MODULE 2

Signal Conditioning: Introduction- Hardware- Digital I/O, Analog to digital conversions,

Resolution, Filtering noise using passive components- Resisters, capacitors, amplifying signals
using Op-amp. Digital Signal Processing- Digital to analog conversion, Low pass, high pass,
notch filtering. Data acquisition systems (DAQs), data loggers, Supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA), Communication methods.
Electro Mechanical Drives: Relays and Solenoids- Stepper Motors- DC brushed motors- DC
brushless motors- DC servo motors- 4-quadrant servo drives, PWM’s- Pulse Width
Modulation.

Signal Conditioning: Introduction

The output signal from the sensor of a measurement system has generally to be processed in
some way to make it suitable for the next stage of the operation.
The signal may be

• too small and have to be amplified,

• contain interference which has to be removed,
• Be non-linear and require linearisation,
• be analog and have to be made digital,
• be digital and have to be made analogue,
• be a resistance change and have to be made into a current change,
• be a voltage change and have to be made into a suitable size current change, etc.
All these changes can be referred to as signal conditioning. These changes to the output from
the sensors/ measurement system is termed as Signal Conditioning. Signal Conditioning is
simply the process of refining the raw signal by use of solid-state electronic circuits such as
amplifiers, attenuators, rectifiers, filters.

Signal Conditioning Process:

Protection: A microcontroller for example, requires a protection to prevent the damage as a

result of high current or voltage

Noise reduction/elimination: Filters are used to eliminate the noise exist in the signal of interest

Right type of signal: This can mean making the signal into a d.c. voltage or current. the
resistance change of a strain gauge has to be converted into a voltage change. This can be done
by the use of a Wheatstone bridge and using the out-of-balance voltage
Level of the signal right: The signal from a thermocouple might be just a few millivolts. If the
signal is to be fed into an analog-to- digital converter for inputting to a microprocessor then it
needs to be made much larger, volts rather than millivolts. Operational amplifiers are widely
used for amplification.
Signal Manipulation: The signals from some sensors, e.g. a flowmeter, are non-linear and thus
a signal conditioner might be used so that the signal fed on to the next element is linear

Analog to Digital Conversion:

Analog to digital conversion is the process required to change a sampled analog voltage into
digital form. It involves two steps: quantizing and coding.

• Quantizing: is defined as the transformation of a continuous analog input into a set of

discrete output states

• Coding: is the assignment of a digital code word or number to each output shows the
basic elements of analog-to-digital conversion.

Conversion time: the time required to complete a conversion of the input signal. It establishes
the upper signal frequency that can be sampled without aliasing;

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦= 1/ ((2 ∗𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒))

Resolution: the full-scale signal divided by 2n, where n is the number of bits. It is often just
specified by a statement of the number of bits.

Linearity error: the deviation from a straight line drawn through zero and full-scale. It is a
maximum of ±2 LSB.

To properly acquire an analog voltage signal for digital processing, the following components
must be properly selected and applied in this sequence:

• Buffer amplifier
• Low-pass filter
• Sample and hold amplifier
• Analog-to-digital converter
The buffer amplifier isolates the output from the input (i.e., it draws negligible current and
power from the input) and provides a signal in a range close to but not exceeding the full input
voltage range of the A/D converter

The low-pass filter is necessary to remove any undesirable high frequency components in the
signal that could produce aliasing. The cutoff frequency of the low-pass filter should be no
greater than 1/2 the sampling rate.

The procedure used is that a clock supplies regular time signal pulses to the analogue-to-digital
converter (ADC) and every time it receives a pulse it samples the analogue signal. The clock
signal which supplies the time signals at which the sampling occurs. The result of the sampling
is a series of narrow pulses.

A sample and hold unit are then used to hold each sampled value until the next pulse occurs
which results. The sample and hold amplifier maintain a fixed input value (from an
instantaneous sample) during the short conversion time of the A/D converter.
The sample and hold unit (maintain constant level) is necessary because the ADC requires a
finite amount of time, termed the conversion time, to convert the analog signal into a digital
one.

