Automotive wiring systems

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Basic Electrical Concepts

Basic Electricity
Electricity: one of the most useful sources of energy.
Exists in two forms:
Electric current → electricity in motion (domestic, industrial supply).
Static electricity → electricity that does not move (shocks from door knobs, paper
attraction to comb).

Electricity Principles
Matter → composed of molecules, further divided into atoms.
Atoms contain:
Electrons (negative charge, revolve around nucleus).
Protons (positive charge, heavier than electrons, permanent part of nucleus).
Neutrons (neutral, less significant electrically).
Nucleus: central part with protons and neutrons.
Energy shells: electrons arranged in shells, outermost = valence shell.
Valence electrons → weakly bound, can become free electrons.
Flow of free electrons = electricity / current.
Conventional current: flows positive → negative (electrons flow negative → positive).

Ground Connections
Earthing / Grounding = critical safety factor.
Ensures wire harness grounded and circuit safe.
Negative wire end must be correctly grounded.
Grounding completes the electrical circuit.

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 Ohm’s Law
Electromotive Force (EMF) & Potential Difference (PD) → measured in Volts (V).
Current (I): flow of electrons, in Amperes (A).
Resistance (R): opposition to current, in Ohms (Ω).
Power: rate of energy transfer, in Watts (W).
Energy: ability of charged particles to cause action/motion.
Ohm’s Law:
I=V/R
R=V/I
V=I×R
Circuits:
Closed circuit → complete path.
Open circuit → broken path (faulty switch, burnt fuse, broken wire).
Short circuit → bypass load, very high current, fuse protects.

Power
Electric power = rate of energy transfer per unit time.
Unit = Watt (W) (also kW, MW, GW).
Formula: P = I² × R (power dissipated in resistor).

Energy
Electrical energy = movement of electrons from one atom to another.
Converted into heat, light, motion (motor).

Measuring Instruments

Ammeter
Measures current.
Connected in series.
Shows battery charging/discharging rate.
Care: never parallel, check polarity, correct range.

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 Voltmeter
Measures voltage / potential difference.
Connected in parallel.
Measures voltage at points, voltage drop, battery condition.
Care: select correct range.

Ohmmeter
Measures resistance, checks continuity.
Care: circuit power OFF, never across battery, discharge capacitors.

Multimeter
Combines ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter (VOM).
Analog / digital.
Digital → 4-digit display with polarity.
FUNCTION switch → type of measurement.
RANGE switch → select range.
Care:
As ohmmeter → circuit power OFF.
Unknown voltages → start highest range then lower.

Conductors, Insulators, Semiconductors

Conductors
Many free electrons.
Valence shell: 1–3 electrons.
Examples: Copper, Aluminum, Zinc, Lead, Tin, Eureka, Nichrome, Silver, Gold.
Main path for current.
Usually copper/aluminum, round for uniform flow.

Insulators
Few or no free electrons.
Valence shell: 5–7 electrons.
Also called dielectric materials.
Examples: Air, Glass, Rubber, Plastic, Paper, Porcelain, PVC, Fiber, Mica.
Prevent leakage, hazards. Must be elastic.

Semiconductors

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 Four valence electrons.
Examples: Silicon, Germanium.
Act as insulators at 0 K, conductors at higher temperature.
Used in diodes, transistors, IC chips.
Smaller, lighter, low losses.

Wires and Cables

Bare conductors → no covering (overhead lines).
Insulated conductors → coating for grouping.
Cables: single-core, twin, three, four, multi-core.
Wire size / gauge:
Thicker = more current.
Current-carrying capacity = max without overheating.
SWG / AWG systems: higher gauge = thinner wire.
Automobile: 0.5–6 mm cables depending on power/component.
Cable color codes (may vary):
Brown → battery circuit.
Yellow → generator circuit.
White → ignition circuit.
Green → fused auxiliary circuits.
Light green → flasher unit.
Blue → headlamp circuit.
Black → ground wires.

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Electrical Concepts – Structured Notes

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 Wires – Shielding, Length vs. Resistance
Wires: Conductors to carry electric current (made of copper and aluminum, circular form).
Shielding: One or more insulated conductors enclosed by conductive layer.
Material: Braided copper strands / spiral copper tape / conducting polymer.
Uses: Acts as earth/ground, protects from moisture, adds mechanical strength &
flexibility, protects from weather (water, oil, gases, heat).
Resistance:
Increases with length of conductor.
Decreases with cross-sectional area.

