Chapter 5 – Electricity and Magnetism

Two types of charges: Positive (+) and negative (-)

• The positive part (+) of the atom is the proton, the negative part (-) of the atom is the
electron.
• A neutral atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons,
• Objects have a positive charge if the number of electrons (-) are fewer than the number of
protons (+).
• Objects have a negative charge if the number of electrons (-) are greater than the number
of protons (+).

Law of charges:
[Link] charges attract. (+ -), ( - +).
2. Like charges repel. (+ +), (- -).

3 ways of charging an object: (Only the electrons move!)

1) Friction: When two neutral bodies are rubbed against each other, one object removes
electrons from the other object. The result is two objects with opposite charges.

Triboelectric Series OR Electrostatic List

Objects at the top of the series will remove electrons from objects lower in the series and
become negatively charged; the object lower on the series will lose electrons and become
positively charged. This series can be displayed horizontally.

Substance
- Gold
Nickel, copper
Rubber
Hard rubber (ebonite) Only NEGATIVE charges move!
Wood
Polyethylene
Cotton
Paper
Silk
Wool
Glass
Acetate
+ Fur

Example: Polyethylene is rubbed with silk. Polyethylene will gain electrons and become
negatively charged and silk will lose electrons and become positively charged.

1
2) Conduction: A neutral object can be charged by placing it in contact with an object
that is already charged. The neutral object will obtain the same charge as
the charged object. If a positively charged object touches a neutral object,
the neutral object becomes positively charged (e.g., Touching, Receiving
a shock).

3) Induction: When a charged object is brought close to a neutral object, opposite

charges build up on the surface of the neutral object. The objects will now
attract (No touching!).

-
- -
Know the difference between the following: -
- -
Conductor: A substance that permits the free flow of electrical charges.
Examples: Nichrome, graphite, copper.
-
Insulator: A substance that impedes the free flow of electrical charges.
Examples: Ceramic, plastic, air, most nonmetals.
- --
- --
Electroscope: An electroscope is an early scientific instrument used to detect the
presence of an electrical charge on a body.

Only electrons move!

2
Static electricity: Describes all the phenomena related to charges at rest.
vs

Dynamic electricity: Describes all the phenomena related to electrical charges in

motion.

Definitions: These have been known to show up on final exam MC.

Current intensity: The number of charges that flow past a given point in an electrical circuit
every second.

Electrical power: The amount of work an electrical device can perform per second.

Electric current: The orderly flow of negative charges carried by electrons.

Potential difference: The amount of energy transferred between two points in an

electrical circuit.

Electrical resistance: The ability of a material to hinder the flow of electrical current.

Formulas
V=RI V: potential difference I=q q: charge
R: resistance t I: electric current intensity
I: electric current intensity t: time

E=Pt E: energy consumed P=VI P: electrical power

P: electrical power V: potential difference
t: time difference I: electric current intensity

V=E E: energy consumed

q q: charge
V: potential difference

3
 There are 2 types of circuits: Series and Parallel

A series circuit
has only one path
for the current to
flow.

A parallel circuit
has two or more
paths for the
current to flow.

Circuit diagram
Power Supply

A
V

Ammeter

Resistor Voltmeter
4
Ammeter A
• To measure the current traveling through a circuit, an ammeter must be inserted into the
circuit.

• An ammeter is always connected inside the circuit in series. Terminals (+ to +, - to -).

• In a circuit diagram, it must be on the circuit line.

Conventional current direction: The direction in which a positive particle would

flow in an electrical circuit. For this reason, the
direction goes from the positive terminal of the
power supply to its negative terminal.

Electron flow: The direction in which a negative particle would flow in an electrical
circuit. It flows from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.

Voltmeter V
• In order to measure the voltage or potential difference traveling through a circuit, a
voltmeter must be inserted into the circuit.

• A voltmeter is always connected outside the circuit in parallel. (+ to +, - to -).

• In a circuit diagram, it must be off the circuit line and around an electrical component.
Factors affecting resistance:
Nature of the Substance Poor conductors and insulators have a higher resistance than
conductors.

Length The longer the wire, the higher the resistance.

Diameter The smaller the diameter of the wire, the higher the
resistance. A thinner wire has a higher resistance.

Temperature The warmer the wire, higher the resistance.

LOW RESISTANCE (High Conductance) = SHORT, FAT, COLD, SILVER, COPPER, GOLD

HIGH RESISTANCE (Low Conductance) = LONG, THIN, HIGH TEMP (NICHROME)

5
 Ohm’s Law: For a given substance, the potential difference in an electrical circuit is
directly proportional to the current intensity.

• R=V/I If resistance is held constant, then a higher voltage will result in a higher current.

• V= RI If voltage is held constant, then a higher resistance will result in a lower current.

Domain Theory of Magnetism

Electrons, which revolve around the nucleus, have a magnetic field. The magnetic field results
from the electrons spinning in one direction or the other. If enough atoms have their poles facing
the same direction, it forms a region called a domain. An object becomes magnetized when the
domains are aligned.

N N N N

S
S S S S

N N N

S S S

Magnetized: The domains face the same direction. Unmagnetized: The domains are random.

Three categories of substances:

Magnetic: An object that can attract other objects and become magnetized (bar magnet).

Ferromagnetic: A substance that is attracted to magnets and can acquire magnetic properties
(iron, nickel, cobalt).

Nonmagnetic: A substance that is not attracted to a magnet (plastic).

You can magnetise ferromagnetic (iron, nickel or cobalt) substances by:

1. Placing it in the magnetic field of magnet or placing it in contact with a magnet.
2. Striking with or against a heavy object.
3. Wrap it with a coil of wire and run current through it.

Magnetic Remanence: Describes the ability of a material to acquire and conserve magnetism
properties.

