2/15/2024

TON DUC THANG UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

402057
ELECTRONIC MATERIALS
CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS & APPLICATIONS

CONTENTS

2.1. Conducting materials

2.2. Hall effect
2.3. Insulating materials
2.4. Piezoelectricity
2.5. Magnetic materials
2.6. Superconductivity
Reference slides

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OBJECTIVES

 Understand the electromagnetic properties of

conducting, insulating and magnetic materials

 Learn the applications of these materials in

electronic industry

 Understand special physical effects of materials

and their applications

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CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS &
APPLICATIONS
 2.1. Conducting materials
 2.2. Hall effect
 2.3. Insulating materials
 2.4. Piezoelectricity
 2.5. Magnetic materials
 2.6. Superconductivity
 Reference slides

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2.1 CONDUCTING MATERIALS

 A material is classified as a conductor if it contains a

large number of “free” or mobile charge carriers.
 In the presence of an electric field Ex, electrons
experience a Coulombic force eEx in the x direction

Electric current density J

where vdx is electron drift velocity

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2.1 CONDUCTING MATERIALS

 Motion of conduction electrons in metals
Averaging time (t – ti) for n electrons will be the same as

drift mobility
µd
No applied electric field In the presence of an
applied electric field

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2.1 CONDUCTING MATERIALS

 Electrical conductivity σ
1
𝐽𝑥 = 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝑑 𝐸𝑥 = 𝜎𝐸𝑥 where 𝜎= = 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝑑
𝜌
Ohm’s law

 Temperature dependence of resistivity

For pure metal

For metals with

impurities
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CONDUCTING MATERIALS

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CONDUCTING MATERIALS

Frequently, the resistivity versus temperature behavior of pure metals

can be empirically represented by a power law of the form

where ρ0 is the resistivity at the reference temperature T0,

and n is a characteristic index that best fits the data.

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2.1 CONDUCTING MATERIALS

EXAMPLE 2.2/p119[1]
Calculate the drift mobility and the mean scattering time of
conduction electrons in copper at room temperature, given
that the conductivity of copper is 5.9 x 105 Ω-1 cm-1. The
density of copper is 8.96 g cm-3 and its atomic mass is 63.5 g
mol-1.
EXAMPLE 2.3/p120[1]=> E-learning
What is the applied electric field that will impose a drift velocity
equal to 0.1 percent of the mean speed u(~106 ms-1) of conduction
electrons in copper? What is the corresponding current density and
current through a Cu wire of diameter 1 mm? with the drift mobility
for copper is 43.4 cm2 V-1 s-1, the conductivity of copper is 5.9 x 105
Ω-1cm-1

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V V I : Ampere(A)
I  R  V  R*I V: Volt (v)
R I
R : Ohm (Ω)

The resistance of a conductor of uniform cross section is

directly proportional to the length of the conductor and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area.

Resistivity: ρ (Ωmm2/m)
L
R  . Length: L (m) ρ= 0,017 Ωmm2/m(Cu),
S ρ=0,026 Ωmm2/m(Al)
Area: S (mm2)

11

For example: CADIVI conductor

Size 12/10 16/10 20/10 26/10 30/10
Diameter : d(mm) 1,2 1,6 2 2,6 3

Example : Find the resistance of single

conductor CADIVI 12/10 with length 1000m dây
L :
R  Cu . Với : ρcu = 0,017Ω mm2 /m , L = 1000m
S
d2 3,14.(1, 2)2
S   1,13mm2
4 4
1000
R  0.017 *  15
1,13

01 Aug 2011 12

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Case study: Một dây Nikelin ρ=0,40.10-6 Ωmm2/m, dài 10m,

tiết diện 0,1 mm2 mắc vào hai điểm có U=12V. Hỏi dòng điện
qua nó có cường độ là bao nhiêu?

