Introduction to Theoretical Approaches in Problem Solving

Problem solving and thinking:

 differ from person to person
 vary depending on goals, awareness, and knowledge
This unit focuses on:
theoretical approaches to understanding problem solving.

Important Ideas in this Introduction

1. Awareness of Thought Processes

People differ in how conscious they are of their thinking.
Sometimes:
 we know HOW we solved a problem
 sometimes we only know the final answer
Key Point: We are often more aware of the RESULT than the thinking
process itself.

2. Memory Problem in Thinking

Even conscious thoughts may not be remembered correctly later.
Meaning: People may not accurately explain how they solved a problem
afterward.
3. Directed vs Goal-less Problem Solving
Directed Problem Solving
✔ clear goals
✔ organised
✔ focused
Example: Solving a math problem.

Goal-less/Rambling Thinking
✘ unclear goals
✘ wandering thoughts
✘ less structured

4. Knowledge-Lean vs Knowledge-Rich Problems <<VERY

IMPORTANT>>

Knowledge-Lean Problems: Require very little prior knowledge.

 puzzles
 simple logical tasks
Example: Brain teasers, maze puzzles

Knowledge-Rich Problems: Require specialised knowledge and

expertise.
 medical diagnosis
 expert engineering
 scientific research

Important Point:
Early research mainly focused on: Knowledge-Lean Problems
Later research focused more on: Knowledge-Rich Problem Solving,
especially: expert problem solving.

Focus of This Unit

 theories of problem solving
 nature/process of problem solving
 how humans think during solving
Simple Comparison Table
Knowledge-Lean Knowledge-Rich
Little prior knowledge needed Requires expertise
Mostly puzzles Real-world expert tasks
Simpler More complex

Directed vs Goal-less Thinking

Directed Thinking Goal-less Thinking
Clear goal No fixed goal
Structured Random/rambling
Purposeful Unfocused

One-Line Exam Summary

Problem solving varies in awareness, direction, and knowledge
requirements, and theoretical approaches aim to explain the nature and
process of solving problems.
This section explains different theories/models used to understand
problem solving.
Theories range from:
 traditional approaches
to
 modern information-processing approaches.

Theoretical Models Mentioned <<VERY IMPORTANT FOR OVERVIEW

QUESTIONS>>
Models/Theories Included
1. Traditional Models
2. Gestalt Theories
3. Information Processing & Computer Simulation
4. General Problem Solver (GPS)
5. Wickelgren’s Strategies
6. Newell’s Approach
Traditional Approaches
Problem solving happens through associative learning.
This idea comes from:
 Classical Conditioning
 Instrumental Conditioning

Associative Learning
People learn connections between:
 stimulus and response
through:
 past experiences

Core Assumption
When a person faces a problem:
 previous experiences activate old associations
 some responses become stronger than others

Problem Difficulty Depends On:

✔ strength of correct associations
vs
✘ strength of wrong associations

During Problem Solving

Associations get rearranged:
Failure Success
Strengthens correct
Weakens wrong responses
responses

Important Concepts
 Extinction: Wrong tendencies weaken after failure.
 Reinforcement: Correct responses strengthen after success.

Main Focus of Traditional Theory

✔ transfer of prior learning
✔ learning during problem solving

Example:
Child learns: touching fire causes pain
Later: avoids fire automatically
Old learning helps solve new situations.
Simple Flow of Traditional Approach
Past experiences
↓
Stimulus-response associations formed
↓
Problem occurs
↓
Correct associations activated
↓
Wrong responses weaken
↓
Correct responses reinforced
↓
Solution learned

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Associative Learning connections between stimuli &
learning responses
Extinction Weakening incorrect responses
Reinforcement Strengthening correct responses
Transfer of learning Using past learning in new problems

One-Line Exam Summary

Traditional approaches explain problem solving through associative
learning, where prior experiences, reinforcement, and extinction influence
responses to problems.
Gestalt psychologists believed:
problem solving happens through understanding the whole structure of
the problem.
They focused on:
 insight
 reorganisation
 creative restructuring
NOT just trial-and-error learning.
Core Idea of Gestalt Theory
Problem solving occurs when:
old ideas/objects are rearranged into a new meaningful pattern.

Kohler’s Ape Experiment (VERY IMPORTANT)

Kohler placed:
 fruits outside reach
 sticks and crates inside cage
The ape solved problem by:
✔ rearranging objects
✔ combining sticks/crates

Gestalt Explanation
Solution occurred through reorganisation of the problem situation
NOT through simple conditioning alone.