6
 MAGNETIC FIELDS (Away from the North, toward the South)

Horseshoe Magnet Bar Magnet

Bar Magnet (unlike poles facing) Bar Magnet (Like poles facing)

Current carrying conductors (remember conventional current + → -)

Any type of conductor (ferromagnetic or not) will produce a magnetic field when current is
allowed to flow through it. We can predict the magnetic field using our right-hand rule.

a) Solenoid b) Straight line conductor

Fingers: Current (+ → -) Fingers: Magnetic field (N→S)

Thumb: Magnetic field (N→S) Thumb: Current (+ → -)
7
Solenoid:
• Adding a core to the solenoid produces an electromagnet.
• They are very useful because their magnetic fields can be turned off and on.
• It requires a material with a low magnetic remanence (soft iron). Permanent magnets are
made of steel, a material with high magnetic remanence.

Factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet:

I = 5A

• Core: A core with stronger ferromagnetic (Fe, Ni, Co) properties will increase the
magnetic field. A larger ferromagnetic core would have a stronger magnetic field. A core
with a lower remanence creates a stronger field.

• Number of turns: The more loops of wire, the stronger the magnetic field.

• Amount of current: Increasing the current will increase the magnetic field (E.g. 5A)

Electromagnetic induction: It consists of generating an electric current in a conductor

by varying a magnetic field around that conductor.

1-Moving a conductor (wire) perpendicular (right angle) to a magnetic field.

8
2- Moving a magnet perpendicular (right angle) to the conductor (wire).

Chapter 14 – Electrical Engineering notes

The science of electrical engineering covers a wide range of applications, from systems for
producing, transporting, and using electrical power to communications systems and avionics.

The main differences between electricity and electronics:

Electronic Components Electrical Components
Made with semiconductors Made with conductors (metals & alloys
(usually silicon). including copper).
High degree of miniaturization. Larger circuits.
Low-intensity currents. Designed for more powerful circuits, such as
electric motors.
Current is more finely controlled than in
electrical components.

9
Circuits
• A path from the power supply back to the power supply where current can flow.
• Circuit diagrams are used to represent the circuits.
• Electrical components are represented by different symbols.

Symbols for circuit components:

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Source of direct
current Fuse/breaker

Source of
alternating current Resistor

Battery Light bulb

Photoelectric cell Capacitor

Switch Diode

Electrical outlet LED

Electrical wire Transistor

Motor Reed switch

Push button switch Relay

Voltmeter Ammeter

10
 Current
Direct Current: The electric current in which the electrons are continuously moving in the
same direction (e.g., battery is a good source).
vs

Alternating Current: The electric current in which the electrons move back and forth in
a regular pattern (e.g., wall outlet is a good source).

Conventional Current: The direction in which a positive particle would flow in an

electrical circuit. For this reason, the direction goes from the
positive terminal of the power supply to its negative terminal.
(+ → - )
vs

Electron Current: The direction in which a negative particle would flow in an electrical
circuit. For this reason, the direction goes from the negative terminal of
the power supply to its positive terminal. This one happens in a wire.

6 Electrical Functions
The role that a component plays in the control or transmission of electric current.

1. Power Supply

2. Conduction

3. Insulation

4. Protection

5. Control

6. Transformation of energy

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 (1) Power Supply: The electrical function performed by any component that can
generate or provide an electric current in a circuit.

Power Supply Pros Cons Examples

Battery • Portable • Must be replaced. Cellphones,
• Leak heavy metals. AirPods, remote
controls.
Electric Outlet • Long-lasting power • Cannot be moved far
supply. from wall outlet. Televisions,
• Very few GHGs. • Can’t be used during refrigerators,
power outages. computers.
Photovoltaic • Provides power supply • Does not work at Solar homes,
in remote areas. night. calculators, solar
• Portable. • Higher production cars, outdoor
• Do not emit greenhouse and installation costs. patio lighting.
gases.

(2) Conduction: The electrical function performed by any component that can transmit
electric current from one part of a circuit to another (wire and printed
circuit).

(3) Insulation: The electrical function performed by any component that prevents electric
current from flowing (plastic covering on wires, ceramic on resistors,
glass on bulbs, marrettes or electrical tape).

(4) Protection: The electrical function performed by any component that can automatically
cut current flow in the event of a power surge (e.g. fuses and breaker).

• Fuses prevent the current intensity in a circuit from exceeding a certain level by melting
or breaking before the circuit overloads. Once the fuse has blown, it must be replaced.
• Breakers are protective devices that can be reset as many times as necessary. When the
current intensity goes beyond an acceptable level, a bimetallic strip heats up and bends,
tripping a switch that cuts power.
• Resistors are components designed to protect the more sensitive elements of the circuit
by limiting the current that flows through those components.

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 Resistor Colour Codes (Must be given)

Colour Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White Gold Silver None

Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Multiplier 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109

Tolerance 5% 10% 20%

1st digit - Colour of the first band corresponds to the first digit of the resistor value.
2nd digit – Colour of the second band corresponds to the second digit of the resistor value.
3rd digit – Colour of the third band corresponds to the multiplier.
4th digit – Colour of the fourth band corresponds to the tolerance (margin of error).
Example:

Black Violet Brown Silver Resistor value:

07 x 101 ± 10% Ω or 70 ± 10% Ω

Limits: 70 x 0.10 = 7 Ω
70 + 7 = 77 Ω
70 – 7 = 63 Ω

(5) Control: The electrical function performed by any component that can open and close a
circuit.

• Closed circuit: A circuit in which electric current flows in a loop. (ON)

• Open circuit: A circuit in which electric current cannot flow in a loop. (OFF)

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 TYPES OF SWITCHES

• The term single-pole means that the switch opens or closes one contact at a time.
• The single-throw switch only allows electrons to follow one path.
• The double-throw switch is called for where the electrons follow one or two distinct
paths.

Forms of switches: 1) rocker switch 3) push button switch

2) toggle switch 4) magnetic contact switch (Reed switch)

(6) Transformation of Energy: The electrical function performed by any

component that can convert electrical energy into
another form of energy.

Device Energy Conversion Application

Lightbulb Electrical → Radiation Flashlight

Heating element Electrical → Thermal Stove

Piezoelectric crystal (quartz) Electrical → Mechanical Watches, speakers

Electromagnets Electrical → Magnetic Security (doors),

doorbells

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 Components with other functions
Capacitors
• A device composed of two electrical surfaces separated by an insulating material.
• The device can store an electric charge.
• When a power supply is connected to a capacitor, electrical charges accumulate on the
metal plates. This ability to store energy is called capacitance. Capacitance is expressed
in farads (symbol F).

