SR Francis Kaplan SR Single stage pump Multi stage pump

1 Radial turbine. Axial flow turbine. Increases the fluid Increases the fluid
1
2 Medium head 60-300 m. Low head < 60 m pressure only once pressure several time
3 Medium specific speed High specific speed If single impeller within a If two or more impellers
Runner vanes are 2 pump casing is called within the pump is
4 Runner vanes are fixed
adjustable single stage pump. called as multi stage.
5 More no. of runner vanes Less no. of blades  Bernoulli’s theorem: It states that in a steady, ideal flow of
6 Low part load efficiency High part load efficiency an incompressible fluid, the total energy per unit weight of
SR Pelton Turbine Francis the fluid at any point or total head remains constant.
1 Impulse turbine Reaction Turbine P/w + v2/2g + z = constant, Where P/w….pressure head.
2 Requires high speed Requires medium speed V2/2g… kinetic head z …… potential head.
3 Tangential flow turbine Radial flow turbine  Darcy’s equation: hf = 4 f L v2 / 2 g d, where hf – loss of
4 Low specific speed medium specific speed head due to friction, f - Coefficient of friction L- length of
SR Simple Manometer Differential manometer pipe v- velocity of flow d- diameter of pipe.
Single column and the have two Columns  Chezi’s equation V = C√ , Where V – velocity of flow,
1 C – Chezy’s constant, M – hydraulic mean depth = (Area of
other end is open to atm. Connected two pipes.
Used for measuring flow/ Perimeter) = A / P, i – loss of head per unit length of
used for measuring pipe = hf / L.
difference of pressure
2 pressure of a fluid at a  Continuity equation: Based on the principle of
at two points in a pipe
point in the pipe conservation of mass a fluid flowing through the pipe at all
or in 2 Different pipes.
Req. mercury for cross section the quantity of fluid per second is constant.
Simple manometer may ρ1 A1V1= ρ 2A2V2= ρ 3A3V3, A1V1=A2V2= A3V3
3 measuring pressure
or may not Req. mercury  Equation of power transmission by fluid in pipe (P):
difference
Inverted U-tube P = (ρ. g. A .V) x (H- 4f L V2 / 2.g .d) ρ = Density of fluid
Inverted type design is A=Cross sectional area of pipe, V= velocity of flow in pipe
4 differential
not possible d= diameter of the pipe, H= total head available at the
manometer is available
SR Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine inlet of pipe f = coefficient of friction of pipe,
1 Running speed is slow Running speed is high L = Length of the pipe.
2 Repair is easy. Repair is difficult.  Condition for maximum Power transmission: d/dv (P) =0
It is possible to regulate It is not possible to d/dv [( ρ. g. A .V) x ( H- 4f L V3 / 2.g .d)] =0, ( ρ. g. A) x ( H- 4
3 the flow without regulate the flow x 3 . f . L . V2 / 2.g .d)]= 0, H- 3 x 4 . f. L. V2 / 2.g .d= 0, H- 3
loss of efficiency without loss of eff. hf = 0, *hf=/2gd, 4flv2hf= H /3. The power transmitted
First water flows through The water is first guided through a pipe is maximum when the loss of head due to
the nozzles and by the guide blades friction is one-third of the total head at inlet.
4
then impinges on the and then flows over the
buckets runner vanes  Derive the equation of force exerted by jet on inclined
All the available pressure Only part of the press moving plate in direction of jet: Let flat plate be inclined
5 head is converted head is converted into at an angle θ to the horizontal jet V be velocity of jet and
Into velocity head. velocity head let the plate move in the direction of jet with velocity u
SR Centrifugal pump Reciprocating m/sec. Fn is the force normal to plate
1 Balance is proper Not proper So. Fn= ρa (v-u) [(v-u) sin θ – 0] = ρa (v-u)2 sin θ.
2 Can handle dirty water Can’t handle
3 Starting torque is more Less torque.  Laws of fluid friction: Laws of fluid friction for laminar
flow. - Frictional resistance is proportional to velocity of
4 Total weight is less Weight is more
flow. -Frictional resistance is independent of pressure. -
5 Maintenance cost less More cost
Frictional resistance is proportional to surface area of
SR Abs press Gauge Pressure
contact. -Frictional resistance varies considerably with
It is pressure measured Measured above or
1 temperature. -Frictional resistance is independent of
above the abs zero is call below atm press is call
nature of surface of contact.-Laws of fluid frictional for
Abs press= atm press± Abs pres= abs press - turbulent flow. -Frictional resistance is proportional to
2
gauge pressure atm pressure
square of velocity of flow. -Frictional resistance is
SR Dynamic viscosity Kinematic viscosity independent of pressure. -Frictional resistance is
1 Represented as µ Represented as ν proportional to density of fluid. -Frictional resistance
2 µ=τ/δu/δy ν=µ/ρ slightly varies with temperature. - Frictional resistance is
Shear stress req. to Ratio of dynamic proportional to surface area of contact.
