This unit explains:

 how humans solve problems

 steps used to reach solutions
 different methods of solving problems
 creativity in problem solving
 role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in solving problems

Core Topics in This Unit

1. Stages of Problem Solving
→ Step-by-step process used to solve a problem.
2. Techniques of Problem Solving
→ Different methods/strategies to find solutions.
3. Creativity and Problem Solving
→ How creative thinking helps in solving difficult/new problems.
4. Artificial Intelligence in Problem Solving
→ How machines/computers help humans solve problems.
First step in problem solving:
Understand the problem properly.
Before solving a problem, we must know:
 what the problem is
 obstacles involved
 goals to be achieved

Greeno (1977) — Important Concept

Understanding = Internal Representation
Meaning:
When we understand something, we create a mental picture/pattern in
our mind.
This mental pattern helps us connect ideas correctly.
Example:
When reading a sentence:
 your brain links concepts together
 forms a meaningful pattern
Same thing happens in problem solving.

Key Steps in Understanding a Problem

1. Use Background Knowledge
Use what you already know:
 meanings
 previous experiences
 concepts
Example:
Math problem solving needs knowledge of formulas.

2. Focus on Important Information

Pay attention to:
 relevant facts
 essential details

3. Ignore Irrelevant Information

Do NOT get distracted by unnecessary details.
Easy Memory:
Important in → irrelevant out

4. Represent the Problem Properly

After identifying important information, represent the problem clearly.
Problem representation methods:
 symbols
 lists
 matrices
 graphs
 visual images

Simple Flow of Problem Understanding

Problem appears
↓
Understand issue + goal
↓
Use prior knowledge
↓
Select important information
↓
Ignore irrelevant information
↓
Represent problem clearly
↓
Begin solving

Important Terms for Exams

 Internal Representation
Mental model/image formed in the mind to understand a problem.
 Problem Representation
Organising the problem using symbols, graphs, lists, visuals etc.
After understanding the problem:
Next step = generate possible solutions.
The person:
 uses past experiences
 uses available resources
 thinks critically about the problem

Important Point
Different methods have different outcomes:
Method Type Result
Time-consuming methods Usually give correct answer
Quick methods Faster but may fail

Judging the Best Solution

After generating many solutions:
We must:
 compare alternatives
 evaluate outcomes
 identify obstacles
 identify hidden costs
 choose the BEST solution

Goal of this Stage

Move closer to the final goal using the most suitable solution.

Carrying Out the Best Solution

Now the chosen solution is actually implemented.
Strategies used:
 Algorithms
 Heuristics
Choice depends on:
 nature of problem
 complexity
 time available

Evaluation of Solution
After solving:
 compare solution with original problem
 check whether goal is achieved
 check whether solution is correct/legal/adequate
If solution fails:
→ return to earlier stage and try again.
Full Problem-Solving Flow
Understand problem
↓
Generate solutions
↓
Compare alternatives
↓
Choose best solution
↓
Apply solution
↓
Evaluate result
↓
If unsuccessful → retry

Strategies for Problem Solving

Two major strategies:
1. Algorithm
2. Heuristics

1. Algorithm
Meaning
A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution if followed
properly.
Important Feature:
✔ Accurate
✔ Reliable
✘ Time-consuming

Example of Algorithm
Multiplication rules
If steps are followed correctly:
→ correct answer is guaranteed.

Anagram Example
Word: YBO
Systematic search:
 YOB
 BYO
 BOY ✔
This is algorithmic searching.
Types of Random Search
Type Meaning
Unsystematic random search Try answers randomly
Try answers in
Systematic random search
order/systematically

Important Point
Algorithms become VERY slow for complex problems.

2. Heuristics
Meaning
Mental shortcuts or “rules of thumb” used to solve problems quickly.
Important Feature:
✔ Fast
✔ Saves time
✘ No guarantee of correct answer

Example of Heuristics
Word: DWARG
Brain searches familiar patterns:
 dr
 gr
Possible words:
 draw
 drag
 grad

Drawback of Heuristics
May miss some correct answers.