Capacitors have two functions:

1. While a battery is gradually emptied of its energy, a capacitor can release its stored
charge (power supply) almost instantly (e.g. camera flash).

2. Other capacitor applications include stabilizing a fluctuating power supply.

Diodes: A device (made of semiconductors) that allows electric current to flow only in one
direction.

Diodes have 3 functions:

1. They protect battery operated devices by blocking current from travelling in the
opposite direction. Devices will not function if the batteries are backwards.
2. Rectification: It changes A.C. (alternating current) to D.C. (direct current).
3. It produces light (L.E.D.). They are electroluminescent.

Transistors: An electronic device used to block or amplify an electric current.

Transistors have 2 functions:

1. It can act as a switch by blocking current.

2. It can alter the current, usually by amplifying it.

The operation of a transistor depends on three key parts (refer to diagram):

• Collector (C) – Current flows from the collector to the emitter (e) through the base (b)
which acts like a door.
• The base can either stop the current or facilitate its flow.

15
Transistors are particularly important in the field of electronics. Computers make calculations
by processing long series of 0’s and 1’s. The combinations are called binary code.

The microprocessor acts like the “brain” of the computer and relies on millions of transistors
on a single wafer of just a few square centimeters.

Cellphones, calculators, AirPods, and Chromebooks all contain transistors.

Relays
• A component used to control a high-voltage circuit from a distance with a low-voltage
circuit.
• A relay opens or closes a circuit, using an electrical signal from a switch, a computer, or
a photoelectric (light-sensitive) cell.

A relay is made up of two parts (see diagram):

• One part that receives the signal from the first circuit and sends a command.

• Another part that receives the command and starts the second circuit.

Electromagnet
Symbol

Low voltage circuit High voltage circuit

There are electromechanical relays and solid-state relays (or static relays).

• In an electromechanical relay, the control depends on the magnetic field of an

electromagnetic, which causes metallic parts to move. This type of relay has a shorter life
span, but can control more powerful circuits

• A solid-state relay does not contain any moving parts. Control is made possible by an
LED and light-sensitive cells. Solid-state relays are more compatible with digital
circuits.

16
 Chapter 12 notes – Manufacturing Technical Objects
Constraints: Are the different types of stresses that a material experiences resulting from the
forces applied to it.

Type of constraint Description Symbol Examples

Compression A material subjected to
forces that tend to crush • Crushing a can
it.
Tension A material subjected to • Two teams in a
forces that tend to stretch tug of war
it.
Torsion A material subjected to • Wringing out a
forces that tend to twist it. towel

Deflection A material subjected to • A fish bending a

forces that tend to bend it. fishing rod

Shearing A material subjected to • Scissors cutting

forces that tend to cut it. paper

Deformation: Change in the shape of the object.

Type of deformation Description

Elastic A temporary change in shape or size of a
material.
Plastic A permanent change in shape or size of a
material.
Fracture The material breaks into pieces.

Mechanical properties: It describes how materials react when subjected to one or more
constraints.

Mechanical property Definition

Hardness Ability to resist indentation or abrasion.
Elasticity Ability to return to their original shapes after
undergoing a constraint.
Resilience Ability to resist shocks without breaking.
Ductility Ability to be stretched without breaking.
Malleability Ability to be flattened or bent without
breaking.
Stiffness Ability to retain their shapes when subjected
to various constraints.

17
 Other property Definition
Resistance to Corrosion Resists the effects of corrosive substances.
like acid, water and salt solutions.
Electrical conductivity Ability to carry an electric current.
Thermal conductivity Ability to transfer heat.

Categories of materials
1) Wood/Modified Wood: A material obtained by harvesting and processing trees.

2) Ceramics: A solid material obtained by heating inorganic matter containing various

compounds, usually oxides. Ceramics are solid, inorganic materials
containing oxides.

3) Metals and Alloys: Material extracted from a mineral ore. An alloy is a mixture
of a metal with one or more other substances, which could be
nonmetallic (carbon).

Techniques That Enhance the Properties of Metals and Alloys

Steel Heat Treatments:

• Methods of enhancing certain mechanical properties of steel through periods of
heating.
• These DO NOT protect the metal against OXIDATION.

1. Quench hardening: Heated steel above 800 °C and cooled. Metal is

harder, but more brittle.
2. Tempering: Heated to a lower temperature than quench hardening. It
toughens the metal by reducing excess hardness. It usually
follows quench hardening to make the metal less brittle.
3. Annealing: Heating a metal to increase its ductility and decrease
hardness. It makes the metal easier to cut and shape. It is also
used to reduce the stress on metal following welding.

4) Plastics: Plastics consist of polymers created from natural gas and fossil fuels.

Two types of plastics:

1. Thermoplastic: It becomes soft enough to be remolded. It is the most common
type and can be recycled.
2. Thermosetting plastic: It cannot be remolded with heat. It is harder and more
resilient than thermoplastic. It cannot be recycled.

18
5) Composites:
• A composite has two main parts: the Matrix (majority) and the Reinforcement
(strength and shape).
• Matrix is continuous, it surrounds and binds together the reinforcement. (e.g.,
polymer, cement)
• Reinforcements are fibers, particles or flakes, it provides the composite’s strength
and rigidity. (e.g., fiberglass reinforcement used in kayaks, showers, bathtubs, and
boat hulls).

Technical Drawings

General arrangement: A
technical drawing representing the
overall appearance on an object.

Projection: The representation of

a three-dimensional object on a
two-dimensional surface.

Isometric Projection: It shows the

object in perspective: it represents
the three dimensions of an object in
a single view.

Multiview Projection: At least

three views are required to
represent an object its entirety. It
provides greater detail without
distortion.

Exploded view: A drawing in which

the various parts of the object are
separated from one another so as to
more easily visualize the component
parts of the object.

19
 Development: The representation
of the surface area required to
make a part by bending.

Detail drawing: A drawing specifying all

of the relevant information for
manufacturing a part. It is almost always
drawn to scale.

