 1

 Chapter 3: Classification of Elements

and Periodicity in Properties
Detailed PDF-Ready Notes

Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Need for Classification of Elements
3. Early Attempts at Classification
o Dobereiner's Triads
o Newlands' Law of Octaves
o Mendeleev's Periodic Table
4. Modern Periodic Law
5. Modern Periodic Table
6. Electronic Configuration and Periodic Table
7. Types of Elements (s, p, d, f Blocks)
8. Periodic Trends
o Atomic Radius
o Ionic Radius
o Ionization Enthalpy
o Electron Gain Enthalpy
o Electronegativity
9. Periodic Trends in Physical and Chemical Properties
10. Anomalous Properties of First Element
11. Diagonal Relationship
12. Important NCERT Points
13. Solved Questions
14. MCQs
15. Revision Notes

1. Introduction
More than 100 elements are known today. Each element possesses unique physical and
chemical properties. To study these elements systematically, scientists developed methods for
classifying them.

The arrangement of elements according to similarities in properties is called classification of

elements.

The modern periodic table is the most successful classification scheme used today.
  2

2. Need for Classification of Elements

Classification helps us:

 Study a large number of elements systematically.

 Predict properties of unknown elements.
 Understand relationships among elements.
 Identify trends in physical and chemical properties.

Example:
If we know the properties of sodium (Na), we can predict many properties of potassium (K)
because both belong to Group 1.

3. Early Attempts at Classification

A. Dobereiner's Triads (1829)
German scientist Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner grouped elements into sets of three.

Characteristics

 Elements in a triad had similar properties.

 Atomic mass of the middle element was approximately the average of the other two.

Example

Element Atomic Mass

Li 7
Na 23
K 39
7+392=23\frac{7+39}{2}=2327+39=23

Limitations

 Only a few elements could be grouped.

 Not applicable to all known elements.

B. Newlands' Law of Octaves (1865)

Proposed by John Newlands.
  3

Statement

When elements are arranged in increasing order of atomic masses, every eighth element has
properties similar to the first.

Example

Li – Be – B – C – N – O – F – Na

Na resembles Li.

Limitations

 Worked only up to calcium.

 Failed for heavier elements.

C. Mendeleev's Periodic Table (1869)

Developed by Dmitri Mendeleev.

Mendeleev's Periodic Law

Physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic masses.

Merits

 Left gaps for undiscovered elements.

 Predicted properties of unknown elements accurately.
 Corrected atomic masses of some elements.

Limitations

1. Position of hydrogen uncertain.

2. Isotopes could not be explained.
3. Some elements violated increasing atomic mass order.

Examples:

 Co and Ni
 Te and I

4. Modern Periodic Law

Proposed by Henry Moseley.
  4

Statement

The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.

Atomic number became the basis of classification.

Significance

 Removed defects of Mendeleev's table.

 Explained isotopes correctly.
 Provided scientific basis for periodicity.

5. Modern Periodic Table

The modern periodic table contains:

 7 periods (horizontal rows)

 18 groups (vertical columns)

Periods

Period Number of Elements

1 2
2 8
3 8
4 18
5 18
6 32
7 Incomplete

Groups

There are 18 groups.

Elements in the same group possess similar valence shell configurations.

6. Electronic Configuration and Position in

Periodic Table
The position of an element depends on:
  5

 Atomic number
 Electronic configuration

Period Number
The period number equals the highest principal quantum number (n).

Example

Na (11)

Electronic configuration:

1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹

Highest n = 3

Therefore Na belongs to Period 3.

Group Number
For s-Block

Group number = Number of valence electrons

Examples:

 Li = Group 1
 Mg = Group 2

For p-Block

Group number = 10 + valence electrons

Example:

Cl = 3s²3p⁵

Valence electrons = 7

Group = 17
  6

7. Classification into Blocks

A. s-Block Elements
Groups 1 and 2

General configuration:

ns¹ or ns²

Examples:

 H
 Li
 Na
 Mg
 Ca

Characteristics:

 Highly reactive
 Metallic
 Low ionization enthalpy

B. p-Block Elements
Groups 13–18

General configuration:

ns²np¹ to ns²np⁶

Includes:

 Metals
 Non-metals
 Metalloids

C. d-Block Elements
Groups 3–12
  7

General configuration:

(n−1)d¹–¹⁰ns⁰–²

Also called transition elements.

Examples:

 Fe
 Cu
 Zn

Properties:

 Variable oxidation states

 Colored compounds
 Catalytic activity

D. f-Block Elements
Two series:

Lanthanoids

Atomic numbers 58–71

Actinoids

Atomic numbers 90–103

General configuration:

(n−2)f¹–¹⁴

8. Periodic Trends

A. Atomic Radius
Definition

Distance between the nucleus and the outermost shell.

  8

Trend Across a Period

Atomic radius decreases.

Example:

Li > Be > B > C > N > O > F

Reason:

Effective nuclear charge increases.

Electrons are pulled closer to nucleus.