Fig 1.1: Analog to Digital Conversion

Analog to Digital Conversion: Successive Approximation A/D Converter

A Successive Approximation ADC converts an analog input voltage into a digital output by
approximating the input voltage step-by-step using a binary search algorithm.

1. Sample and Hold Circuit: Captures and holds the analog input voltage steady during
conversion.

2. Successive Approximation Register (SAR): Controls the approximation process by

generating a digital output bit by bit.

3. Digital to Analog Converter (DAC): Converts the digital output from SAR back to an
analog voltage for comparison.

4. Comparator: Compares the input analog voltage with the DAC output voltage.

5. Control Logic: Coordinates the operation of SAR, DAC, and comparator.

Fig 1.2: Successive Approximation A/D Converter

Working:

The Sample and Hold circuit samples the input analog voltage and holds it constant during the
conversion.
The SAR initializes the most significant bit (MSB) to 1 and all other bits to 0, forming a trial
digital output.
This digital output is converted to an analog voltage by the DAC.

The Comparator compares the held input voltage with the DAC output:

• If the input voltage is higher, the bit remains set to 1.

• If the input voltage is lower, the bit is cleared to 0.
The SAR then moves to the next bit (next significant bit) and repeats steps 3 and 4.
This process continues bit by bit from MSB to least significant bit (LSB), refining the
approximation.

After all bits are tested, the SAR holds the final digital output corresponding to the input analog
voltage.

Resolution:

When selecting an ADC, its resolution must match the signal characteristics and system
requirements.

If the resolution is:

• Too low → small signal changes cannot be detected.

• Too high → unnecessary cost, complexity, and possibly no real improvement
(especially if system noise is larger than 1 LSB).
So, the converter must be chosen so that:

𝐴𝐷𝐶 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ≤ 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

The smallest change in analog input voltage that causes the digital output code to change by 1
count (1 LSB).

If full-scale voltage = 𝑉𝐹𝑆 and Word length = 𝑛

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝐹𝑆 ⁄2𝑛

Thus, if we have an ADC with a word length of 10 bits and the analogue signal input range is
10 V, then the number of levels with a 10-bit word is 210 = 1024 and thus the resolution is
10/1024=9.8 mV.

Noise filtering using Passive Components:

A filter is a device that passes electric signals at certain frequencies or frequency ranges while
preventing the passage of others. The types of filters are:

• Active Filters: Filter Circuit which consists of active components like Transistors and
Op-amps in addition to Resistors and Capacitors is called as Active Filter.

• Passive Filters: Filter circuit which consists of passive components such as Resistors,
Capacitors and Inductors is called as Passive Filter.
The term filtering is used to describe the process of removing a certain band of frequencies
from a signal and permitting others to be transmitted.
The range of frequencies passed by a filter is known as the pass band. The range not passed as
the stop band and the boundary between stopping and passing as the cut-off frequency.
 Fig 1.3: Passive filters and filter responses

Passive Components- Resistor:

• A resistor is a dissipative element that converts electrical energy into heat.

• The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
• For an ideal resistor, the voltage-current relationship is linear, and the resistance is
constant.
• Real resistors are typically nonlinear due to temperature effects.
• As the current increases, temperature increases resulting in higher resistance.
• Also, a real resistor has a limited power dissipation capability designated in watts, and
it may fail when this limit is exceeded.
• If a resistor's material is homogeneous and has a constant cross-sectional area, such as
the cylindrical wire, then the resistance is given by
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴

Fig 1.4: Resistance of a cylindrical wire

Resistors used in assembling circuits are packaged in various forms including:

• Axial-lead components,
• Surface mount components,
• Dual inline package (DIP)
• Single in-line package (SIP),
which contain multiple resistors in a package that conveniently fits into circuit boards
 Fig 1.5: Resistor in different packaging

Capacitors:
A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that possesses the ability to store energy in the
form of an electric charge.
It consists of two electrical conductors that are separated by a distance.
The space between the conductors may be filled by vacuum or with an insulating material
known as a dielectric.
The ability of the capacitor to store charges is known as capacitance.

