Oceanography

Salinity of oceans
Salinity is number of grams of dissolved salts in 1000 grams of sea water.
It is measured in parts per thousand(ppt).
The average salinity of earths ocean = 35ppt

Salinity: Lake Van > Dead Sea

• Continents through dissolving action of rivers and rainfall.

• Evaporation at oceans through which salts are left behind in water.
• volcanic eruption along ocean oor.
.
• Salinity of oceans remain constant as the factors adding up salts are balanced by the factors
reducing the salinity such as
river water
rainfall
ice melting and
precipitation of Salts along the ocean oor.
• Eg. The most saline water body in India is sambar salt lake. In the world, it is lake Van of
turkey.

1. Chlorine → 18.97%
2. Sodium → 10.47%
3. Sulphate → 2.65%
4. Magnesium → 1.28%
5. Calcium → 0.41%
6. Potassium → 0.38%
7. Bicarbonate → 0.14%
8. Bromine → 0.06%
9. Borate → 0.02%
10. Strontium → 0.01%

Dissolved salts in sea water

(gram of salt Per kg of water)

Factors a ecting salinity :

1) Temperature increases evaporation increases salinity increases
2) wind increases evaporation increases salinity increases
3) Precipitation increases freshwater increases salinity decreases
So, Equatorial regions will have lesser salinity than subtropics due to more precipitation.
4) More rivers more freshwater lesser salinity eg. Low salinity along delta of Ganga and Amazon
5) Ice/ snow increases salinity increases
6) Ocean currents helps in distribution of salinity across the world oceans.

Vertical distribution:-

Along polar regions s salinity in lower to the surface due to lower rates of evaporation. However
salinity increases with depth to become uniform after a certain depth.
Along subtropical regions higher evaporation leads to high salinity along the surface and decreases
sharply and becomes uniform after certain depth.
In Equatorial regions leads to low salinity in upper layer and it increases with depth and then
decreases and nally becomes uniform
Water bodies with above normal salinity: Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Persian gulf
Sear with below no normal sea: Bering sea, ( b/w Alaska and Russia), North Sea, Gulf of St. Lawrence (blw USA and
Canada), Arctic Ocean.
Exceptionally high salinity: 1) lave van (330 ppt)
2) Dead Sea (240 ppt)
3)Great salt lake (220 ppt)

Intro
Sub-tropical > equatorial > polar

35
Oceanic deposits:
1) Lithogenous|terrigenous: depositions originated from land found on sea oor Terri means land
e.g. Sands, gravel, silt
2) Biogenous/ organic deposits: shells, corals, ooze(dead remains of microscopic organisms)
Skeletal remains of Dead and decaying marine microorganisms are called as oozes.( 2 types
→ siliceous, calcareous
3) Inorganic/hydrogenous: They are formed through the precipitation of Various minerals in
the clean water. Eg. Polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphide, red Clay
4) cosmogenous: depositions derived from spare outside from the earth. Eg-meteoritic debris

Coral reefs:
• Corals are the masses of limestone and dolomite accumulated by lime secreting organisms
called coral polyps. They are developed due to symbiotic relationship between coral polyps
and zooxanthellae (algae).
• Coral reef provides habitat to nearly 31 phyla of animals leading to rich biodiversity.
Therefore they are called-as rainforest of oceans.

• Coral → Phylum Cnidaria

• Zooxanthellae → Phylum Dino agellata
• Along the western coast of (tropical) continents due to the presence of cold ocean currents,
coral reefs are absent.