Dimensional tolerance: An indicator of

the maximum acceptable difference
between a specified measurement and the
actual measurement on the finished
. object.

Example: A parts designer is worried that he may have made a mistake in dimensioning the
diameter of an axle that must fit into the hole of another part. He thinks that the
axle will not always fit into the hole of the part.

The following table shows the specific tolerance for each part.

Diameter of the Axle Diameter of the Hole in the Part

(mm) (mm)

3.236 ± 0.004 3.238 ± 0.002

SPECIFIC TOLERANCE FOR THE AXLE AND THE HOLE IN THE PART

Does the parts designer have reason to be worried? Justify your answer.

Min: 3.236 – 0.004 = 3.232 mm Min: 3.238 – 0.002 = 3.236 mm

Max: 3.236 + 0.004 = 3.24 mm Max: 3.238 + 0.002 = 3.24 mm

As we can see, the axle at its largest will not fit when the hole is at its smallest.

20
Functional Dimensioning:
• It specifies the information required for the object to work.
• For example, the play required for a blade to slide freely in a utility knife is
shown as the space between the blade and the guide.
• It is considered part of a dimensional tolerance question.

Three types of diagrams:

Design Plan (Operation) Circuit Diagram

Technical Diagram (Maufacturing)

21
 Manufacturing
The manufacturing process is usually divided into three parts:

1) Measuring and Laying out

• Measuring out: The act of determining the size or position of a marking.
• Laying out: The act of tracing markings or reference points onto a material.

2) Machining
• It consists of shaping a material into a desired configuration.
• The first step in machining a part is to cut it out roughly into its approximate shape.
• Inspection occurs here.
• There are 5 machining techniques:

1) Cutting: Giving a material a desired shape.

2) Drilling: Making a hole in a material.
3) Tapping: A machining technique in which screw threads are formed
inside holes drilled into a material.

4) Threading: A machining technique in which screw threads are formed

around a rod.
5) Bending: A machining technique in which a material is curved into a
certain shape.

3) Assembling and Finishing

Assembling
• A set of techniques by which various parts are united to form a complete technical
object.
• Assembling Techniques: nailing, screwing, bonding, riveting, bolting, and welding.

Finishing
• A set of techniques that completes the manufacture of the parts of a technical object.
The finish protects the materials from the elements and enhances the appearance of
the object.

• Finishing techniques: painting, varnishing, staining, and polishing.

22
 Materials

Category of Common Type of Ways to protect

material Properties degradation

Wood • Resilience • Rot • Paint

(Naturally occurring • Low thermal • Use pressure treated
organic material) • Low (green).
electrical • Heat treated (fungi).
conductivity. • Use cedar.
• Lightweight
• Aesthetic
appeal.

Ceramic • Low • Corrosion by • Paint

(Inorganic materials electrical acid or base. • Control raw materials
containing oxides) conductivity. • Thermal shock. and baking methods.
• Hardness.
• Thermal
insulator.
• Resistance
to corrosion.

Metals and Alloys • Malleability • Oxidation • Paint

(Material extracted • Ductility • Cover with grease or
from a mineral ore) • Electrical another metal.
• Thermal • Galvanization (zinc).
conductivity.

Plastics Depends on the • Penetration by a • Paint

(Consist of polymers type of plastic, but liquid. • Waterproof coating
created from natural all are low • Oxidation. • Add an antioxidant
gas and fossil fuels) conductors of heat • UV radiation. • Use pigments to absorb
and electricity. UV rays.

Composites Depends on what • Degradation of • Paint

(Consists of 2 or the matrix and the materials. • Choose the right
more materials from reinforcement are • Loss of adhesion material for the matrix
different categories) made of. between the and reinforcement.
matrix and
reinforcement.

23
 Chapter 13 – Mechanical Engineering Notes
5 major functions

1. Linking
2. Guiding
3. Lubrication
4. Motion transmission
5. Motion transformation

1) Linking: The mechanical function performed by any component that

connects different parts of a technical object.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LINKS

Direct OR Indirect

A link is direct when two parts hold A link is indirect when the parts require a
together without a linking component. linking component to hold them together.
Glue and welds are considered linking
components.
Rigid OR Flexible

A link is rigid when the linking A link is flexible when the linking component
component or the surfaces on the linked or the surfaces of the linked parts can be
parts are rigid. deformed. Springs and rubber are often used
in flexible links.
Removable OR Non-Removable

A link is removable when the linked A link is non-removable when separating the
parts can be separated without damaging linked parts damages their surfaces or the
either surfaces or the linking component linking component.
(if present). Nuts and screws, for
example, are used in removable links.
Complete OR Partial

A link is complete when it prevents the A link is partial when at least one part can
linked parts from moving independently move independently of the other parts. This
of one another. movement must be part of its everyday
function.
Although a complete link can have parts The movement must occur while the objects
that move, it is not designed to do so in are still linked.
its everyday use.

24
 Degrees of freedom
Notation Description Example
Tx Linear motion left to right / Shower doors
left to right
Ty Linear motion up and down Elevator
/ down and up
Tz Linear motion towards and Drawer
away / away and towards
Rx Circular motion around Opening a laptop.
x-axis
Ry Circular motion around Opening/closing
y-axis room doors.
Rz Circular motion around Steering wheel.
z-axis

The maximum number of degrees of freedom is 6 (e.g. Tx, Ty, Tz, Rx, Ry, Rz). A complete
link has 0 degrees of freedom, a partial links has at least one.

2) Guiding: The mechanical function performed by any component that

controls the motion of one or more moving parts. Guides are
not the cause of movement; they control the movement.
Gears are NOT guides.
Guided component: It is the object that moves.
Guiding component: It is the component that controls the movement of the object.

Types of Guiding

Type of guiding Description Symbol Example

Translational It ensures the straight Bowling ball
Guiding translational motion of a return.
moving part.
Rotational It ensures the rotational The hands on a
Guiding motion of a moving part. clock.
It ensures the translational
motion of a moving part A lightbulb added
Helical Guiding while it rotates about the
or removed from
same axis. One motion
cannot occur without the its holder.
other.