Trend Down a Group

Atomic radius increases.

Example:

Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs

Reason:

Additional shells are added.

B. Ionic Radius
Cations

Smaller than parent atom.

Example:

Na⁺ < Na

Reason:

Loss of electron reduces electron-electron repulsion.

  9

Anions

Larger than parent atom.

Example:

Cl⁻ > Cl

Reason:

Gain of electron increases repulsion.

C. Ionization Enthalpy
Definition

Energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom.

X(g)→X+(g)+e−X(g)\rightarrow X^+(g)+e^-X(g)→X+(g)+e−

Unit:

kJ mol⁻¹

Factors Affecting Ionization Enthalpy

1. Atomic size
2. Nuclear charge
3. Shielding effect
4. Electronic configuration

Trend Across a Period

Generally increases.

Reason:

Atomic size decreases and nuclear attraction increases.

Trend Down a Group

  10

Generally decreases.

Reason:

Atomic size increases.

Important Exceptions

Be > B

Boron's outer electron enters p-orbital.

N>O

Nitrogen has half-filled p-subshell.

More stable.

D. Electron Gain Enthalpy

Definition

Energy change when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous atom.

X(g)+e−→X−(g)X(g)+e^- \rightarrow X^-(g)X(g)+e−→X−(g)

Trend Across a Period

Becomes more negative.

Reason:

Smaller atoms attract electrons strongly.

Trend Down a Group

Generally becomes less negative.

Important Exception
  11

Chlorine has more negative electron gain enthalpy than fluorine.

Reason:

Very small size of fluorine causes strong electron-electron repulsion.

E. Electronegativity
Definition

Ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a chemical bond.

Trend Across a Period

Increases.

Reason:

Atomic size decreases.

Trend Down a Group

Decreases.

Reason:

Atomic size increases.

Most Electronegative Element

Fluorine

Value = 4.0 (Pauling scale)

9. Metallic and Non-Metallic Character

  12

Metallic Character
Tendency to lose electrons.

Across a Period

Decreases.

Down a Group

Increases.

Non-Metallic Character
Tendency to gain electrons.

Across a Period

Increases.

Down a Group

Decreases.

10. Periodic Trends in Oxides

Across a period:

Basic → Amphoteric → Acidic

Examples:

Na₂O → MgO → Al₂O₃ → SiO₂ → P₂O₅ → SO₃ → Cl₂O₇

11. Anomalous Properties of First Element

First element of each group differs significantly from others.

Reasons:
  13

 Small size
 High charge density
 High electronegativity
 Absence of d-orbitals

Examples:

Lithium differs from other alkali metals

 Forms nitride directly.

 Shows diagonal relationship with Mg.

Beryllium differs from other alkaline earth metals

 Compounds are mainly covalent.

 Amphoteric oxide.

12. Diagonal Relationship

Certain second-period elements resemble third-period elements diagonally.

Examples:

Period 2 Period 3
Li Mg
Be Al
B Si

Reason:

 Similar ionic size

 Similar charge/radius ratio
 Similar electronegativity

13. Important NCERT Questions

Q1. Why does atomic radius decrease across a period?

Answer:
Effective nuclear charge increases while electrons enter the same shell. Therefore electrons
are pulled closer to the nucleus.
  14

Q2. Why is fluorine more electronegative than chlorine?

Answer:
Fluorine has smaller atomic size and stronger attraction for bonding electrons.

Q3. Why is ionization enthalpy of oxygen less than nitrogen?

Answer:
Nitrogen has a stable half-filled 2p³ configuration whereas oxygen has paired electrons
causing repulsion.

14. Important MCQs

1. Modern periodic law is based on:

A. Atomic mass
B. Atomic volume
C. Atomic number
D. Density

Answer: C

2. Most electronegative element:

A. O
B. N
C. F
D. Cl

Answer: C

3. Atomic radius increases:

A. Across period
B. Down group
C. Both
D. Neither

Answer: B
  15

4. Which has highest ionization enthalpy?

A. Li
B. Na
C. K
D. Rb

Answer: A

15. One-Page Revision Sheet

Modern Periodic Law

Properties are periodic functions of atomic number.

Trends Across a Period

 Atomic radius ↓
 Ionic radius ↓
 Ionization enthalpy ↑
 Electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative
 Electronegativity ↑
 Metallic character ↓

Trends Down a Group

 Atomic radius ↑
 Ionic radius ↑
 Ionization enthalpy ↓
 Electronegativity ↓
 Metallic character ↑

Most Important Exceptions

 Be > B (Ionization enthalpy)

 N > O (Ionization enthalpy)
 Cl > F (Electron gain enthalpy)

Diagonal Relationships

 Li ↔ Mg
 Be ↔ Al
 B ↔ Si
  16

Most Important Elements

 Most electronegative: Fluorine

 Largest atom: Cesium (among stable alkali metals)
 Noble gases: Group 18
 Alkali metals: Group 1
 Alkaline earth metals: Group 2