Insight: Sudden discovery of correct solution.

Easy Memory: “Aha!” moment

Important: Insight usually happens:

 suddenly
 after unsuccessful attempts
 in a flash

Reproductive vs Productive Thinking <VERY IMPORTANT

DIFFERENCE>

1. Reproductive Thinking
Using:
 old methods
 memorised steps
 familiar solutions
Based on:
✔ rote memory
✔ repetition
Example: Using memorised math formula exactly as learned.

2. Productive Thinking
Using:
 insight
 creativity
 new ways of organising problem
Key Idea: Person sees problem differently.
Example: Thinking outside the box in puzzles.
Nine Dot Problem (Classic Gestalt Example): Connect 9 dots using:
 only 4 straight lines
 without lifting pencil

Main Learning: People fail because they assume lines must stay inside
boundaries.
Solution requires:
✔ restructuring problem
✔ removing unnecessary assumptions

Important Gestalt Principle: Many problems are solved by

restructuring perception.

Gestalt View of Problem Solving

Problem
↓
Old attempts fail
↓
Problem reorganised mentally
↓
Insight occurs suddenly
↓
Correct solution appears

Difference: Traditional vs Gestalt Approaches

Traditional Approach Gestalt Approach
Based on conditioning Based on insight
Trial-and-error learning Sudden restructuring
Stimulus-response associations Whole problem structure
Reinforcement important Insight important

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Insight Sudden understanding
Rearranging elements
Reorganisation
differently
Reproductive thinking Using old methods
Productive thinking Creative insightful thinking

One-Line Exam Summary

Gestalt approaches explain problem solving through insight and
restructuring of the problem situation rather than simple associative
learning.
Researchers tried to make computers perform human problem-solving
tasks.
This led to Information Processing Approach and Computer
Simulation Theories

Computer Simulation: Programming computers to solve problems like

humans and then comparing computer performance with human
performance

Goal of Computer Simulation: To understand:

✔ human thinking
✔ cognitive processes
✔ problem-solving mechanisms

Important Contribution
Computer simulation strongly influenced cognitive psychology
especially: information-processing theories of problem solving.

Information Processing View: According to this approach, problem

solving involves:
1. Receiving Information
Taking information from environment.

2. Operating on Information
The mind:
 modifies
 transforms
 organises information
to reach a solution.

Important Point
Problem solving is NOT a single process.
It involves many mental activities working together.

Role of Memory
Problem solving requires:
✔ factual knowledge
✔ procedural knowledge
retrieved from long-term memory

Long Problems Need:

 repeated storage
 repeated retrieval
 organisation of information

Example: While solving a difficult math problem:

 earlier steps must be remembered
 formulas retrieved
 information updated continuously

General Problem Solver (GPS) ⭐ VERY IMPORTANT

Developed by: Newell, Shaw, and Simon (1958)

GPS — Meaning: A computer simulation model designed to imitate

human problem-solving processes.

Importance of GPS
GPS became:
✔ highly influential
✔ foundation for many later theories
Core Idea of Information Processing Approach
Human mind works somewhat like a computer system. It:
 receives input
 processes information
 stores data
 retrieves information
 produces output

Simple Flow Chart

Input from environment
↓
Information processed
↓
Memory storage/retrieval
↓
Operations performed
↓
Solution generated

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Computer simulation Computer mimics human problem solving
Mind processes information
Information processing
systematically
Procedural knowledge Knowledge of “how to do” something
Factual knowledge Stored facts/information
GPS General Problem Solver model

Difference: Gestalt vs Information Processing

Gestalt Approach Information Processing
Focus on insight Focus on mental operations
Sudden solution Step-by-step processing
Whole structure important Information manipulation important
Creative restructuring Computer-like processing

One-Line Exam Summary

Information processing and computer simulation approaches explain
problem solving as systematic processing, storage, retrieval, and
transformation of information similar to computer operations.
Means–End Analysis is a general problem-solving heuristic
Its goal is to reduce the gap between present state and goal state.

Core Principle: Problem solving happens by:

✔ comparing current situation
with
✔ desired goal
and then:
✔ reducing the difference step-by-step.

Main Steps in Means–End Analysis

Step 1: Set Up a Goal
Decide: What do you want to achieve?