Difference Between Algorithm and Heuristics

Algorithm Heuristics
Step-by-step method Shortcut method
Guarantees solution No guarantee
Slow Fast
Accurate Approximate
Best for difficult accuracy-based
Best for quick decisions
tasks
The method used to solve a problem depends on the nature/type of the
problem.
Different problems need different approaches.
Example Given
Situation Solution Method
Travel from Delhi to Chennai Ask travel agents
Check bank balance ATM / Net banking

Key Point:
Not every method works for every problem.

Domain-Specific Problem Solving

Meaning
A technique useful only for a particular type/class of problem.
Easy Memory:
“Specific problem → specific solution”

Domain-Independent Techniques
These are:
 more general methods
 usable across many problems

Generate and Test Technique

Meaning
A person:
1. generates possible answers
2. tests each one
3. rejects wrong answers
4. keeps correct answer

Simple Example
Question:
Think of 10 food/drink words beginning with “C”.
Brain generates:
 cake ✔
 coffee ✔
 ketchup ✘ (maybe not fitting condition)
 cable ✘ (not edible)
Process:
Generate → test → reject/accept

Core Idea
Step Meaning
Generate Produce possible solutions
Test Check whether solution fits criteria
Problems with Generate & Test Technique
Weaknesses
 1. Becomes ineffective when possibilities are too many
Too many options = confusion + frustration.
2. No guidance in search
Person may try random answers.
3. Hard to track attempts
May repeat same wrong solution again.

Example from Text

Forgetting ATM PIN:
 too many combinations
 frustration increases
 process becomes slow

When is Generate & Test Useful?

✔ Useful when:
 possibilities are limited
 search area is small
Example:
Searching lost keys between classroom and cafeteria.

Generate & Test — Simple Flow

Possible answers generated
↓
Each answer tested
↓
Wrong answers removed
↓
Correct answer selected
Means–Ends Analysis = A problem-solving strategy where:
 the big problem is broken into smaller sub-problems
 differences between current state and goal state are reduced step
by step

Easy Meaning
Means = methods/tools used
Ends = final goal
So:
Means–Ends Analysis = finding methods to reach the goal.

Core Process
Step 1: Identify Current State
Where are you now?
Step 2: Identify Goal State
Where do you want to reach?
Step 3: Find Difference
What is stopping you?
Step 4: Reduce Difference
Use methods/steps to move closer to goal.

Key Feature
Large problem → divided into smaller subgoals. This makes solving
easier.
Example
Equation: 2 s−10+5=s+5+8
Goal: Get “s” alone on one side.
Steps used:
 add/subtract terms
 reduce difference between current equation and desired equation

Important Point
Means–Ends Analysis:
✔ compares present state and goal state repeatedly
✔ creates subgoals
✔ solves one step at a time

Real-Life Example
Want good exam marks
Current state:
Poor preparation
Goal state:
High marks
Subgoals:
 complete notes
 revise daily
 practice questions
 solve mock papers
Each subgoal reduces gap between current and desired state.

Simple Flow Chart

Current state
↓
Goal state identified
↓
Find differences
↓
Create subgoals
↓
Apply methods (“means”)
↓
Reduce differences
↓
Reach final goal

Important Terms for Exams

 Term Meaning
Current state Present condition
Goal state Desired final condition
Subgoals Small intermediate goals
Actions/methods used to reduce
Operators
gap

One-Line Exam Summary

Means–Ends Analysis is a problem-solving strategy in which a problem is
divided into smaller subproblems and differences between present and
goal states are gradually reduced.

---

Backward Search
A problem-solving heuristic where:
the person starts from the GOAL and works backward toward the starting
point.

Easy Meaning
Instead of asking: “How do I start?”
Ask: “How could I have reached the goal?”

Core Process
Normal Search: Start → Goal
Backward Search: Goal → Start

Example from Text: Maze Problem

Instead of starting from entrance:
  start at the END point
 trace path backwards
This may make correct path easier to find.