3 produce unit rate of viscosity & density of  Dynamic viscosity: The dynamic (shear) viscosity of a fluid
angular deformation fluid. expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent
4 S.I unit Ns/m2 or poise unit is stokes or m2/sec layers move parallel to each other with different speeds.
 Kinematic viscosity: The kinematic viscosity (also called  Principle of reaction turbine: In Reaction turbine the
"momentum diffusivity") is the ratio of the dynamic water at the inlet of the turbine possesses kinetic energy
viscosity µ to the density of the fluid ρ. It is usually as well as pressure energy. As the water flows through the
denoted by the Greek letter nu (ν). runner, a part of pressure energy is converted into kinetic
 Cohesion means inter-molecular attraction between energy. This causes a reaction to rotate the turbine runner.
molecules of the same liquid. Surface tension is caused Thus water through the runner is under pressure. The
By the force of cohesion at the free surface. runner is completely enclosed in an air tight casing and the
 Adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a runner is always full of water.
liquid and the molecules of a solid boundary surface in  Slip: The difference of theoretical discharge and actual
contact with the liquid. Capillarity rise or fall is due to the discharge is known as slip of the pump.
combined effect of adhesion and cohesion.  Negative slip: The difference of theoretical discharge and
 Specific weight: is defines as ratio between the weights of actual discharge. If actual discharge is more than the
a fluid to its volume. w= ρg. Unit of specific weight is N/m3 theoretical discharge the slip of the pump will become
 Specific gravity- is defined as ratio of the specific weight negative. - Occurs when delivery pipe is short, suction pipe
of a fluid to the specific weight of a standard fluid. For is long; pump is running at high speed.
liquids standard fluid is taken as water and for gases the  Absolute pressure: The pressure which is measured with
standard fluid is taken as air. reference to absolute vacuum pressure.
 Total pressure: It is the force exerted by a static fluid on a  Gauge pressure: The pressure which is measured with help
surface either plane or curved when the fluid comes in of a pressure measuring instrument in which the
contact with the surfaces. Center of pressure: It is defined atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.
as the point of application of the total pressure on the  Vacuum pressure: It is defined as the pressure below the
surface. atmospheric pressure.
 Laminar flow: It is the type of flow in which fluid particles  Atmospheric pressure: The pressure which is exerted due
move along the well-defined paths or stream line and all to the weight of air above earth’s surface.
the stream lines are straight and parallel. Thus the  Hydraulic turbines: Impulse turbine and Reaction turbine,
particles move in lamina or layers gliding smoothly over Tangent flow turbine, Radial flow turbine, axial flow.
the adjacent layer.  Types of impellers: Fully closed type, Semi closed type
 Steady flow: It is defined as the types of flow in which the Open type Type of casings: Volute casing, Vortex casing
fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure, density etc. at Casing with guide blades.
appoint do not change with time.  Static/Total head (Hs):- the sum of suction head and
 Uniform Flow: The type of flow in which velocity at any delivery head is known as static head. Hs = hs + hd
given time does not change with respect to space.  Manometric Head (Hm) :- It is the head against which
 Priming: It is defined as the operation in which the suction centrifugal pump has to work.
pipe, casing of the pump and the portion of the delivery  Mechanical Efficiency:- It is the ration available at the
pipe up to the delivery valve is completely filled up from impeller to the power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump
outside source with the liquid to be raised by the pump is known as mechanical efficiency.
before the starting the pump.  Mechanical Efficiency:-It is the ration of the monomeric
 Priming methods: Manual priming: Water is manually head to the head imparted by the impeller to the water is
poured through funnel into the casing. Air escapes through known as monomeric efficiency.
the air vent and then air valve is closed. Foot valve does  NPSH: NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD is defined as the net
not allow the water to go back to the sump and keeps the head in meters of liquid required to force the liquid into
suction pipe always filled with water. A separate town the pump though suction pipe. It is given as the
supply or reciprocating pump or injector if available can atmospheric pressure head minus vapour pressure head
also be used. minus frictional head minus velocity head in the suction
 Self-priming: Pump is fitted with a tank which always pipe. Mathematically, NPSH = Atmospheric pressure head-
keeps some amount of water stored into it for priming the vapour pressure head- frictional head- velocity head= Ha –
pump for next operation. Various designs are available. Hv –hs –hfs.