Step 2: Find the Difference

Compare:
 current state
 goal state

Step 3: Find a Method to:

✔ reduce/remove the difference.

Step 4: Create Subgoals

Break larger goal into >>> smaller manageable goals

Step 5: Repeat if Necessary

Apply means–end analysis again to subgoals.

Easy Memory Trick

Goal → Difference → Method → Subgoal → Repeat

Important Feature: Means–End Analysis works through: subgoals

Large problems become easier when divided into smaller goals.

GPS Connection ⭐
In General Problem Solver (GPS): Means–End Analysis became a major
strategy.
It can even be represented in computers as: IF–THEN production
systems

Production System
Rules stored in memory like: IF situation occurs → THEN perform action

Geometric Example from Text

Problem: ABCD is a rectangle. Prove: AD=BC
Strategy Used
To prove equality:
 prove triangles are congruent
 compare sides and angles
 create smaller subgoals

Important Insight
The problem is solved: from goal → to smaller subgoals.

Steps Mentioned in Problem Solving

1. Represent problem visually/propositionally
2. Determine goal
3. Break goal into subgoals
4. Select appropriate strategy

Three Strategies Mentioned

1. Difference Reduction
2. Means–End Analysis
3. Working Backwards
These are:
✔ very general strategies
✔ usable in many problems

Difference Reduction: Reduce distance between current state and

goal state step-by-step.

Working Backwards: Start from goal and move backward toward

beginning.

Simple Flow Chart

Current state
↓
Goal identified
↓
Difference found
↓
Method selected
↓
Subgoals created
↓
Difference reduced
↓
Goal achieved

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Goal state Desired final condition
Term Meaning
Present state Current condition
Subgoal Smaller intermediate goal
Production system IF–THEN rules in memory
Difference reduction Minimising gap between states

Difference: Means–End vs Working Backward

Means–End Analysis Working Backward
Reduce difference
Start from goal directly
gradually
Uses subgoals Traces path backward
Broad heuristic Specific direction strategy

One-Line Exam Summary

Means–End Analysis is a heuristic strategy in which differences between
the current state and goal state are reduced through subgoals and
appropriate operations.
Wickelgren’s theory is based on: Information Processing + GPS
(General Problem Solver)
According to this theory, problem solving involves:
 moving through different problem states
 choosing actions step-by-step
 searching for the best path to the goal

Three Types of Information in a Problem <VERY IMPORTANT>

1. Initial State: Starting situation/problem condition.
2. Goal State: Desired final solution.
3. Operations/Transformations: Actions used to move from: current
state → goal state.

State Action Tree: A diagram showing:

 all possible problem states
 all possible action paths
Nodes: Represent problem states/situations
Branches: Represent possible actions/choices

How Problem Solving Happens

Person:
1. chooses an action
2. reaches new state
3. faces new choices
4. repeats process
until:
✔ goal reached
or
✘ dead end reached

Important Observation
As problem solving continues number of possible choices increases
rapidly.

Wickelgren’s 7 General Problem Solving Strategies ⭐ VERY

IMPORTANT

1. Inference: Draw conclusions from:

 goals
 information given
 operations stated
Example: Using clues in a puzzle to logically deduce answer.

2. Classification of Action Sequences: Group similar action sequences

together.
These groups are called: Equivalent Classes
 Easy Memory: “Organise similar solution paths together.”

3. State Evaluation and Hill Climbing: VERY IMPORTANT

 State Evaluation: Each possible problem state is
evaluated/scored.
 Hill Climbing: Choose: next step closest to goal.
Easy Memory: Like climbing uphill toward top.
Important Limitation: May get stuck at local best option.

4. Subgoals: Break large problem into:

 smaller goals
 manageable steps
Example: Preparing for exams:
 finish notes
 revise
 practice papers

5. Contradiction: Remove possibilities that clearly conflict with goal.

Easy Memory: “Eliminate what cannot work.”

6. Working Backward: Start from: goal state → move backward to start.

Example: Maze solving from endpoint backward.

7. Finding Relations Between Problems: Connect current problem

with:
 previously solved problems
 past experiences
Example: Using earlier math-solving methods in physics
problems.