When is Backward Search Useful?

✔ Best for problems where:
 goal is clearly defined
 many confusing starting paths exist
 only one correct path leads to goal

Why It Works
Starting from goal helps create Subgoals
These subgoals guide the person step-by-step toward solution.

Important Point
Backward search helps because:
 final goal is clear
 path becomes easier to organise mentally

Example (Real Life)

Goal: Score 80% in exams.
Work backward:
 Need revision
 Need completed notes
 Need daily study
 Need timetable
Thus: Goal → subgoals → present actions

Key Concept: Goal State

Backward search works only when >>> Goal state is clearly defined.
If goal is vague/confusing → backward search becomes difficult.

Simple Flow Chart

Goal state identified
↓
Work backward
↓
Identify subgoals
↓
Find required steps
↓
Reach initial state/problem solution

Important Terms
 Term Meaning
Goal state Desired final condition
Initial state Starting point
Smaller intermediate
Subgoals
steps
Backward search Solving from goal to start

Difference: Forward vs Backward Search

Forward Search Backward Search
Start from
Start from goal
beginning
Move toward goal Move toward initial state
Useful when goal is very
Common method
clear

One-Line Exam Summary

Backward search is a heuristic in which the problem solver starts from the
goal state and works backward toward the initial state.

--

Planning Strategy
A heuristic where: the problem is divided into simple and complex parts.
The person:
1. solves easier parts first
2. then tackles difficult parts
Why This Helps
Solving simple parts:
 reduces confusion
 gives direction
 helps manage complex problems more easily

Core Idea
Simple problem first → Complex problem later

Important Point
Sometimes ignored/simple aspects can later help solve the difficult parts.

Analogy Method (Very Important)

One major planning strategy is: Analogy

Meaning of Analogy
A previous solution is used to solve a new similar problem.
Easy Memory: “Old solution helps new problem.”

How Analogy Works

Person:
 compares current problem with past problem
 looks for similarities
 applies earlier experience

Example from Text

Anagram: BODUT
Use known familiar patterns:
 D-O-U
This simplifies solving process.

Real-Life Example
Current Problem: Learning statistics
Past Similar Problem: Learning mathematics formulas
Analogy:
Use same strategies:
 practice
 repetition
 problem-solving

Advantages of Planning Strategy

✔ Organised solving
✔ Reduces complexity
✔ Uses previous experience
✔ Saves time
Limitation
✘ Works only if:
 past problem is actually similar
 simple solution helps complex one
Wrong analogy can lead to wrong solution.

Simple Flow Chart

Problem appears
↓
Divide into simple + complex parts
↓
Solve simple part
↓
Use analogy/past experience
↓
Apply learning to difficult part
↓
Solve complete problem

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Planning strategy Solving in organised stages
Using old solution for new similar
Analogy
problem
Heuristic Mental shortcut/rule of thumb

Difference: Algorithm vs Planning Strategy

Algorithm Planning Strategy
Fixed steps Flexible approach
Guaranteed answer No guarantee
Rigid Uses experience/organisation

One-Line Exam Summary

Planning strategy involves solving simpler aspects of a problem first and
often uses analogy by applying previous solutions to current similar
problems.
Thinking Aloud Method
A method used to study how humans solve problems by asking them to:
speak their thoughts aloud while solving a problem.

Ericsson & Simon’s Idea

They called this:
Concurrent Verbalisation
Meaning:
Person verbalises thoughts:
✔ during the actual problem-solving process

Retrospective Verbalisation
Meaning:
Person explains thoughts AFTER completing the task.

Difference Between the Two

Concurrent
Retrospective Verbalisation
Verbalisation
Thinking aloud during task Explaining after task
Uses short-term memory Uses long-term memory
More immediate Based on recall

Why Thinking Aloud is Useful

Usually thinking happens silently/nonverbally.
Thinking aloud:
 converts thoughts into words
 helps researchers understand problem-solving process

Protocol
Meaning
The verbal description produced during thinking aloud.
Easy Memory:
Protocol = spoken record of thoughts

Newell (1977) — Steps for Analysing Protocol

Step 1:
Divide protocol into phrases.
Each phrase:
→ represents one action/thought.