01 Aug 2011 13

E-learning-chapter 2

1/ Display on Bohr model and energy levels for Cu

(Z=29) và Pb (Z=82).

2/ Example 1.1 in textbook [1]: translate to

Vietnamese

[1] S. O. Kasap, [2006], Principles of Electronic Materials and

devices, McGraw-Hill.

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CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS &
APPLICATIONS
 2.1. Conducting materials
 2.2. Hall effect
 2.3. Insulating materials
 2.4. Piezoelectricity
 2.5. Magnetic materials
 2.6. Superconductivity
 Reference slides

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2.2 HALL EFFECT

“Electron as a particle” – Hall effect (P.145)
 When a magnetic field is applied in a perpendicular direction to the
applied electric field, electron flow is “bent” due to Lorentz force
 Hall field

 Hall coefficient

 Hall voltage
d
1
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐼 .𝐵
𝑒𝑛. 𝑑 𝑥 𝑧
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HALL EFFECT

 Applications
 Watt-meter
 Magnetometer
 Measurement of carrier
concentration and
mobility
 Magnetically actuated
electronic switch
Hall-effect watt-meter

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CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

 2.1. Conducting materials

 2.2. Hall effect [1] chap. 7
 2.3. Insulating materials
 2.4. Piezoelectricity
 2.5. Magnetic materials
 2.6. Superconductivity
 Reference slides

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2.3 INSULATING MATERIALS

 Materials in which electrons tend to

stay put and do not flow easily from
atom to atom are termed insulators
(σ < 10-8 S/cm)
 Insulators are used to prevent the
flow of electricity.
 Insulating materials such as glass,
rubber, or plastic are also called
dielectrics, meaning they can store
charges  capacitors

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INSULATING MATERIALS
 What’s dielectric material?
We first consider a parallel plate capacitor with vacuum as the
dielectric medium between the plates
- a constant voltage supply V.
- Q0 be the charge on the plates
 The relative permittivity (or the
dielectric constant)

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INSULATING MATERIALS

 Electronic polarization
 The increase in stored charge is due to polarization
of the dielectric by the applied field
 When an atom is
placed in an
external electric
field, it develops
an induced dipole
moment pinduced
polarization E = electric field
𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝛼𝐸 𝛼 is electronic polarization
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INSULATING MATERIALS

 Static Electronic Polarizability +

2
Ze
e 
m e o 2

e = electronic polarizability
Z = total number of electrons around the nucleus
me = mass of the electron in free space
o = natural oscillation frequency
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INSULATING MATERIALS

EXAMPLE 7.1 ELECTRONIC POLARIZABILITY

Consider the electronic polarizability of Ar gas atoms. This atom has
closed shells. Calculate the electronic polarization resonant
frequency f0, with Ar(Z=19), e=1,6x10-19 C, me =9,1x10-31 kg, and
αe =1,7x10-40 F m2.

HW2 ELECTRONIC POLARIZABILITY

Consider the electronic polarizability of He (Heli) gas atoms. This
atom has closed shells. Calculate the electronic polarization
resonant frequency f0, with parametters looking up the table
7.1/p 588

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INSULATING MATERIALS
 Dielectric Loss
 For a lossy (imperfect) dielectric the dielectric
constant can be represented by a complex
relative dielectric constant:

 The imaginary part of this complex dielectric

constant, ε at a frequency, ω is equivalent to a
frequency-dependent conductivity, σ(ω), given
by:
the electronic polarizability Dielectric constant in air (dry)
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INSULATING MATERIALS
 Dielectric Loss
 ε" is also known as the loss factor.
 The small difference in phase from ideal
behaviour is defined by an angle δ, defined
through the equation

 tan δ is known as the loss tangent or dissipation

factor.
 A quality factor Q, for the dielectric is given by
the reciprocal of tan δ. Q  1  averageenergy stored
tan  energy dissipated per cycle
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INSULATING MATERIALS