Simple Flow of Wickelgren’s Model

Initial state
↓
Possible actions generated
↓
State-action tree expands
↓
Strategies applied
↓
Best path selected
↓
Goal state reached
Important Terms
Term Meaning
Initial state Starting condition
Goal state Desired final condition
Operations Actions used for solving
Node Problem state
Branch Possible action
State-action
Diagram of possible paths
tree
Move toward closest goal
Hill climbing
state

Quick Summary Table of 7 Strategies

Strategy Main Idea
Inference Logical deduction
Classification Group similar actions
Hill Climbing Choose closest step to goal
Subgoals Break into smaller goals
Contradiction Eliminate impossible options
Working Backward Start from goal
Relations Between
Use past problem experience
Problems

One-Line Exam Summary

Wickelgren’s approach explains problem solving as movement through a
state-action tree using strategies such as inference, subgoals, hill
climbing, contradiction, and working backward.
Newell and Simon explained problem solving as:
searching through different possible paths to reach a goal.
They compared problem solving to solving a maze.

Maze Example
In a maze:
 you begin at starting point
 choose different paths
 some paths fail
 one path reaches goal
Similarly: humans explore different mental paths while solving problems.
Key Idea: Problem solving involves:
✔ selecting among many alternatives
✔ using strategies to reach goal efficiently

Problem Space ⭐ VERY IMPORTANT

Newell introduced: Problem Space Concept
Problem Space = all possible states and paths involved in solving a
problem.

Structure of a Problem
According to Newell & Simon, every problem contains:
1. Initial State: Starting condition.
Example: Standing outside maze.
2. Intermediate States: Steps between start and goal.
Example: Moving through maze paths.
3. Goal State: Final desired outcome.
Example: Reaching maze centre.

Operators: Actions that move a person >>> from one state → another.

Maze Example of Operators

Possible operators:
 turn left
 turn right
 go straight
 go back

Important Point: At every stage:

✔ multiple choices exist
✔ each choice creates new possibilities
This creates: many alternative states and paths.

Why Strategies Are Needed

Without strategies:
 problem space becomes confusing
 too many alternatives appear
Strategies help:
✔ search systematically
✔ choose best path

Core Idea of Newell’s Theory

Problem solving = searching through problem space using operators and
strategies.

Simple Flow of Newell’s Model

 Initial state
↓
Apply operator/action
↓
Reach new state
↓
More choices appear
↓
Search continues
↓
Goal state reached

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Problem space All possible states & paths
Initial state Starting point
Intermediate state Steps between start & goal
Goal state Final desired solution
Actions that move between
Operators
states

Example (Real-Life)
Problem: Preparing for IGNOU exams.
Initial state: Syllabus incomplete
Intermediate states:
 making notes
 revision
 solving PYQs
Goal state: Exam success
Operators:
 study
 revise
 practice questions

Difference: Gestalt vs Newell’s Approach

Gestalt Newell
Sudden insight Systematic search
Focus on restructuring Focus on problem space
Creative
State transitions
understanding
“Aha!” solutions Strategic path finding

Difference: GPS vs Newell’s Problem Space

GPS Newell’s Problem Space
Computer model Theoretical framework
 GPS Newell’s Problem Space
Uses means-end
Uses state-space search
analysis
Describes structure of
Simulates solving
problem

One-Line Exam Summary

Newell’s approach explains problem solving as a search through a
problem space consisting of initial, intermediate, and goal states
connected by operators.
For every problem >>> there are MANY possible paths from start to goal.
All these possible paths together form the Problem Space

Problem Space = all possible:

 states
 actions
 paths
that can occur while solving a problem.

Core Idea of Problem Solving

Problem solving happens when a person:
✔ moves from initial state
to
✔ goal state
using:
✔ mental operations/operators

Mental Operators: Mental actions that help move from one state to
another.

Example of Operators
 compare
 calculate
 infer
 choose
 eliminate

Important Point: Not all moves are allowed.

There are: Restrictions/Constraints that block certain actions under
some conditions.

Role of Heuristics
People use:
 knowledge
 heuristics
 strategies
to search through the problem space efficiently.

Example Strategy: Means–End Analysis

Used to reduce difference between:
 current state
 goal state

Cognitive Limitations ⭐ IMPORTANT

Problem solving is limited by: Cognitive System Capacity
Examples of Limitations
 1. Working Memory Limits: We cannot hold too much information
at once.
2. Retrieval Speed Limits: Information from long-term memory
may be:
 slow to retrieve
 incomplete

Newell’s Knowledge-Level View: Newell believed behaviour becomes

understandable when we know the person’s goals and knowledge.

Important Idea: Knowledge acts as a resource/tool for behaviour.