25
Lubrication: The mechanical function performed by any component
that reduces friction between two parts.
Types of lubricants include: liquid (water, oil); semi-solid (suet,
Vaseline, animal fat, vegetable); solid (graphite, paraffin).

Friction: The force that resists the slipping of one moving part over another.

Adhesion: The phenomenon by which two surfaces tend to remain in contact with each
other without slipping.

Factors that affect the strength of adhesion between two surfaces depends on:

1. The nature of the materials in contact: Adhesion between rubber and asphalt is differs
from that between steel and asphalt.
2. The presence of a lubricant: A tire will not adhere well to an oil spot on the asphalt.
3. Temperature: Adhesion diminishes with colder temperatures.
4. The state of the surfaces in contact: The rougher the surface, the better the adhesion.
5. The perpendicular force exerted by one surface on another: Adhesion increases with
an increase in force. (This force is not necessarily weight).

3) Motion transmission: The mechanical function of relaying a motion

from one part to another without altering the nature
of the motion.

Types of Components
Types of Component Description

Driver component Component that receives the force required to

activate the system.
Driven component Component that receives the motion and
transfers it to another part.
Intermediate component Component located between the driver and
driven components. Not all systems contain
an intermediate component.

Reversibility: The driver can become the driven and vice versa.
Vs
Bidirectional movement: The object can move in both directions, back and forth.
26
 5 Motion Transmission Systems

Name of System Example Considerations

1. Reversible.
2. Smaller gear spins faster.
3. Requires lubrication
Gear Trains
4. All teeth must be the same.
(Teeth can be 5. More than one axis of rotation.
straight, helical, or 6. Adjacent gears rotate in opposite
bevel). directions.

1. Reversible
2. Sprockets with fewer teeth spin faster.
3. Frequent lubrication.
Chain and
4. Teeth must mesh with the chain.
Sprocket 5. Must have same axis of rotation.
6. Sprockets on the same side of the
chain must rotate in the same
direction.
1. Irreversible (Worm is always the
driver).
2. Worm gear with fewer teeth spins
Worm and Worm
faster.
Gear 3. Required lubrication.
4. Worm threads must mesh with worm
gear.
5. Must have a different axis of rotation.
1. Reversible.
2. Smaller gear spins faster.
3. Requires adhesion.
Friction Gears
4. Adjacent gears rotate in opposite
directions.
5. More than one axis of rotation.
1. Reversible.
2. Smaller pulley rotates faster.
3. Required adhesion.
Belt and Pulley
4. Belt must fit in the groove of the
pulley.
5. Pulleys must have the same axis of
rotation.
6. Pulleys on the same side of the belt
must rotate in the same direction.

27
 Speed Changes in Motion Transmission Systems

Speed change: It occurs in a motion transmission system when the driver component
does not turn at the same speed as the driven component.

Speed Changes in Multiple-Gear Motion Transmission Systems

• Friction gear systems. • Gear trains.

Speed Change • Belt and pulley systems. • Chain and sprocket
systems.
Motion is transmitted from one gear Motion is transmitted from one
Increase or pulley to a gear or pulley of gear or sprocket to another with
smaller diameter. fewer teeth.
Motion is transmitted from one gear Motion is transmitted from one
Decrease or pulley to a gear gear or sprocket to another with
or pulley of larger diameter. more teeth.
Motion is transmitted between two Motion is transmitted between
No Change gears or pulleys of the same two gears or sprockets with the
diameter. same number of teeth.

Calculation of Speed Ratio (Gear Ratio)

20T 30T

Driven
Speed Ratio: Driver = Driven (RPM)
Driver Driven Driver (RPM)

Find the speed of the driver if the speed of

the driven is 32 RPM (Revolutions Per
Minute).
Gear Ratio (Speed ratio) = Driver
Driven 3 = 32 3X = 64
2 X
Gear Ratio = 30 or 3 or 3:2 X = 21.3 RPM
20 2
Notice that the larger gear turns slower!

28
 Torque

Torque: It involves two forces of equal strength but applied in opposite directions,
which causes a component to rotate about an axis.

Two types of torque:

1. Engine Torque – It increases the rotational speed of components in mechanical

systems.

2. Resisting Torque – It slows or stops the rotation of components in mechanical

systems.

Comparison of Torque Strength Effect on Speed of Components

engine torque = resisting torque No change
engine torque > resisting torque Increased speed
engine torque < resisting torque Reduced speed

Types
of
Motion

29
4) Motion Transformation: The mechanical function of relaying a motion
from one part to another while altering the nature
of the motion.

Name of System Example Considerations

1. Reversible.
Rack & Pinion 2. Smaller gear spins faster.
3. Requires frequent lubrication.
(pinion is the gear)
4. All teeth must be the same.

1. Irreversible (Screw is the

driver).
2. Threads of the screw and nut
Type 1 Screw Gear
must match.
3. Requires lubrication.
4. Nut cannot rotate.
1. Irreversible (Nut is the
driver).
2. Threads of the screw and nut
Type 2 Screw Gear
must match.
3. Requires lubrication.
4. Nut cannot translate.

Cam & Follower 1. Irreversible.

2. Requires translational guide.
3. Required lubrication.
(with eccentrics)
4. Results in rapid back and forth
motion.
5. Requires a spring.
6. Shape of the cam dictates the
movement of the follower.

1. Reversible.
2. Required translational guide.
3. Requires frequent lubrication.
Slider Crank
4. Results in rapid back and forth
motion.
5. Requires a connecting rod
(an intermediate).

30
 Chapter 3 – Notes

Energy: It is the ability to do work (walking or lifting a box) or effect change (such as
giving off heat to keep people warm).