 Frequency dependence:
 Complex dielectric constant
𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝑟′ − j 𝜀𝑟 ′′ Energy loss
The reciprocal impedance
of the capacitor

Dielectric loss
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INSULATING MATERIALS

EXAMPLE 7.5: DIELECTRIC LOSS PER UNIT CAPACITANCE

Obtain the dielectric loss per unit capacitance in a capacitor
in terms of the loss factor. Obtain the phase difference
between the current through the capacitor and that through
Rp. Calculate the power dissipated per unit capacitance Wcap.
With v=10Sin100πt (V)

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INSULATING MATERIALS

EXAMPLE 7.6: DIELECTRIC LOSS PER UNIT CAPACITANCE

Consider the three dielectric materials listed in Table 7.3 with
their dielectric constant Є’r (usually simply stated as Єr) and
loss factors tanδ. At a given voltage, which dielectric will have
the lowest power dissipation per unit capacitance at 60 Hz?
With v=110Sin120πt (V)

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INSULATING MATERIALS

 Capacitor dielectric material

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TYPES OF CAPACITOR

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TYPES OF CAPACITORS

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STRUCTURE OF CAPACITORS

Structure: A capacitor consists of

two metal plates with an insulating
dielectric sandwiched between them

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CAPACIANCE

Capacitace; Unit: F (Farad)

1 Fara = 106 µF = 109 nF = 1012 pF

ceramic capacitor

symbol: C;
electrolytic capacitor
33

CAPACITOR VALUE CODES

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2.3 Các thông số của tụ điện:

Đọc giá trị của tụ điện:

56 560

472J
10n 33
630v
470
uF -
85 0C 25v

C1 C2 C3

35

Type J : Diped Tantalum Capacitors

Type K : Mica Capacitors
36
Type L : Polyester/Polystyrene Capacitors
Type M :Electrolytic 4 Band Capacitors
Type N : Electrolytic 3 Band Capacitors

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CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS &
APPLICATIONS
 2.1. Conducting materials
 2.2. Hall effect
 2.3. Insulating materials
 2.4. Piezoelectricity [1] chapter 8
 2.5. Magnetic materials
 2.6. Superconductivity
 Reference slides

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MAGNETIC MATERIALS

01 Aug 2011 402004 – Linh kiện điện tử 38

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MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Applied Magnetic Field
• Created by current through a coil:

• Relation for the applied

magnetic field, H:
NI
H
L current

applied magnetic field

units = (ampere-turns/m)
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MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Response to a Magnetic Field
• Magnetic induction results in the material

B = Magnetic Induction (tesla)

inside the material
the unit of flux is the weber (Wb).
B: T (Tesla)

current I
• Magnetic susceptibility (độ cảm từ), c (dimensionless)
c measures the material response
Paramagnetic
relative to a vacuum.
Diamagnetic
B  (1  c) o H
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MAGNETIC MATERIALS

 Ampere’s Law and the

Inductance of a Toroidal Coil
Ampere’s law
 H dl  I
c
t

Magnetic field inside toroidal coil

 o  r NI
B  o r H 

Inductance of toroidal coil

Total flux threaded N  o  r N 2 A

L  
Current I 
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MAGNETIC MATERIALS

EXAMPLE 8.6: AN INDUCTOR WITH A FERRITE CORE

Consider a toroidal coil with a ferrite core. Suppose that the
coil has 200 turns and is used in HF work with small signals.
The mean diameter of the toroid is 2.5 cm and the core
diameter is 0.5 cm. If the core is a MnZn ferrite (2x103H/m)
and air, what is the approximate inductance of the coil?

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MAGNETIC MATERIALS

 Magnetic Susceptibility

• Measures the response of electrons to a magnetic field.