Fig 1.6: Parallel plate capacitors

Amplifying signals using Op-amps:

Operational amplifier (Op-amps) is a low-cost and versatile integrated circuit consisting of

many internal transistors, resistors, and capacitors manufactured into a single chip of silicon.

Op-amp is an active device → output voltages and currents can be larger than the signals
applied to the inverting and noninverting terminals.
Op-amps amplify weak AC/DC signals by thousands of times using external feedback
components to set precise voltage gains.

An ideal Op-amp is as an amplifier with an Infinite gain, infinite input impedance and zero
output impedance, i.e. the output voltage is independent of the load.

Op-amp
Amplifier Configurations:

• Inverting Amplifier: The input signal is applied to the inverting (-) input. The output is
𝑅
inverted (180-degree phase shift) and amplified by a factor of − 𝑅 𝑓 .
𝑖𝑛

• Non-Inverting Amplifier: The input signal is applied to the non-inverting (+) input.
𝑅𝑓
The output is in phase with the input and amplified by a factor of 1 + 𝑅 .
1

• Voltage Follower (Buffer): A special case where gain is 1. It provides no amplification

but is used for impedance matching to prevent signal loss.

Nn

Fig 1.8: Inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier & Voltage divider

Digital Signal Processing- Digital to Analog Conversion:

Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC) in DSP converts processed binary code (0s and 1s) back
into a continuous analog signal (voltage/current) to interact with the physical world.
It involves converting digital data using techniques like weighted resistors or R-2R ladders,
followed by a zero-order hold (staircase waveform) and low-pass filtering to reconstruct the
smooth signal.

Fig 1.9: Digital to analog conversion

• Purpose: Reconstructs analog signals (audio, video, control) from digital data
generated by computers or DSPs.
• The Process: The DAC converts digital words into proportional analog voltage or
current.
• Reconstruction (Zero-Order Hold): To avoid complex impulse generators, most DACs
use a "zero-order hold," holding the last voltage value, resulting in a staircase-like wave.
• Filtering: A low-pass filter is crucial to remove high-frequency noise and the staircase
edges, producing a smooth analog signal.

DAC Architectures:

• R-2R Ladder Network: Uses only two resistor values (𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑅) to provide high-speed,
accurate, and scalable conversion, making it a popular choice.
• Weighted Resistor: Utilizes a bank of binary-weighted resistors; however, it is less
common for high resolutions due to the wide range of resistor values required.
• String (Kelvin) DAC: Consists of a series of 2^𝑛 equal resistors and switches, offering
high linearity and inherent monotonicity.
• Segmented DAC: A hybrid approach combining thermometer coding (for MSBs) and
binary coding (for LSBs) to balance resolution and complexity.
• Delta-Sigma (∆Σ) DAC: Uses oversampling to achieve high resolution, often used in
high-fidelity audio.
 Fig 1.10: R-2R DAC, Weighted Resistor & Delta-Sigma DAC Architectures

Low Pass Filter:

A low-pass filter (LPF) is an electronic circuit that allows signals with frequencies lower than
a specific cutoff frequency to pass through while attenuating signals with frequencies higher
than the cutoff.
It acts as a noise-reduction tool, filtering out high-frequency interference or unwanted
components in systems like audio, radio, and data acquisition.

gggg

Fig 1.11: Low Pass Filters

High Pass Filter:

A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic circuit that allows signals with frequencies higher than
a specific cutoff frequency to pass through while attenuating signals with lower frequencies. It
is commonly used to remove low-frequency noise, such as rumble or DC offset, from audio or
data signals.

Fig 1.12: High Pass Filter

Notch Filtering:

A notch filter (also known as a band stop filter or reject filter) is defined as a device that rejects
or blocks the transmission of frequencies within a specific frequency range and allows
frequencies outside that range.

Notch filter is essentially a band stop filter with a narrow stop band and two pass bands

Fig 1.13: Notch Filter

If the filter is wideband, it is referred to as a band-reject filter and if the filter is narrow-band,
it is referred to as a notch filter

The function of a Notch Filter is to passing all those frequencies from zero (DC) up to lower
cut-off frequency(f) and above higher cut-off frequency(f), and reject all those frequencies that
lie in the bandwidth region

Fig 1.14 Frequency Response of Notch Filter

Data Acquisition Systems (DAQS):

A Data Acquisition (DAQ) system measures real-world physical phenomena—such as

temperature, voltage, pressure, or sound—by converting analog signals from sensors into
digital data for computer analysis and storage.