Form of Energy Description Examples of sources

Elastic Energy stored in an object due to its • Compressed spring
compression or extension. • Stretched elastic
Electrical Energy resulting from the ordered • Power plant
movement of electrons from one atom • Battery
to another. • Generator
Thermal Energy resulting from the random • Fire
motion of all particles in a substance. • Heating element
• Sun
Radiation Energy contained in and transported Light bulb, microwave oven, Sun,
by electromagnetic waves. Cellphone, Radiographic equipment,
Fire, Radio, Television
Chemical Energy stored in molecular bonds. Apple, Candle wax, Fossil fuels,
battery
Wind Energy resulting from the movement • Wind
of air.
Sound Energy contained in and transported • Sound
by sound waves. • Music
Hydraulic Energy resulting from the flow of • Waterfall
water. • River
Nuclear Energy stored in atomic nuclei. • Atomic Nuclei
• Sun
Magnetic Energy derived from a magnetic field • Magnets, electromagnets
Mechanical Energy of motion • Moving turbine, running
motor

Law of conservation of energy: It states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it
can only be transferred or transformed. The total amount of
energy in an isolated system always remains constant.

Energy transfer: The movement of energy from one place to another.

Energy transformation: The changing of energy from one form to another.

Energy Used Example Energy Produced Observation

Chemical BBQ Thermal Transformation
Radiation Mirror Radiation Transfer
Mechanical Squeaky hinge Sound Transformation

31
 Energy efficiency: The percentage of energy consumed by a machine or system that was
transformed into useful energy.

EE = UE x 100% EE = Energy Efficiency

UE
TE UE = Useful Energy
TE = Total Energy Consumed
Energy loss = TE - UE EE TE

Motion: The relationship between speed, motion and time.

v=d v = Average Speed

∆t d d = Distance Travelled
∆t = Change in Time
v t

Thermal Energy:
• The energy of an object due to its movement of particles and the number of particles.

Heat:
• The transfer of thermal energy between two environments with different temperatures.
• Heat always passes from the warmer to the cooler environment.

Temperature:
• A measure of the degree of agitation of the particles of a substance.
• Agitation is a reference to types of molecular motion (vibrational, rotational or
translational)

Factor Factor variation Result

Number of particles More particles Increased thermal energy
Fewer particles Reduced thermal energy
Temperature Higher temperature Increased thermal energy
Lower temperature Reduced thermal energy

32
Force: An action that can change the motion of an object, or deform an object, by
pushing or pulling on an object.

A force can change the motion of an object in different ways:

1) Acceleration:
• A force can give a stationary object velocity or make a moving object move faster.
• The force is applied in the same direction as the motion of the object.

2) Deceleration:
• A force can reduce a velocity of an object or stop it completely.
• The force is applied in the opposite direction as the motion of the object.

The equilibrium of two forces

• When two forces are applied in the same direction, along the same line of action (vertical
or horizontal), the resultant force is the sum of the two.

• When two forces are applied along the same line of action but in opposite direction, the
resultant force is the difference between the two.

• When the resultant force is zero, forces are in equilibrium. If it is immobile, it will
remain so. If it is moving, it will continue at a constant speed

• Resultant force: A virtual force whose action is equal to the combination of all the
forces applied simultaneously to an object.

Types of forces (4 types)

(1) Gravitational force:
➢ It is a force of attraction acting between all objects as a result of their masses and the
distances between them.
➢ The distances are measured from the center of the objects. The farther you are form
the center, the weaker the gravitational force.

• Mass: A measure of the quantity of matter in an object. (kg)

• Weight: A measure of the gravitational force acting on an object. (N)

Fg = mg Fg (weight) = gravitational force

F m = mass
g = gravitational field intensity

m g vs Weight
Mass

33
 Celestial body Intensity of the Celestial body Intensity of the
gravitational field gravitational field
(N/kg) (N/kg)
Sun 273.95 Mars 3.72
Moon 1.67 Jupiter 25.87
Mercury 3.63 Saturn 11.27
Venus 8.62 Uranus 8.82
Earth 9.80 Neptune 11.56

Your weight on Mars is 279N. What is your weight on Earth?

F= mg F=mg
m = 279 F= (75)(9.8)
3.72 F= 735 N
m= 75 kg

(2) Electromagnetic Force (most common force)

• It is a force of attraction or repulsion between two objects with an Electrical Charge or
with Magnetic Poles.

• This force is responsible for bonds between the atoms of a molecule, muscle tension,
magnetic phenomena and the movement of charge in an electric current.

• Also responsible for contact forces; the force of acting directly on an object (e.g. a book
sitting on a table).

• Friction: The force that prevents two objects from slipping over each other when they
come into contact.

Friction depends on five factors:

1. The nature of the material (Some materials produce more friction than others).
2. The state of the surface (The rougher the surface the greater the friction).
3. Presence of a lubricant (There is less friction with a lubricant).
4. Temperature (There is more friction with higher temperatures).
5. Perpendicular Force (The higher the pressure, the greater the friction).

(3) Strong Nuclear Forces

• Strong nuclear forces hold protons and neutrons together within the nucleus of an atom.
• This force gives us sunlight, starlight, nuclear power and nuclear weapons.

34
(4) Weak Nuclear Forces

• The weak nuclear force is radioactivity, or nuclear decay. It is the process by which the
nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting radiation, including alpha
particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.
• Over time, one atom will change into a more stable atom.

Pressure in Fluids
Fluid: A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear
stress, or external force.

Pressure: The amount of force applied perpendicularly to an object per unit of surface
area.

P= F P is the pressure (in Pa)

A F F is the force perpendicular to the surface (in N)
A is the surface area subjected to the force (m2)
P A

Pressure in Fluids
Factor Factor Variation Result

Depth Increased depth in the liquid Increased pressure

Reduced depth in the liquid Reduced pressure
Density Higher liquid density Higher pressure
Lower liquid density Lower pressure

Pressure in a Gas
Factor Factor Variation Result
Temperature Higher gas temperature Increased pressure
Lower gas temperature Reduced pressure
Volume Higher gas volume Reduced pressure
Lower gas volume Increased pressure
Number of particles Higher number of gas particles Increased pressure
Lower number of gas particles Reduced pressure

35
Three major principles involving fluids:
1) Pascal’s principle: It states that an increase in the pressure of an enclosed fluid is
transmitted uniformly in all directions.

Pressure is the same throughout.

Small area = Small force P= F

A
Large area = Large force

2) Archimedes Principle: It states that an object immersed in a fluid is subjected to a

buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the object. There are calculations on this.