• Electrons produce magnetic moments:

magnetic moments
electron electron

nucleus spin

• Net magnetic moment:

--sum of moments from all electrons.
• Three types of response...
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MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Magnetic Moments
for 3 Types

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MAGNETIC MATERIALS

 Inductors
 Inductors provide us with a
means of storing electrical
energy in the form of a
magnetic field
 The electrical characteristics
of an inductor are determined
by a number of factors
including the material of the
core (if any), the number of
turns, and the physical
dimensions of the coil
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TYPES OF INDUCTORS

Inductor Symbols

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TYPES OF INDUCTORS

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VARIABLE INDUCTORS

 A ferrite cored inductor can be made variable by moving its core in or out of the
former onto which the coil is wound.
 Many small inductors have threaded ferrite cores to make this possible

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INDUCTANCE

Energy storage
 The energy stored in an inductor is proportional to the
product of the inductance and the square of the current
flowing in it
 W is the energy (in Joules), L is the inductance (in henries),
and I is the current flowing in the inductor (in Amps).
1
W  LI 2
2 oscilloscope

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CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF

INDUCTOR

XL = ω.L = 2πf.L
XL = inductive reactance
π = 3.1416
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
L = inductance in henrys (H)

50

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INDUCTOR VALUE CODES

 The vast majority of inductors use written markings to

indicate values, working current, and tolerance.
 Some small inductors are marked with coloured stripes
to indicate their value and tolerance (in which case the
standard colour values are used and inductance is
normally expressed in microhenries).

01 Aug 2011 51

INDUCTOR VALUE CODES

52

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TRANSFORMERS

 Transformers provide a means of coupling AC power or signals from

one circuit to another.
 Voltage may be stepped-up or stepped-down
 Since no increase in power is possible
(transformers are passive components like resistors, capacitors and
inductors)
 An increase in secondary voltage can only be achieved at the
expense of a corresponding reduction in secondary current, and vice
versa.

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CHARACTERISTICS

 The electrical characteristics of a transformer are

determined by a number of factors including the
core material and physical dimensions.
 The specifications for a transformer usually include the rated primary
and secondary voltages and current the required power rating
 Which can be delivered by the transformer under a given set of
conditions, the frequency range for the component

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BASIC STRUCTURE

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PRINCIPLES

N = N1 / N2:
N1 N2
- N > 1  Decrease the voltage .
I1 - N < 1  Increase the voltage .

V2
N1 .I1 = H.l and N2 . I2 = H.l
=> N1 . I1 = N2 . I2 .
V1
I1 N 2 l: chiều dài đường
 sức trung bình
d d I 2 N1 trong mạch từ
V1  e1   N1 vàV2  e2   N 2
dt dt
P2 = V2 . I2 and P1 = V1 . I1
V1 N1
 => V1.I1  V2 I 2
V2 N2 V 1
R1 I1 V I N N R N
  ( 1 )( 2 )  ( 1 )( 1 )  1  ( 1 ) 2
R2 V2 V2 I1 N2 N2 R2 N2
I2
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PRINCIPLES

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SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

A superconductor is an element or metallic alloy which, when cooled to near absolute

zero, dramatically lose all electrical resistance. In principle, superconductors can
allow electrical current to flow without any energy loss

Zero Resistance Complete Diamagnetism

I

V T>Tc T<Tc
DC Resistance

Magnetic Induction

0
Tc 0
Tc
Temperature
Temperature
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SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

The Classification of Superconductors

Difference between type 1 and type 2 superconductors

composite N/S structure.

(N stands for normal
state, S for the
superconducting state).

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SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

The Classification of
Superconductors

HC is a critical
magnetic field in
teslas

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SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Applications

1. Superconducting electronics applications

There are many thin film applications in ultra fast microelectronics or
instrumentation

2. Magnetically-Levitated Train (Maglev Train)

3. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Image)

4. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

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SUMMARY

 In this chapter, we have learnt:

 Fundamental physics of materials used for
construction of resistor, capacitor and magnetic
devices
 Several special effects of materials and their
applications in electronic industry

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