 Impact of jet: The liquid comes out in the form of jet from  Hydraulic gradient line: It is defined as the line which gives
the outlet of the nozzle, which is fitted to a pipe through the sum of pressure head (p/w) and datum head (z) of
which the liquid is flowing under pressure. If some plate, flowing fluid in a pipe with reference to some reference
which may be fixed or moving, is placed in the path of the line. HGL may rise or fall depending upon pres changes.
jet, a force is exerted by the jet on the plate. This force is  Total Energy Line: (TGL/TEL) Total energy line is the line
called as impact of jet. which gives sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic
 Advantages of air vessel in reciprocating pump: head of flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some
1. It gives continuous supply of liquid at a uniform rate reference line. When fluid flows along the pipe, there is
2. Saves considerable amount of work in overcoming the loss of head and total energy decreases in the direction of
frictional resistance in the suction and delivery Pipes. flow.
3. Pump can be run at higher speed without separation.
  Cavitation: When the bubbles of gases formed during  Bourden Pressure gauge: The gauge pressure is usually
separation of flow reach the surface, they burst and exert measured by a bourdon pressure gauge because of its
high dynamic forces on surrounding surface. Due to this robust and simple construction. - The bourdon type is a
metal surface gets eaten away and becomes rough. Thus hollow metal tube of elliptical cross-section and bend form
formation of cavities is called as cavitation of a circle. One end of bourdon tube is fixed to frame
 Prevention Methods: i) The design of turbine should be whereas the other end free to move. - The free end
such that the pressure of flowing liquid in any part of actuates pointer through a suitable linkage. As pressure
turbine should not be allowed to fall below vapour inside the tube increases, the elliptical cross –section tends
to become circular and the free end of the tube moves
pressure of liquid. ii) The special materials or coatings such
outward. In this way pointer shows the pressure value on
as aluminum, bronze and stainless steel should be used as the scale.
a cavitation resistant.  Kaplan Turbine: Construction –it is a axial flow reaction
 Separation: Whenever pressure at any point in a flow falls turbine. It consists of main parts scroll casing, Guide vanes
below the vapour pressure of the liquid at that mechanism, hub with vanes or runner of the turbine and
temperature, liquid starts evaporating and dissolved gas draft tube. Working: The water from penstock enters the
starts separating. This phenomenon is called as separation. scroll casing and then moves to the guide vanes. From the
 Single column manometer: - Modification form of U tube guide vanes, the water turns through 90 o and flows axially
manometer in which a reservoir, having a large cross- through the runner .During the flow of water through
section area (100 times) as compared to area of the tube is runner a part of pressure energy is converted into KE.
connected to one of the limbs of the manometer. - Due to  Draft Tube: it is tube is a pipe which connects the turbine
large cross section area of the reservoir, for any variation outlet to the tail race through which the water exhausted
in pressure, the change in liquid level in the reservoir will from the turbine runner flows to the outlet channel.
be very small which may be neglected and the pressure is i) Conical: In this draft tube, its diameter increases from
given by the height of the liquid in the limb. outlet of the runner to the channel as shown in fig. Conical
Types: Vertical single column manometer & inclined single draft tubes are commonly used in Francis turbine. For
column manometer. good efficiency, the central flaring angle is kept about 8o.
 Simple differential manometer: It is used for measuring The other variety is having a bell mounted outlet. It is best
the difference of pressure between two points in a pipe or suited for inward or outward flow turbines, having helical
in two different pipes. It consists of a U tube, containing a flow which is due to velocity of whirl at out let of runner.
heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, Its efficiency is as large as 90%.
whose difference of pressure is to be measured. ii) Elbow type: In this draft tube the bend of the tube is
Type’s U tube differential manometer & Inverted U tube generally 90o and area of the tube gradually increases
differential manometer. from the outlet of the runner to the channel as shown in
 Vertical Micro-manometer: 1) the large cross sectional fig. The elbow draft tube s is commonly used in Kaplan
area of the basin than other limb increases the sensitivity turbine. It has circular section at inlet and outlet. The other
(least count) of manometer. 2) Even a small change in variety has rectangular section at outlet. The efficiency of
pressure can be easily recognized. 3) Change in level of elbow draft tube is generally between 60% to 70%.
liquid in reservoir is very smaller than other limb, which  Multistage pump: The centrifugal pump consisting of two
may be neglected and thus the pressure is can be given by or more stages i.e. impeller is called as multistage pump.