Condition Observation
Weight > Buoyancy Object sinks
Weight = Buoyancy Object is stationary
Weight < Buoyancy Object floats

Bernoulli’s Principle: It states that the higher the speed of a fluid (liquids and
gases), the lower its pressure; or the lower the speed the higher the
pressure.
Note: Fluids will move from areas of high pressure to
areas of low pressure.

36
 Chapter 4 – Changes in matter
Characteristic Property: A chemical or physical property that identifies a pure substance or
group of substances to which it belongs.

There are three types of changes in matter:

1) Physical changes:
• It alters neither the nature nor the characteristic properties of matter.
• The atoms and molecules of the substance do not change.
• It includes all of the phase changes.

2) Chemical changes:
• It alters the nature and characteristic properties of matter.
• The bonds between atoms are rearranged, and new molecules are formed.

Indications of chemical change:

1) The release of a gas.
2) The emission or absorption of heat.
3) The emission of light.
4) A change in colour.
5) The formation of a precipitate.

3) Nuclear transformation:
• Particles that make up the atomic nucleus are rearranged, and new elements are formed.

37
OXIDATION

• Many substances oxidize when they react with the oxygen in the air or a substance with
similar properties to oxygen.
• Combustion is a form of oxidation that releases a large amount of energy.

Three conditions are needed for combustion to occur:

1. There must be fuel (something to burn)

2. An oxidizing agent (causes fuel to react…oxygen)

3. Ignition temperature

3 Types of Combustion Reactions:

1. Rapid: spectacular and in a short time, it releases a lot of energy in the form of heat or
light (e.g. candle, log fire).

2. Spontaneous: rapid and without energy from outside source; unpredictable (e.g. dry
wood catches fire by itself, hay heats and catches fire).

3. Slow: occurs over a long period of time and energy is released gradually into
environment (e.g. decomposition, fermentation, cellular respiration, metal corrosion).

Rapid Spontaneous Slow

38
 Chapter 6 – The Lithosphere and the Hydrosphere

Lithosphere

• The hard shell of the Earth, consisting of the crust and the topmost part of the upper
mantle (average of 100 km thick).
• It consists of minerals, rocks and soils.

Lithosphere

Minerals:
• Solid inorganic substances with clearly defined composition and properties.
• Minerals are extracted from rocks called ore.
• A deposit is when the amount and concentration of a mineral that is high enough for
mining.
• Examples include gold (Au) and quartz (SiO2).

Minerals are classified according to the following 4 properties:

1) Colour:
• Idiochromatic Minerals: Minerals that have a characteristic colour (e.g. blue for
azurite, green for malachite, red for rhodochrosite).

• Allochromatic Minerals: Possess minute quantities of mineral impurities that cause

them to vary in colour (Quartz).
2) Transparency:
• Transparent (let light pass through).
• Translucent (let light through but blurred).
• Opaque (no light passes through).

39
3) Hardness:
• Moh’s Scale assigns a value from 1 to 10 to indicate a mineral’s hardness.
• A mineral with a higher number will scratch a mineral with a lower number.

E.g. Talc is soft 1, Quartz scores a 7 and diamond scores a 10.

4) Streak: When a mineral is rubbed on a surface it leaves a powder streak that has a
characteristic colour for that mineral.

Rocks
• They are heterogeneous solids composed of many minerals.
• The physical and chemical properties of rocks are not strictly defined.

There are 3 types of rocks:

1. Igneous:
• Formed when magma (molten rock) cools and solidifies (e.g. granite).
• They include Intrusive igneous rock (formed inside ground) vs Extrusive
igneous rock (formed outside ground).
• Examples include granite (intrusive) and obsidian (extrusive).

2. Sedimentary:
• Formed by the accumulation and compaction of debris at the bottom of lakes and
oceans.
• Examples include limestone, coal and rock salt.

3. Metamorphic:
• Former igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been transformed by heat or
pressure underground.
• Examples include granite turns to gneiss, limestone turns to marble.

Types of mining

Drift Mining: Underground mine in which the entry or access is above water level and
generally on the slope of a hill, driven horizontally into the ore seam.
Open Pit Mining: Surface mining technique of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by
their removal from an open pit or borrow.
Placer Mining: Used to sift out valuable minerals from sediments of a stream bed.
In-situ Mining: Used for mining uranium, it dissolves the mineral underground and
removed without removing the above rock.

40
 Energy Resources

ENERGY RESOURCE DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

FOSSIL FUELS Burning of • Relatively • Non-renewable.
hydrocarbons abundant. • Greenhouse gas (GHG).
such as coal, oil, production (CO2).
natural gas • Easily transported. • Acid rain (NO2, SO2).
(methane).
NUCLEAR Energy released •Few GHG • Non-renewable.
from breaking production. • Radioactive waste.
bonds of • Risk of nuclear
uranium’s strong •Small amount. accident.
nuclear force. resource produces
a large amount of
energy.
GEOTHERMAL Underground • Renewable. • Expensive to install.
pipes containing • Not available
fluid absorb or • No GHG. everywhere.
release thermal production.
energy.

Hydrosphere

• The Earth’s outer layer of water, uniting water in all its states: liquid, solid and gas.
• It consists of inland waters (rivers, lakes, groundwater), oceans and water in the
atmosphere (clouds and precipitation).

41
Watershed
• An area of land in which all inland waters drain into the
same larger body of water. Also called catchment area, or
drainage basin (e.g. St. Lawrence River watershed).
• Watersheds are separated by hills and mountains called
watershed divides.

Factors that affect how water flows within a watershed:

1. Topography: Slope of the land; steep slopes drain easily and quickly.
2. Geology: Type of rock; holes or gaps in rock vs. compact clay.
3. Climate: Rainfall, winds and temperature.
4. Vegetation: Highly vegetated areas can slow water flow.
5. Development: Can be urban, agriculture or industry. This can affect the immediate
area and areas downstream.