Step 2:
Create a Problem Behaviour Graph
Meaning:
Shows:
 how the person moves through problem space
  sequence of thinking/actions
This helps model behaviour scientifically.

Important Limitation of Thinking Aloud

Problem:
Talking while solving may interfere with thinking.

Study Mentioned
Schooler, Ohlsson & Brooks (1993)
Two groups:
Group Activity
Group 1 Explained strategies aloud
Group 2 Did unrelated activity
Result:
Group that verbalised thoughts performed WORSE.

Conclusion from Study

Some problem-solving processes are:
 unconscious
 automatic
 difficult to verbalise
Talking may disrupt these processes.

Important Point
Thinking aloud may:
✔ help researchers understand cognition
✘ interfere with insight/problem solving

Key Terms
Term Meaning
Concurrent verbalisation Speaking thoughts during task
Retrospective verbalisation Describing thoughts later
Protocol Verbal record of thinking
Problem behaviour graph Map of problem-solving behaviour
Simple Flow
Problem solving starts
↓
Person speaks thoughts aloud
↓
Researcher records protocol
↓
Protocol divided into phrases
↓
Behaviour graph created
↓
Problem-solving process analysed

One-Line Exam Summary

Thinking aloud is a method of studying problem solving in which
individuals verbalise their thoughts while solving a problem.
There are many additional strategies people use while solving problems.
These methods help:
 simplify problems
 think creatively
 test solutions
 find root causes

1. Abstraction: Solve the problem first in a model/simplified version

before applying it in real life.
Easy Memory: “Practice on model → apply in reality”
Example: Architect first designs a building model before actual
construction.

2. Divide and Conquer: Break a big complex problem into smaller

manageable parts.
Easy Memory: “Big problem → small pieces”
Example: Preparing for exams:
 divide syllabus chapter-wise
 study one topic at a time

3. Hypothesis Testing: Assume a possible explanation and test whether

it is correct or wrong.
Example: “Maybe low marks are due to lack of sleep.”
→ test whether improving sleep improves performance.

4. Lateral Thinking: Solve problems:

 indirectly
 creatively
 from unusual angles
Easy Memory: “Think outside the box”
Example: Using a coin as a screwdriver in emergency.

5. Method of Focal Objects: Combine unrelated characteristics/objects

to create something new.
Example: Phone + camera = smartphone innovation.

6. Reduction: Transform a difficult problem into another easier problem

that already has a known solution.
Example: Complex math problem simplified into smaller equations.

7. Research: Use:
existing ideas
 previous solutions
 earlier knowledge
to solve current problems.
Example: Reading previous studies before conducting research.

8. Root Cause Analysis: Find and remove the actual cause of the
problem.
Easy Memory: “Treat the cause, not the symptom.”
Example: Instead of only taking painkillers → identify why headache
occurs.

9. Trial-and-Error: Keep trying different solutions until one works.

Important Point: Very common method in psychology.
Example: Trying different passwords until correct one works.

10. Brainstorming: Group members generate many ideas freely. Then:

 ideas are combined
 improved
 best solution selected
Important Feature
✔ Encourages creativity
✔ Useful in groups
Example: Team discussing marketing ideas for a product.

Quick Comparison Table

Strategy Main Idea
Abstraction Use model before reality
Divide & Conquer Break into smaller parts
Hypothesis Testing Test assumptions
Lateral Thinking Creative indirect thinking
Focal Objects Combine unrelated ideas
Reduction Convert to easier problem
Research Use existing knowledge
Root Cause Analysis Find actual cause
Trial-and-Error Try repeatedly
Brainstorming Generate group ideas

One-Line Exam Summary

Problem solving involves multiple strategies such as brainstorming, trial-
and-error, lateral thinking, hypothesis testing, and divide-and-conquer
approaches.
Main Idea: Many problems are Insight Problems
Meaning: Solutions appear suddenly through insight (“Aha!” moment)

Relationship Between Creativity & Insight

✔ Creativity helps insight
✔ Insight helps creativity
They are closely connected.