Key components include sensors/transducers, signal conditioning hardware, and software,

which facilitate, monitor, and analyze data.

Fig 1.15: Data Acquisition System

Data Loggers:

Data loggers are compact, battery-powered electronic devices that automatically monitor and
record environmental parameters (temperature, humidity, voltage, pressure, etc.) over time
using internal or external sensors.

They function independently, storing data in memory for later analysis, making them
essential for cold chain logistics, environmental monitoring, and scientific research.

Types:

• Standalone/Portable: Small devices left on-site to record data for later retrieval.
• Wireless/IoT: Devices that transmit data in real-time to the cloud.
• Single-use: Often used for shipping perishable goods.
• Multi-use: Reusable, more durable, and configurable for various applications.

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA):

SCADA is an acronym for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.

SCADA systems are used to monitor and control a plant or equipment in industries such as
telecommunications, water and waste control, energy, oil and gas refining and transportation.

These systems encompass the transfer of data between a SCADA central host computer and a
number of Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) and/or Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs),
and the central host and the operator terminals.

Today many systems are monitored using the infrastructure of the corporate Local Area
Network (LAN)/Wide Area Network (WAN).

Wireless technologies are now being widely deployed for purposes of monitoring.

Field Data Interface Devices: Field data interface devices form the "eyes and ears" of a
SCADA system.

• The information that is passed to and from the field data interface devices must be
converted to a form that is compatible with the language of the SCADA system.
• To achieve this, some form of electronic field data interface is required. RTUs, also
known as Remote Telemetry Units, provide this interface.
• They are primarily used to convert electronic signals received from field interface
devices into the language (known as the communication protocol) used to transmit the
data over a communication channel.
Communications Network: The communications network is intended to provide the means by
which data can be transferred between the central host computer servers and the field-based
RTUs.

• The communication network refers to the equipment needed to transfer data to and from
different sites. The medium used can either be cable, telephone, or radio.
Central Host Computer: The central host computer or master station is most often a single
computer or a network of computer servers that provide a man-machine operator interface to
the SCADA system.

• The computers process the information received from and sent to the RTU sites and
present it to human operators in a form that the operators can work with.
• Operator terminals are connected to the central host computer by a LAN/WAN so that
the viewing screens and associated data can be displayed for the operators.

Operator Workstations and Software Components: The operator terminals are clients that
request and send information to the central host computer based on the request and action of
the operators.

SCADA:

• Monitor: SCADA systems continuously monitor the physical parameters.

• Measure: It measures the parameter for processing.

• Data Acquisition: It acquires data from RTUs (Remote Terminal Units), data loggers,
etc.

• Data Communication: It helps to communicate and transmit a large amount of data

between MTU and RTU units.

• Controlling: Online real-time monitoring and controlling of the process.

• Automation: It helps for automatic transmission and functionality. Various other

communication mediums like fiber optic cables, twisted pair cables, etc. are also used.

Applications of SCADA:

• SCADA is widely used in different areas from chemical, gas, water, communications
and power systems.
• The list of applications of SCADA can be listed as follows.
• Electric power generation, transmission and distribution
• Waste Water Utilities and Sewage
• Buildings, facilities and environments
• Oil and Gas Trans & Distributions
• Wind Power Generation
• Communication Networks
• Industrial Plans and Process Control
• Manufacturing
• Mass transit and Railway Traction
• Traffic signals

Benefits of SCADA

• The important benefits of an EMS can be addresses as the following functions:

 • Continuous monitoring of process.
• Real time control.
• Automation and Protection.
• Remote control and operation.
Functions of SCADA: The important functions of a SCADA are listed below
• Data Acquisition
• Information Display
• Supervisory Control
• Alarm Processing
• Information Storage and Reports
• Sequence of Event Acquisition
• Data Calculation
• Special RTU Processing/Control

Communications Methods:

• Ethernet - A system for connecting a number of computer systems to form a local area
network, with protocols to control the passing of information.
• Telephone Line - A system that utilizes electrical signals in order to transmit data over
a distance using a single pair of copper (traditionally) wires.
• Radio/Wireless A system that uses radio transmitters and receivers to send data over
short distances. Typically requires line of sight for best application.
• Cellular- Based on the cellular phone technology to transmit data, regardless of
distance, but dependent on cellular signal coverage.
• Satellite - Similar to the cellular phone platform, but utilizing satellites instead of
ground-based cellular towers.
• Wi-Fi - A technology increasing in popularity that allows an electronic device to
exchange data wirelessly (using radio waves) over a computer network, including high-
speed internet connections. WPA2 is present in almost all currently available
equipment, and its use should be mandated for supports robust security.
• Microwave - A system for providing long-range connectivity between two sites,
utilizing either inexpensive public frequencies or FCC-licensed spectrum
Optical Fibers:

• Optical Fiber Line-Similar to the traditional copper telephone lines, but differs by
utilizing optical fibers made of glass or plastic and uses light to transmit the data, with
is faster and has less losses as compared to copper wires.
• Optical fibers consist of an inner core and cladding of silica glass and a plastic jacket
that physically protects the fiber.
• Two types of fibers are usually considered: multi-mode graded index and single-mode
step index fiber.
• Single-mode fiber supports higher signaling speeds than the multi-mode fiber due to
its smaller diameter and mode of light propagation.
 • Communication services usually supported by optical fiber include voice, data (low
speed), SCADA, protective relaying, telemetering, video conferencing, high speed
data, and telephone switched tie trunks.

Fig 1.16: Optical Fiber

Electromechanical Drives
Relay:

• Definition: The relay is the device that open or closes the contacts to cause the
operation of the other electric control.
• It detects the intolerable or undesirable condition with an assigned area and gives the
commands to the circuit breaker to disconnect the affected area.
• Thus protects the system from damage.
• It works on the principle of an electromagnetic attraction.
• When the circuit of the relay senses the fault current, it energises the electromagnetic
field which produces the temporary magnetic field.
• Relay have two sets of electrically conductive contacts. Relays may be "Normally
Open", or "Normally Closed".
• In the normally open position, the contacts are closed only when the field current is
"ON" and the switch contacts are pulled towards the inductive coil.
• In the normally closed position, the contacts are permanently closed when the field
current is "OFF" as the switch contacts return to their normal position.
 Fig 1.17: Relay

• Frame: Heavy-duty frame that contains and supports the parts of the relay.

• Coil: Wire is wound around a metal core. The coil of wire causes an electromagnetic
field.

• Armature: A relay moving part. The armature opens and closes the contacts. An
attached spring returns the armature to its original position.

• Contacts: The conducting part of the switch that makes (closes) or breaks (opens) a
circuit.

Solenoid:

• A solenoid consists of a coil and a movable iron core called the armature.
• When the coil is energized with current, the core moves to increase the flux linkage by
closing the air gap between the cores.
• The movable core is usually spring-loaded to allow the core to retract when the current
is switched off.
• The force generated is approximately proportional to the square of the current and
inversely proportional to the square of the width of the air gap.
• The force generated is mainly depends up on the number of coils and the amount of
current flowing in the circuit.
• The frame is essentially permeable magnetic laminations excited by the coil.
• The plunger is actuated by a magnetic field pulling it to the down position against spring
pressure
 Fig 1.18: Solenoid

Solenoids are inexpensive, and their use is limited primarily to on-off applications such as
latching, locking, and triggering.

They are frequently used in home appliances (e.g., washing machine valves), automobiles (e.g.,
door latches and the starter solenoid), pinball machines (e.g., plungers and bumpers), and
factory automation
Classification of Motors:
Stepper Motors:

A Stepper Motor is a special type of electric motor that rotates in precise step-by-step
movements instead of continuous rotation. It is widely used in CNC machines, 3D printers,
robotics, and positioning systems where accurate control is required.

Construction:

1. Stator

• The stator is the stationary outer part of the motor.

