response: The measurable electromagnetic energy reflected from

and emitted by a surface feature.

SPOT: A French remote sensing satellite carrying two push broom imaging
systems namely three-waveband multispectral high resolution visible sensor
and panchromatic sensor.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law: States that radiant flux of a blackbody is equal to the

temperature to the fourth power times the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

Thematic Mapper: An imaging device carried by Landsats 4 and 5, which

records scenes in seven different wavebands; six in the visible and near-
infrared and one in the thermal infrared.

Transmission: When radiation passes through a substance without significant

attenuation, it is said to be transmitted through the medium.

Vegetation: A general term for all the plant life of a place or region.

Wavelength: Distance between successive wave crests or other equivalent

points in a harmonic wave.

Wien’s Displacement Law: Describes the shift of the radiant power peak to
shorter wavelengths as temperature increases.

57
IGNOU/SOS/1T/March 2012

ISBN: 978-81-266-5966-1