Creativity — Meaning
Psychologists define creativity as: Appropriate Novelty
Meaning:
 idea should be ORIGINAL
 but also, USEFUL

Important Point
Type of Idea Meaning
Useful but not original Mundane/ordinary
Original but useless Bizarre
Original + useful Creative

Creativity According to Cognitive Scientists

Creativity = recombination of:
 knowledge
 information
 mental representations
Easy Memory: “Old ideas combined in new ways”

Insight Problem Solving: Insight solutions often happen suddenly.

Person: struggles initially >>> then solution suddenly appears

Three Important Skills in Creative Insight

1. Selective Encoding
2. Selective Combination
3. Selective Comparison
VERY IMPORTANT FOR EXAMS!!!

1. Selective Encoding: Identify important/relevant information and

ignore useless information.
Key Idea: Insight occurs when we recognise which information actually
matters.
Example: Alexander Fleming & Penicillin
Fleming noticed mold killing bacteria. Instead of ignoring mold → he
recognised its importance. This led to discovery of penicillin.
Easy Memory: “Focus on relevant clues.”
2. Selective Combination: Combine separate pieces of information in a
new useful way.
Key Idea: Sometimes solution pieces already exist — we just don’t know
how to connect them.
Example: Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Darwin already had many facts >>> creatively combined them into one
theory
Easy Memory: “Join separate ideas creatively.”

3. Selective Comparison: Compare current problem with past

models/examples and identify hidden similarities.
Example: Kekulé & Benzene Ring
Kekulé dreamed of a snake biting its own tail
He realised benzene structure was ring-shaped.
Insight came from comparing dream image with chemistry structure.
Easy Memory: “Find hidden similarities.”

Important Features of Insight

✔ Sudden understanding
✔ “Aha” experience
✔ Often starts with confusion
✔ Solution appears unexpectedly

Core Idea of Creative Problem Solving

Creative solutions happen when people:
 notice relevant information
 combine ideas
 compare patterns creatively

Simple Flow Chart

Problem appears
↓
Confusion/struggle
↓
Selective encoding
↓
Selective combination
↓
Selective comparison
↓
Insight occurs (“Aha!”)
↓
Creative solution found

Important Terms
 Term Meaning
Insight Sudden understanding
Creativity Original + useful thinking
Selective encoding Choosing relevant information
Selective combination Combining ideas creatively
Selective comparison Finding hidden similarities

One-Line Exam Summary

Creativity in problem solving involves insight, where relevant information
is selectively encoded, combined, and compared to produce original and
useful solutions.
Creative discoveries usually happen in:
4 stages
1. Preparation
2. Incubation
3. Insight
4. Verification
Easy Memory Trick: P-I-I-V: Prepare → Incubate → Insight → Verify
Creativity = seeing something new in ordinary things.

1. Preparation Stage
Person:
 sets a goal
 collects relevant information
 studies the problem
Information may be gathered:
 deliberately
 accidentally
Example: Scientist researching a disease:
 reads articles
 conducts experiments
 gathers data
Key Idea: Preparation = groundwork stage

2. Incubation Stage
After preparation:
 person appears inactive/resting
 unconscious mind continues working
Sometimes:
 brain waits for a “missing link”

Important: Even when not consciously thinking → mind may still process
problem.

Example: Suddenly getting an idea while:

 bathing
 walking
 sleeping

Easy Memory
“Mind works in background.”

3. Insight Stage: Sudden “Aha!” moment.

Different ideas suddenly connect in a new way.

Henri Poincare’s Idea: Creativity happens through new combinations of

useful ideas.
Features of Insight
✔ Sudden
✔ Unexpected
✔ Creative
✔ New understanding

Example: Suddenly understanding solution after being stuck for long

time.

4. Verification Stage: Final stage where solution is:

 tested
 checked
 evaluated
Goal → see whether idea is actually useful.