ENERGY RESOURCES

ENERGY RESOURCE DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

HYDROELECTRICITY Convert a river’s • Produce little • Can release toxic
hydraulic energy. GHGs. mercury into the
• Renewable environment.
• Cause large areas of
flooding upstream of
the dam.
OCEAN WAVES Buoys that rise • Renewable • Not available
and fall with the • NO GHGs everywhere.
waves can be • Disrupts ecosystems.
attached to • Unpredictable
turbines.
OCEAN CURRENTS Underwater • Renewable • Not available
turbines can • NO GHGs. everywhere.
harness ocean • More • Disrupts ecosystems.
current energy predictable • Unpredictable
much the same than wind &
way a windmill solar.
operates.
Convers moving • Renewable. • Complex and
Tidal ocean water into • No GHG’s. costly.
(Hydrosphere) electricity. • Predictable. • Very few suitable
sites (5m).

42
 Chapter 7 – Atmosphere and Space
Atmosphere: The layer of air surrounding the Earth.

Roles played by the atmosphere

1. Acts as a screen, blocking out ultraviolet rays from the sun.
2. It ensures a relatively stable climate on Earth by retaining heat.
3. It contains oxygen gas (O2) needed for cellular respiration and carbon dioxide (CO2),
necessary for photosynthesis.

Composition of the Atmosphere

• Solids: The atmosphere also contains suspended solid and liquid matter
originating from the Earth’s surface (dust, pollen, soot, smoke, droplets)

• Liquids: Water vapour is another important gas responsible for cloud formation
and precipitation. Its measure is referred to as relative humidity.

• Gasses:

Layers of the Atmosphere

Layer of Atmosphere Location Activity
Troposphere 0-15 km Weather
Stratosphere 15-50 km Ozone layer, Weather balloons
Mesosphere 50-80 km Coldest Layer, Meteors
Thermosphere 80-500 km Hottest layer, Northern lights
Exosphere 500+ km Satellites

• The Earth’s atmosphere extends to 10,000 km.

• 99 % of the air molecules are within the first 30 km above the Earth’s surface.

43
Atmospheric Pressure
• The pressure of the air in the atmosphere.
• Due to air particles colliding with each other.
• At a given temperature, the more collisions that occur, the higher the pressure.
• At sea level, the average atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa.

Factors affecting Atmospheric Pressure

1) Number of particles: Higher altitude, fewer particles, lower pressure.

2) Temperature: Higher temperature, particles move farther apart, pressure drops.

Atmospheric circulation: The global-scale movement of the layer of air surrounding the
Earth.
• Hot air at the equator rises and moves
to the North and South poles, while
cool air sinks and moves towards the
equator.

• This moderates temperatures on our

planet. The hot is not so hot and the
cold is not so cold.

44
 Air Mass: Large expanse of the atmosphere with relatively uniform temperature and
humidity.

Front
• The line where warm and cold air
masses meet.
• It is a transition zone where wind
direction, temperature and relative
humidity change rapidly.
• When the two air masses meet, the
cold denser air slides under the
lighter warmer air.

Cold front

• It occurs when a mass of cold air

moves towards a mass of warm air.
• The warms air rises, cools and Horizontal Movement of Air
condenses to form cumulus clouds.
• This is often accompanied by wind
and heavy rain.
• Blue triangles on a weather map.

Warm front

• It occurs when a mass of warm air

moves toward a mass of cold air.
• The warm air gently rises above the
cold air creating stratified layers of
light clouds called nimbostratus.
• Tend to bring cloudy weather and
showers.
• Tend to move slower and thus last
longer than cold front.
• Red semi-circles on a weather map.

45
 Vertical Movement of Air A D
NH CW CCW
SH CCW CW
Anticyclone
• A downward movement of air (produces smog).
• H on the weather charts. (High pressure system)
• The air turns clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
• Associated weather is dry and sunny in the summer and cold in the winter.

Depression
• An upward movement of air.
• L on the weather charts. (Low pressure system)
• The air turns counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
• Associated weather is cloud formation and precipitation.

Cyclones (Hurricanes and Typhoons)

• When a depression forms over the warm waters of tropical oceans.
• Can be 800 km in diameter and wind speeds up to 360 km/hr.
• Cyclones are called hurricanes (Atlantic Ocean) or typhoons (Pacific Ocean).

46
 Energy Resources

Energy Type Advantage Disadvantage

• 1 turbine can power • Ruins beauty of
Wind hundreds of homes. landscapes.
(Atmosphere) • Renewable • Unpredictable.
• No GHG’s • Can’t be stored.
• Renewable. • Expensive.
Solar • No GHG’s. • Unpredictable.
(Atmosphere) • Available away from • Doesn’t work at night.
grid.

• Renewable. • Complex and costly.

Tidal • No GHG’s. • Very few suitable sites
(Hydrosphere) • Predictable. (5m).

Solar Technologies
1) Passive heating systems: Designing houses with south-facing windows to allow the
Sun to heat the air. They also use materials like cement that
absorb energy and release it later.

2) Photovoltaic cells: When these cells (made of silicon) are hit by light, it causes
electrons to flow (electricity). These cells can be found on
houses, appliances (lights, calculators) and satellites.

3) Solar collectors: These are large glass panels that capture the sun’s rays and
heat copper pipes filled with water. The heat stored in the
pipes is used to heat air and water (e.g. home heating,
pools).

Tides

• The moon stays in orbit due to the gravitational force between itself and the Earth. Since
water is fluid, it bulges in the direction of the moon (high tide).

• Also, on the opposite side of the Earth, the water is less attracted to the moon than the
Earth. The Earth is therefore drawn closer to the moon than the water. The result is a
bulge on the other side of the Earth (high tide).
• The other parts of the Earth have resulting low water levels (low tide).
• Two high tides and two low tides occur every day. High tides are 12 hours and 25
minutes apart because a lunar day is 24 hours and 50 minutes.

47
 There are TWO high
tides and TWO low tides
occurring at any given
time.

There are TWO positions of the moon for a spring tide to

occur and TWO positions of the moon for a neap tide to occur.

When the Moon and Sun pull on

the Earth’s water in the same
direction, SPRING TIDES result.
Water levels will be at their highest
and lowest.

When the Moon and Sun pull at

right angles to the Earth, NEAP
TIDES result. Low tides will not be
as low as normal and high tides will
not be as high as normal.

48