• It contains electromagnetic coils (windings) arranged in phases.

• When current flows through these coils, they produce a magnetic field.
2. Rotor

• The rotor is the rotating part placed inside the stator.

• It may be made of:

o Permanent magnet

o Soft iron

o Combination of both (hybrid type)

3. Shaft
• The shaft is connected to the rotor and transmits the mechanical rotation to the load.

4. Bearings

• Bearings support the rotor and allow smooth rotation with minimal friction.

5. Housing (Frame)

• The outer body that holds the stator, rotor, and other components together.

Working:

The working of a stepper motor is based on electromagnetic attraction between the stator and
rotor.

Step-by-Step Working
1. Current Supply to First Coil

o When current flows through the first stator winding, it creates a magnetic pole.

o The rotor aligns with this magnetic field.

2. Switching to Next Coil
 o Current is switched to the next winding.

o The rotor moves slightly to align with the new magnetic field.

3. Sequential Energizing

o By energizing stator coils in sequence, the rotor rotates step by step.

4. Controlled Rotation

o Each electrical pulse moves the rotor by a fixed angle called the step angle.

Fig 1.19: Stepper Motor

DC Motor:

A DC motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy based on the principle that a
current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a Lorentz force, causing
rotation. Key parts include a stator (field magnets), rotor (armature), commutator, and brushes.

Construction:
Stator: Stationary part with permanent magnets or field windings that create a magnetic field.

Rotor (Armature): Rotating part with windings that carry current and experience force.

Commutator: A rotary switch that reverses current direction to maintain continuous,

unidirectional rotation.

Brushes: Carbon or graphite blocks that transfer current from the external source to the
rotating commutator.

Shaft: Transfers mechanical power to the load.

Working Principle:

Supply: Direct current (DC) is supplied to the rotor armature windings via brushes and the
commutator.

Magnetic Interaction: The current-carrying armature coils produce their own magnetic field.

Force Application: This field interacts with the stationary stator field, creating a torque that
forces the rotor to spin.

Commutation: As the armature turns, the commutator flips the direction of the current every
half-turn, ensuring the torque always acts in the same direction, preventing the motor from
stalling.

Fig 1.20 DC Motor

Brushless DC Motor:

A Brushless DC (BLDC) motor is an electronically commutated motor with a permanent

magnet rotor and a wound stator, eliminating brushes for high efficiency, durability, and low
maintenance. It works by using an electronic controller to sequence current through stator
windings, creating a rotating magnetic field that interacts with the rotor magnets to produce
torque.

Construction:

A BLDC motor consists of two main components: the stationary stator and the rotating rotor.

• Stator: The stationary outer part, which consists of laminated steel core stacked with
windings (typically three-phase) in specific patterns to produce magnetic fields.
• Rotor: The inner rotating part containing permanent magnets (usually rare-earth
magnets like Neodymium) that create a constant magnetic field.
• Position Sensors (Hall Effect Sensors): Most BLDC motors use sensors, usually three
Hall sensors embedded in the stator, to detect the rotor's position and signal the
controller.
 • Electronic Controller (ESC): An external circuit that manages the switching of current
to the stator windings, replacing mechanical brushes.

Working Principle
BLDC motors operate based on the attraction/repulsion forces between the permanent magnets
on the rotor and the electromagnetic fields generated by the stator windings.
1. Electronic Commutation: Unlike brushed motors that use mechanical commutators,
BLDC motors use a controller to switch current between phases in a specific
sequence.

2. Magnetic Interaction: The stator windings are energized, creating a rotating

magnetic field. The permanent magnets on the rotor try to align with this field.

3. Rotation: As the rotor turns, Hall effect sensors detect its position, allowing the
controller to energize the next set of coils, ensuring the magnetic field continues to
rotate and the rotor keeps moving.

4. Speed/Torque Control: The speed is controlled by the frequency of the electronic

commutation (switching), while torque is controlled by the current supplied.