the height of the liquid column in other limb alone. Multistage pumps are used to produce a high head and/or
 Venturimeter: In convergent cone because of gradual high discharge. The impellers may be mounted on same
decrease in diameter there is increase in velocity and shaft or on different shaft. -The head developed by the
decrease in pressure and in divergent section decrease in centrifugal pump is proportional to the diameter and
pressure is again increased to its original value and then speed of the impeller. Since there is limitation for the
liquid is reached in the pipe. In convergent cone velocity of diameter and speed of the impeller, therefore head
fluid is increased. This acceleration of flowing fluid may be developed by the centrifugal pump is limited to 50 meter
allowed to take place rapidly in relatively small length, or so. For still larger heads it will be necessary to put two
without resulting in appreciable loss of energy. However if or more pumps in series. Liquid from one pump is brought
decrease in velocity of fluid is allowed to take place rapidly to the inlet of another pump which further increases the
in a small length, then the flowing fluid will not remain in head developed. For this two or more impellers can be
contact with the boundary of diverging flow passage , flow keyed to same shaft and put into same casing.
will separate from walls and eddies are formed to avoid  Inlet and outlet velocity triangles for Francis turbine:
this the length of divergent cone is 2 to 3 times that of Vw1- velocity of whirl at inlet Vw2- velocity of whirl at
convergent cone. outlet, u1- Tangential velocity of wheel at inlet u2-
 Formula Force exerted by a jet on curved plate: Tangential velocity of wheel at outlet, V1- absolute
velocity of water at inlet V2- absolute velocity of water at
outlet, Vr1-relative velocity of water at inlet Vr2-relative
velocity of water at outlet, Vf1-axiale velocity of water at
inlet Vf2-axiale velocity of water at outlet.
 Jet pump: jet pump set up which consists of jet unit, cm or mm of liquid - Its value depends on the specific
suction pipe, pressure pipe and a centrifugal pump. A jet weight of liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension
unit is consists of a pipe having a convergent end at the of liquid. The rise of liquid (h) is given by,
bottom. The upper end of the pipe leads to the required h = 4 cosϴ)/( gd) Where, ϴ=1280---For mercury & glass
height. Now water under pressure is introduced from tube. =0 deg --- For water and clean glass tube.
pressure pipe through a nozzle as shown in fig. The  Orificemeter': It is a device used for measuring the rate of
pressure energy of water is converted into kinetic energy, flow of a fluid through a pipe. It is a cheaper device as
as it passes through the nozzle. As a result of this, the compare to venturimeter. It also works on the same
pressure in the convergent portion of the pipe is principle as that of venturimeter. It consists of a flat
considerably reduced and water is sucked into the pipe. circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole called
This sucked water after coming in contact with the jet is as orifice, which is concentric with the pipe. The orifice dia.
carried into the pump suction pipe. is generally kept 0.5 times the dia. of the pipe though it
 Reciprocating Pump: double acting pump has two suction may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe dia. A Differential
and two delivery pipes with appropriate valves, so that manometer is connected at section 1 which is at a distance
during each stroke when suction takes place on one side of of about 1.5 to 2.0 times the pipe diameter upstream from
the piston, the other side delivers the liquid. Thus for one the orifice plate and at section 2 which is at a distance of
complete revolution of the crank there are two delivery about half the diameter of orifice on the downstream side
strokes and water is delivered to the pipes by the pump from the orifice plate.
during these two delivery strokes.  Pelton wheel:- The pelton wheel is a tangential flow
 Relation between absolute vacuum, gauge pressure and impulse turbine. The water strikes the bucket along the
atm. Explanation: Absolute vacuum is the absolute zero or tangent of the runner. Parts: Nozzle:-The amount of water
datum value. Gauge pressure is pressure indicated by striking the buckets of the runner is controlled by
gauge. Atm. Pressure is the pressure of atmosphere. When providing a spear in the nozzle. The spear is a conical
pressure indicated by the gauge is above atmospheric needle which is operated either by hand wheel or
pressure then it is positive pressure. When pressure automatically in an axial direction depending upon the size
indicated by the gauge is below atmospheric pressure then of the unit. when the spear is pushed forward into the
it is negative pressure or vacuum. Pressure measured from nozzle the amount of water striking the runner is reduced.
absolute zero or vacuum line is called absolute pressure or On the other hand if the spear is pushed back, the amount
absolute vacuum. of water striking the runner is increases. Runner and
 hydraulic power plant: The general layout of a hydraulic Buckets:- It consists of a circular disc on the periphery of
power plant consist of : Dam- constructed across a river to which a number of buckets evenly spaced are fixed. The
store water.- Penstock – Pipes of a large diameters called shape of the bucket is double hemispherical cup or bowl.