People choose actions based on:
 beliefs
 goals
 available knowledge

Final Goal of Problem Solving: Select best possible action/path to

reach goal state.

Simple Flow Chart

Initial state
↓
Problem space explored
↓
Mental operators applied
↓
Restrictions considered
↓
Heuristics used
↓
Best path selected
↓
Goal state reached

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Problem space All possible states & paths
Mental actions used for
Mental operators
solving
Restrictions on possible
Constraints
moves
Working memory Temporary active memory
Heuristics Shortcuts/strategies
Key Concepts to Remember
✔ Many paths exist in every problem
✔ Operators move us between states
✔ Heuristics guide search
✔ Memory limitations affect solving
✔ Knowledge helps choose actions

Difference: Operators vs Heuristics

Operators Heuristics
Actual mental actions Strategies guiding actions
Move between states Help choose best path
Example: means-end
Example: calculate
analysis

One-Line Exam Summary

The problem space hypothesis explains problem solving as movement
through a set of possible states using mental operators, heuristics, and
knowledge within cognitive limitations.
This modern approach says problem solving = creating a model of
the situation/problem.
Instead of only finding answers, people build: Case Models to understand
reality and solve problems.

Core Idea: Problem solving involves:

✔ organising knowledge
✔ building assumptions
✔ constructing a mental model of the problem

What is a Model?
Model = simplified representation of a situation/problem.
It helps person:
 understand problem
 predict outcomes
 decide actions

Knowledge-Level Perspective
According to this view: people understand the world through knowledge.
So:
✔ goals depend on knowledge
✔ solutions depend on understanding of system

Case Model: A model representing:

 person’s understanding of specific problem situation.

Purpose of Case Model

Helps determine:
✔ whether goal has been achieved
✔ how system works
✔ what actions are needed

Important Point: Actions are NOT the final goal.

Actions are tools to build/improve the model.

Domain Model vs Task Model ⭐ IMPORTANT

1. Domain Model: Knowledge about the system/domain/problem area

itself. Includes:
✔ facts
✔ relationships
✔ assumptions
Example: Medical knowledge about diseases.
2. Task Model: Knowledge about how to achieve goals/tasks. Defines:
✔ what task means
✔ how task should be solved
Example: Diagnostic process used by doctor.

Important Point: Task model makes goals clearer and more precise.

Competence Theory ⭐ IMPORTANT

Explains how:
 domain models
 task models
 methods
work together to solve problems.

Key Idea: Competence theory explains:

✔ why actions are chosen
✔ what rational behaviour means

Rationality in Problem Solving

Problem solvers:
 use knowledge
 reduce uncertainty
 choose rational actions
This is called Specialised Principle of Rationality

Important Point: Different methods create different types of models.

Goal of Problem Solving in This Theory

NOT just:
✔ selecting actions
BUT:
✔ building realistic and useful models.

Successful Problem Solving Depends On:

✔ correct assumptions
✔ organising knowledge properly
✔ exploring consequences logically

Final Core Idea: Problem solving = creating a suitable internal model of

reality.
Simple Flow Chart
Problem appears
↓
Gather knowledge
↓
Build domain model
↓
Build task model
↓
Create assumptions
↓
Construct case model
↓
Apply actions/interactions
↓
Goal achieved

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Representation of
Model
problem/system
Case model Situation-specific model
Domain model Knowledge about system/domain
Task model Knowledge about goals/tasks
Competence theory Explains rational problem solving
Rationality Choosing useful/logical actions

Difference: Problem Space vs Problem Solving as Modelling

Problem Space Theory Modelling Theory
Focus on constructing
Focus on searching paths
models
Uses
Uses operators/states
assumptions/knowledge
Goal = select path Goal = build realistic model
Computer-like search Knowledge organisation

One-Line Exam Summary

Problem solving as modelling views problem solving as the construction of
situation-specific models based on knowledge, assumptions, and rational
understanding of the problem.
Exam Quick Revision
Approach Main Idea
Traditional Learning through conditioning
Gestalt Insight & structure
Information
Mind works like computer
Processing
Computer Simulation Simulating human thinking
GPS Step-by-step solving
Wickelgren General strategies
Newell Problem Space hypothesis

1-Minute Memory Trick

Order Trick:
T G I C G W N = “Tired Girls In College Get Weirdly Nervous”
 T = Traditional
 G = Gestalt
 I = Information Processing
 C = Computer Simulation
 G = GPS
 W = Wickelgren
 N = Newell