Types:
1. Fringing reef: these are narrow coral platforms lying close to the coast. Eg coral reefs of
Caribbean Sea and Andaman & Nicobar, New Hebrides Society Islands
2. Barrier reef: It is a wide coral platform (largest in size) located far from the coast and
separated by a deep channel or lagoon. (Linear reefs) Eg. Great Barrier Reef
3. Atoll: The circular (continuous) coral reefs developed surrounding an island or a sea mount on
a guyot (with a central lagoon) Eg. Lakshadweep, Maldives, Chagos islands, Seychelles, Cocos
islands, Fiji atoll, and islands of South Paci c Ocean (French Polynesia, Caroline and Marshall
Islands, Micronesia, and Cook Islands)

• Active Volcano → Fringing Reef (very close to the coast) → Barrier reef (far from coast) → Atoll
(central lagoon is formed as the central island submerges completely)
• Size: Barrier reef > Atoll > Fringing reef
• Availability: Fringing reef (most common) > Atoll > Barrier reef (least common)
Conditions:
1. Stable climatic conditions
2. Tropical waters (Temperature: > 20°C & Latitude: 30°N-30°S)
3. Shallow water (Depth: 200-250 ft / 45-55 m)
4. Salinity: average (35 ppt) (both freshwater & highly saline water is harmful)
5. Abundant plankton (on seaward side)
6. Little or no pollution (highly fragile & vulnerable to climate change)
7. Sediments: should not be there
8. Submarine platform

Distribution:
1. Caribbean Sea
2. Gulf of Mexico
3. Western Atlantic region near South America
4. Red Sea
5. Persian gulf
6. Western Indian Ocean region
7. Northern Indian Ocean region
8. India(Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep ,Gulf of Mannar, gulf of kachchh)
9. NE Australia, Philippines, Indonesia (coral Triangle) → richest deposit of coral reefs

Coral bleaching:
• Corals receive their coloration from the algae living in symbiotic relationship.
• coral bleaching refers to the loss of colour of corals due to stress induced expulsion of
symbiotic algae.
• Reasons behind coral bleaching:
Global warming causing change in temperature.
Oceanic acidi cation
Changes in salinity
Increased sedimentation
Water pollution
Dredging
Trawling
El Niño
Increased storms and cyclones
• Between 1997 and 1998, 90% of North Indian cream lost its coral reefs.
• Between 2014 and 2017, due to El Niño, Great Barrier Reef was bleached by 50%.
Oceanic Currents:
• It is the general movement of surface water of the ocean in a de nite direction over long
distances.
• There are two types of oceanic currents: warm and cold ocean currents.
• Warm currents move from low latitudes to high latitudes.
• Cold currents move from high latitudes to low latitudes.

Factors a ecting oceanic currents:

1. Wind: The steady blowing of winds drag the surface of water in its direction and brings about
the surface ow and steadily sets the water currents in motion.
2. Variations in temperature, pressure, salinity or density causes the water to move in
particular directions and reduce the variations. Such di erences guide the movement of
oceanic currents.
3. Coriolis Force: It causes the oceanic currents to de ect right in northern hemisphere and to
left in the Southern Hemisphere.
4. Shape of the Continents and coastlines modify the oceanic currents directions.

Questions: ocean, type, direction

In North Atlantic Ocean , the continuous circulation of water in clockwise direction results in a
stagnant and slow moving water within.

Atlantic Ocean Currents Paci c Ocean currents

2. North Equatorial current 1. North equatorial current
3. South equatorial current 2. South equatorial current
4. Counter equatorial current 3. Counter equatorial current
5. Antilles current 4. Kuro ship currrent
6. Florida current 5. North Paci c drift
7. Gulf Stream 6. Alaska current
8. North Atlantic drift 7. California current
9. Irminger current 8. East Australian current
10. Canary current 9. South Paci c drift
11. Labrador current 10. Peru/ humboldt current
12. East Greenland current 11. Okhotsk current
13. Brazilian current 12. Oyashio current
14. West wind drift 13. Falkland current
15. Benguela current
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Indian Ocean currents

1. North equatorial current
2. South equatorial current
3. Counter equatorial current
4. Mozambique current
5. Agulhas current
6. West wind drift
7. West Australian current
Currents of North Indian Ocean
Winters:
• North equatorial current ows westward above the equator.
• Equatorial counter current ows between north and south equatorial currents.
• North east monsoon from the land drives the waters of Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea to
circulate in anti clockwise direction called as North East Monsoon Drift.
Summers:
• The entire water of northern Indian Ocean comes under the in uence of south west
monsoon producing clockwise ow of South West Monsoon Drift. During this time, there is
no North Equatorial current and counter equatorial current.