penstocks which carry water under pressure from the Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical parts by a
storage reservoir to the turbines of pipe)- Turbine- dividing wall which is known as splitter. Casing:-the
different types of vanes fitted to the wheels. - Tail race – a function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the
channel which carries water away from the turbine after water and to discharge water to tail race. It also acts as
the water has worked on the turbines. safeguard against accidents. It is made of cast iron or
ADV: 1) Hydroelectric power plants are environment fabricated steel plates. The casing of the Pelton wheel
friendly. They do not cause pollution. Therefore does not perform any hydraulic function. Breaking Jet: -
hydropower is called green energy. 2) There is no when the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear
combustion and the no problem of waste disposal like ash. in the forward direction, the amount of water striking the
3) The basic material i.e. water is freely available as runner reduces to zero. But the runner due to inertia goes
compared to coal or other sources. So its operational cost on revolving for a long time. To stop the runner in a short
is less. 4) Water is nor consumed during the power time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of
generation, it can be used for its primary applications like water on the back of the vanes.
irrigation, etc. Limitations: 1) Hydro power projects are  Working of pilot tube: Construction details are as shown
capital intensive with low rate of return. 2) The gestation in the sketch. It is used to determine velocity of flow at
period of the hydro projects is quiet large, the gap required point in a pipe or a stream. It consists of glass
between foundation and completion of the projects may tube bent through 900 as shown in the sketch.
extend from 10 to 15 years. 3) The transport of basic The lower end of the tube faces the direction of flow. The
material i.e. water is very costly, if at all planned. 4) Idle liquid vises up in the tube due to pressure exerted by the
time during low rainfall or draughts is unwarranted and flowing fluid. By measuring the vise of liquid in the tube (h)
difficult to tackle. we can find out velocity of flow. Let h= height of liquid in
Capillarity- It is defined as the phenomenon of rise or fall the Pitot tube, - Dynamic pressure head
of the liquid surface in the small tube relative to the H- height of liquid in the tube below the surface, - Static
adjacent general level of liquid when tube is held vertically pressure head , V- Velocity of flow, Applying Bernoulli’s
in the liquid. - The rise of the liquid surface is called as theorem from the sections 1 and 2, h=v2/2g, V = C 2 ℎ
capillary rise while fall of the liquid surface is known as
capillary depression. - Capillarity is expressed in terms of
 Spear: - The amount of water striking the buckets (vanes) of
the runner is controlled by providing a spear in the nozzle.
The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by hand
wheel or automatically in an axial direction depending upon
the size of the unit. When the spear is pushed forwarded into
the nozzle the amount of water striking the runner is
reduced. And if the spear is pushed back, the amount of
water striking the runner increases
 Breaking Jet:- When the nozzle is completely closed by
moving the spear in the forward direction. The amount of
water striking the runner reduces to zero. But the runner due
to inertia goes on revolving for a long time. To stop the
Reciprocating pump (double acting Reciprocating pump)
runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided which
Reciprocating pump consists of a piston which moves
directs the jet of water on the back of the vanes. This jet of
forward & backward in a close fitting cylinder. The
water is called breaking jet.
movement of the piston is obtained by connecting the
 Air vessel: is a closed chamber connected in the suction and
piston rod to the crank by means of a connecting rod. The
discharge lines of a reciprocating pump. Function: 1) To
crank is rotated by electric motor/ engine. The one way
reduce peak pressure and flow pulsation in the flow 2) To
suction & delivery valves are connected to suction &
provide continuous supply of the liquid at the uniform flow
rate 3) To save the power required to drive the pump 4) To run delivery pipes which are connected to the cylinder as
the pump at much higher speed without any danger of the shown in figure. Suction valve allows water from suction
separation. pipe to cylinder and delivery valve allows water from
 Indicator diagram for a reciprocating pump: The water in the cylinder to delivery pipe only. In double acting pump when
delivery pipe is accelerated at the beginning of the stroke and crank starts rotating, the water is acting on both sides of
retarded at the end of the delivery stroke. The indicator the piston. When there is a suction stroke on one of the
diagram modified for the acceleration head is shown in figure. piston, there is at the same time a delivery stroke on the
The new diagram is represented by a b’c’e’f’ a. It will be noted other side of the piston. Thus, for one complete revolution
that the area of the indicator diagram remains unaffected. of the crank, there are two delivery strokes and water is
Thus the total work done remains the same. delivered to pipe by the pump during these two delivery
strokes.
 Inlet and outlet Francis turbine

Inlet and outlet velocity of impact of jet

Fig. air vessel