Important: Not every creative idea is practical. Verification checks:

✔ usefulness
✔ correctness
✔ effectiveness

Characteristics of Creative People

1. Clear Sense of Purpose
Creative people:
 have goals
 try solving specific problems
Without purpose → creativity may not happen.

2. Strong Knowledge & Skills

Creative people also need:
 subject knowledge
 technical skills
 mastery of their field

Important Message from Text: Creativity is NOT just magic or

inspiration. It also requires:
 hard work
 knowledge
 techniques
 preparation
Full Creative Discovery Process
Preparation
↓
Incubation
↓
Insight (“Aha!”)
↓
Verification/testing

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Preparation Gathering information
Incubation Unconscious processing
Insight Sudden solution
Verification Testing usefulness
Researchers believe that problem solving happens inside a Problem
Space

Problem Space Hypothesis

Every possible step/state in solving a problem forms part of a mental
map/network.
Easy Memory: “All possible solution paths together = problem space.”

Mental Nodes
Each possible condition/state in a problem:
→ is called a node.
All nodes together form:
→ mental graph/problem space.

Using the problem space idea, scientists created Expert Systems

Meaning: Computer programs designed to imitate human experts.

What Expert Systems Do

 store specialised knowledge
 apply rules
 solve problems like experts

Components of Expert Systems

1. Knowledge Base stores:
 facts
 information
 expert knowledge

2. Inference Rules used to:

 analyse information
 make decisions

3. Search Engine: Searches knowledge base for solutions.

4. User Interaction System: Allows humans to ask questions/problems.

Artificial Intelligence (AI): Computer programs solving problems in

ways similar to human intelligence.

Important Point
AI systems:
✔ imitate human thinking
✔ solve complex problems
✔ are highly influential today

Criticisms of Computer Simulation Approach

Some psychologists/philosophers disagree that computers can fully
imitate human thinking.

Main Criticism
Human thinking is:
 too complex
 subjective
 emotional
 conscious
to be copied completely by machines.

Heidegger’s View
Computer programs can imitate:
✔ reasoning
✔ calculations
BUT cannot fully capture:
✘ true human consciousness/thought

Important Concept
Computers may simulate logical thinking, but may fail to capture:
 subjective experience
 human awareness
 emotions
 meaning

Still, AI is Important
Despite criticisms:
✔ AI is widely used
✔ AI has promising future
✔ AI helps solve many complex problems

Simple Flow of AI Problem Solving

Problem given
↓
Knowledge base searched
↓
Inference rules applied
↓
Possible solutions generated
↓
Best solution selected

Important Terms
Term Meaning
Problem space All possible problem states
 Term Meaning
Node A possible state/condition
Expert system AI program imitating experts
Knowledge base Stored expert information
Inference rules Decision-making rules
Machine-based intelligent problem
Artificial intelligence
solving

Difference: Human vs AI Problem Solving

Human Thinking AI Thinking
Emotional + subjective Logical + programmed
Conscious awareness Rule-based processing
Creative/intuitive Data-driven
Flexible Depends on programming

One-Line Exam Summary

Artificial intelligence in problem solving involves computer programs and
expert systems that imitate human reasoning and decision-making
processes.
Most Important Topics for Exams ⭐
 Algorithms vs Heuristics
 Means–Ends Analysis
 Generate and Test
 Creativity and Insight
 Selective Encoding / Combination / Comparison
 Stages of Creative Discovery
 Artificial Intelligence & Expert Systems

Ultra-Short Revision Sheet

Topic Key Idea
Problem solving Finding best solution
Algorithm Guaranteed but slow
Heuristics Fast but uncertain
Means–Ends Reduce gap between current & goal
Backward Search Start from goal
Generate & Test Try and check
Creativity Original + useful ideas
Insight Sudden “Aha!”
AI Computer-based intelligent solving
Expert Systems AI imitating experts

One-Line Final Summary

Problem solving is a multi-stage cognitive process involving strategies,
creativity, insight, and artificial intelligence to reach effective solutions.