Signi cance of Ocean Currents:

1. Cold currents along the western coasts in sub tropical regions supresses precipitation
leading to the formation of deserts. Example: Namibian desert along Benguela Current,
Atacama desert along Peru current, …
2. The east coasts in sub tropics under the in uence of warm oceanic currents receive more
rainfall and more cyclonic disturbance. Example : Florida coast
3. West coast along Temperate regions experience mild winters and ice free ports or coasts
due to warm ocean currents. Example: North Atlantic Drift along Britain/ UK.
4. The meeting of warm and cold ocean currents lead to ideal conditions for the growth of
sh resulting in the formation of shing banks. Example: Meeting of Gulf Stream and
Labrador current along New Foundland Island.
5. Meeting of warm and cold ocean currents result in fog formation which might obstruct
the ocean navigation. Example: Titanic’s submergence.
6. Ocean currents can be used in navigation.
7. Ocean currents help in global distribution of temperature and salinity.
8. The circulation of oceanic currents results in the formation of gyre across di erent
oceans.
9. Cold oceanic currents are the zones of upwelling which help in sh growth.

• Upwelling: The o shore winds push the surface waters away and causes the cold water
from the bottom to rise up to the surface. This brings cold and deep nutrient rich waters to
the surface which helps in the growth of sh. Upwelling is active in regions of cold
currents.
• Downwelling: The onshore winds pile up the water near to coasts causing sinking of water
below the surface layer. Downwelling is active in the regions where warm and cold ocean
currents meet. i.e, where there is a density di erence occurs.
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upwelling
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Atlantic Meriodonial overturningcirculation

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result in colder

Thermohaline Circulation:
• Deep ocean currents driven by di erence in water density which is controlled by temperature
and salinity, is called as thermohaline circulations.
• It begins near polar regions where ice forms during the water saltier and denser leading to
sinking . The deep water upwells in the regions of cold current upwelling.
• This underwater current move slowly in a single and continuous belt across di erent oceans.
Therefore, they are called as Great Ocean Conveyor Belt.

Watermass:
• Watermass is a body of water with characteristic temperature and salinity conditions.
• There are 3 di erent types of watermass: 1) Surface, 2) Intermediate and 3) Deep watermass.
• Examples : North Atlantic Deep watermass, Antarctic Surface Watermass, etc.
• Signi cance of Watermass:
They help in generation and maintenance of thermohaline circulations.
Distribution of oxygen, temperature, salinity across the oceans.
Generation of upwelling and downwelling, growth of planktons, coral reefs, etc.
Walker Circulation (normal conditions):
• Near South American coast, winds blow o shore and blows the surface water away from the
continents. To replace this water, cool bottom water upwells.
• Air above this cool water is stabilised and convection is suppressed.
• The water ows westward as southeast trade winds blow towards western paci c region.
• It is heated and rises and ows eastward in the upper troposphere and descends down along
eastern Paci c Ocean to complete the cell/ circulation.
• This causes high pressure & low temperature in Eastern Paci c Ocean and Low pressure & high
temperature in Western Paci c Ocean. The resulting convective cell is called as Walker
Circulation.
• In this normal condition, Eastern Paci c Coast experiences drought with Western Paci c
having good rainfall. (Australia-west and Peru-East)

El Niño :(Christ child)

• Once in 7 or 8 years
• In November- December, the ITCZ moves too much to the south of equator resulting in
weakening of trade winds and the subsequent reduction of upwelling along the South
American coast.
• This causes the warming of surface waters of south and Central America, which is called as El
Niño.
• The appearance of El Niño causes air pressure to drop over eastern paci c coast and rise over
western paci c.
• This seesaw variation of air pressure is called as El Niño Southern Oscillation.
• This causes heavy precipitation along Eastern Paci c and drought conditions along western
Paci c.
• After 1 or 2 years, the enhanced Hadley circulation strengthens the trade winds and increases
upwelling bringing back the normal conditions.