Fig 1.21: Brushless DC Motor

4-Quadrant DC Servo Motor:

A DC servomotor is a high-precision, closed-loop actuator composed of a DC motor, position

sensor (potentiometer), gear assembly, and control circuit. It operates by comparing a reference
input signal to feedback from the sensor, adjusting speed/position based on error. It is designed
with high armature resistance for rapid torque response.
Construction:

• DC Motor: Usually, a permanent magnet or separately excited DC motor (armature-

controlled).

• Position Sensor: A potentiometer attached to the output shaft that feeds back voltage
corresponding to the angle.

• Gear Assembly: Reduces high speed to low speed, high torque output.

• Controller: Compares the desired position with actual position feedback to generate a
control signal.

Working Principle:

1. Input: A PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) signal sets the desired position.

2. Feedback: The sensor monitors the actual position and sends it to the controller.

3. Error Correction: The controller calculates the difference (error) between desired
and actual positions, powering the motor to turn until the error is zero.

4. Control: The armature voltage is adjusted to control speed and position precisely.

Fig 1.22: DC Servo Motor

Operating Modes

The four quadrants are defined by the direction of torque and speed:
• Quadrant I (Forward Motoring): Positive speed, positive torque (motor rotates
forward).
• Quadrant II (Forward Braking): Positive speed, negative torque (generator
mode/stopping).
• Quadrant III (Reverse Motoring): Negative speed, negative torque (motor rotates
backward).
• Quadrant IV (Reverse Braking): Negative speed, positive torque (generator
mode/stopping).
Pulse Width Modulation:

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a highly efficient technique for controlling analog devices
such as LED brightness, motor speed, and power supply voltage using digital signals. By
rapidly switching a voltage signal on and off, PWM varies the "duty cycle" (the ratio of on-
time to total period) to regulate the average power delivered to a load.

• Duty Cycle: The percentage of time a signal is "on" (active) versus "off". A 100%
duty cycle means the signal is always on, while 50% means it is on for half the period.
• Mechanism: Instead of wasting energy through resistance (like a dimmer switch),
PWM switches power on and off at high speeds, which is more energy-efficient.
• Applications: Common uses include motor speed control, LED dimming, power
converters, and robotics (servo motors).
• Advantages: High energy efficiency, reduced heat generation, and precise control.
• Components: Often implemented using microcontrollers, specialized PWM controller
ICs, or circuits like the 555 timers.

Working

• A comparator is used to create a signal that modulates pulse width.

• One component of the comparator's input is the modulating signal, while the other
component is either a sawtooth wave or a non-sinusoidal wave.
• The comparator creates an output waveform of a PWM signal after comparing two
signals.
• One portion of the input to the comparator is structured by the modulating signal, and
the other portion is wave formed non-sinusoidally.
• After analyzing two signals, the comparator generates a PWM signal as the output
waveform.
• The output is in a "High" condition when the sawtooth or non-sinusoidal signal
exceeds the modulating signal.
Advantages of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

• As like pulse position modulation, noise interference a less due to amplitude has been
made constant.

• Signal can be separated very easily at demodulation and noise can also be separated
easily

• Synchronization between transmitter and receiver is not required unlike pulse position
modulation.
Disadvantages of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

• Power will be variable because of varying in width of pulse. Transmitter can handle
the power even for maximum width of the pulse.

• Bandwidth should be large to use in communication, should be huge even when

compared to the pulse amplitude modulation

Applications of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

• Motor Speed Control: Used to regulate the speed of DC motors in devices like fans,
pumps, and conveyor belts without sacrificing torque, commonly via H-bridges.

• Lighting Dimming: Controls the brightness of LEDs in flashlights, displays, and

automotive lighting by rapidly switching them on and off.

• Power Supplies and Converters: Regulates output voltage in switching power

supplies and DC-to-DC converters, ensuring high-efficiency power management.

• Audio Amplifiers: Used in Class-D amplifiers to amplify audio signals with high
efficiency.
• Temperature Control: Adjusts power to heating elements in systems like ovens,
heaters, or soldering irons.
• Servo Motors: Controls the position of servo motor shafts in robotics and automated
manufacturing.
• Battery Management: Controls charging and discharging currents in battery-
powered devices to maximize life and efficiency.

• Communication Systems: Used for signal modulation in certain types of

communication.

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