La Niña:
• El Niño is usually followed by La Niña .
• It is the intensi ed high pressure and cold temperatures along eastern paci c ;& Low pressure
and high temperatures along western paci c i.e. intensi cation of Walker circulation.
• This causes heavy precipitation in India and Australia resulting in oods.
E ects of El Niño:
1. El Niño causes global climatic imbalances.
2. It results in droughts in India and Australia.
3. Heavy precipitation along coastal deserts of Peru and Chile.
4. Warm water inhibits the growth of algae and supresses wpwelling devastating marine
ecosystems killing sh along Peru-Chile coast.
5. The decomposition of sh releases Hydrogen sulphide causing dark waters and making it
toxic.
6. During El Niño conditions, high pressure near to India, Australia and Caribbean Sea supresses
the cyclone formation.

El Niño Modoki:
• While El Niño is characterised by strong warming in Eastern Paci c Ocean, El Niño Modoki
results in warming in central Paci c Ocean with cooling of eastern and western parts.
• It creates 2-Cell Walker Circulation over tropical paci c region with precipitation at the central
part and dry conditions at eastern and western parts.
• While El Niño results in diminished hurricanes in Caribbean Sea , El Niño Modoki results in
increased incidents.
• During this time , cyclones occur more in Arabian Sea than in Bay of Bengal.
Madden-Julian Oscillation(MJO):
• Unlike El Niño which is stationary, MJO is an eastward moving disturbance of clouds , rainfall,
winds, and pressure system that traverses the planet in the tropics and returns to its initial
starting point in 30 to 60 days on an average.
• MJO has two parts: 1. Enhanced Rainfall, 2. Suppressed Rainfall.
• MJO can modulate the timing and strength of monsoon and tropical cyclones.
Indian Ocean Dipole(IOD):
• The di erence in sea surface temperatures between western Arabian Sea and Eastern Indian
Ocean of Indonesia is called as Indian Ocean Dipole.
• Similar to MJO, it is a coupled ocean and atmospheric phenomenon.
• Positive IOD:
Warm sea surface in western part relative to east.
Less rainfall in Indonesia and Australia.
Good for Indian monsoon.
Reduces the impact of El Niño in India.
• Negative IOD:
Warm sea surface in eastern part than western part.
More rainfall in Indonesia and Australia.
Bad for Indian monsoon.
Increases the impact of El Niño on India.
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Tides:
• The regular rise and fall of water level in the worlds oceans resulting from gravitational
attraction by the moon and sun is called as tide.
• The combined gravitational pull of sun and moon pulls the oceanic water in a bulge. The
centrifugal force due to earth’s revolution pulls another bulge in opposite direction. The bulges
in one direction creates low waters in the another.
• As the earth rotates, this position of high and low waters changes across the surface.
• Factors a ecting tides:
Gravitational pull of sun and moon.
Centrifugal force of earth’s revolution.
Relative position of sun and moon.
Uneven distribution of water.
Ocean bottom topography.
• Types of tides:
1. Spring Tide: A very high tides and very low low tides occurs during two consecutive directions.
A. Conjunction (both on same side of the earth) I.e. now moon
B. Opposition I.e. full moon.
C. In both the cases force
D. During spring tides, sun , earth and moon are in a straight line. It is called syzygy.
2. Neap tide: The smaller high tide and smaller low tides experienced when sun and moon are in
perpendicular directions. The position is called as Quadrature.
3. Diurnal and Semi-Diurnal tides: The tides occurring twice a day are called semi diurnal tides.
• Signi cance of Tides:
1. It helps in the generation of Tidal energy.
2. It helps in Navigation for tidal ports.
3. It helps in Ship building industry.
4. It helps in natural cleansing of coastal region as well as deposition of waste.
5. It helps in maintaining biodiversity along tidal range.
• Favourable conditions for both the ecosystems:
1. It adversely impacts delta formation.
2.