Resistor Ratings
Function: Reduce, limit, resist current.
Value: Measured in ohms (Ω).
Power rating (wattage): I² x R Watts.
Carbon resistors: Low power (up to 2 watts).
Wire-wound resistors: High temperatures, accurate values, ratings from 1W to several
hundred W.
Tolerance: Permissible deviation (±1% to ±20%, some -20% to +80%).

Capacitors and Coils

Capacitors: Store electric energy as charge.
Capacitance (C) = storage ability.
Charging: One plate excess electrons, other deficiency.
Types: Based on dielectric (paper, mica, glass, polyester, air electrolytic), construction
(rolled foil, disc).
Coils: Related to magnetic effects & electromagnetic induction.
Examples: Coil + iron bar = magnetized. Moving bar magnet in coil = current induced.
Solenoids: Wire coils as electromagnets.
Transformers: Two coils coupled by mutual flux.

Fuses and Circuit Breakers

Fuses

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 Purpose: Protect equipment from excessive current / short circuit.
Construction: Fuse element (lead-tin / tin-copper alloy), in glass or ceramic carrier.
Working: Fuse melts when current exceeds limit.
Types:
Cartridge fuses (glass tube): General purpose / heavy-duty.
Blade & bolted type fuses: In plastic bodies, used in automobiles (12V–42V).
Maxi-fuses: Fast-acting, 32V, color-coded.
Fusible links: Wire smaller by 4 AWG, high-temp insulation.
Identification:
Broken = overload.
Glass white/black = short circuit.
Fuse rating & color: e.g., 3A Violet, 10A Red, 30A Light green.

Circuit Breakers
Purpose: Interrupt circuit, non-replaceable fuse.
Construction: Bimetallic strip + contacts.
Working: Excess current → strip bends → opens circuit.
Ratings: Up to 50 amps.

Ballast Resistor
Function: Compensates for resistance change with current.
Working: Current ↑ → resistance ↑; current ↓ → resistance ↓.
Uses:
Earth/ground.
Protect cables from moisture, overload, battery drain.
Control current & voltage.
In LED circuits, fluorescent lights, automotive systems.
Types: Fixed & self-variable ballast resistors.

Stripping Wire Insulation

Purpose: Replace, repair, connect wires.
Tools: Wire strippers, electrician’s knife, side cutting pliers.
Procedure: Mark length (~10mm) → adjust jaws → press → pull insulation.
Safety: Do not nick/damage strands; avoid deep cuts → prevent short circuit.

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 Cable Colour Codes and Sizes
Color codes (Lucas system):
Brown: Battery, horn, ignition switch.
Yellow: Generator circuit.
White: Ignition circuit.
Green: Fused auxiliary circuits.
Light Green: Flasher unit.
Blue: Headlamp circuit.
Black: Ground wires.
Wire/Cable sizes: Depend on current rating.
Thicker cables = more current.
Units: Diameter / cross-sectional area (e.g., 1.5 sq mm, 2.5 sq mm).
SWG & AWG systems (higher gauge = thinner wire).
Automotive sizes: 0.5–6 mm, withstand 40–105°C.
Examples:
18 gauge → 10A low voltage.
10 gauge → 240V, 30A.
4 gauge → 60A.

Resistors in Series Circuits

Single path for current.
Current: Same everywhere.
Voltage: Sum of drops = supply voltage.
Total resistance: Rₜ = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ …
Open circuit: No current, devices stop, full voltage across open.

Parallel Circuits and Series-Parallel Circuits

Parallel Circuits
Multiple paths for current.
Voltage: Same across each branch.
Current: I = I₁ + I₂ + I₃ …
Resistance: 1/R = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …; R < smallest resistor.

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 Equal resistors: R = r/N.
Application: Allows parts to work if one fails.

Series-Parallel Circuits
Combination of both.
Solution: Combine parallel → add to series.
Application: Voltage divider circuits.

Electrostatic Effects
Static electricity = electricity not moving.
Examples: Shocks from door knob, carpet, paper + comb.
Charge = property of electrons/protons in static state.

Capacitors and its Applications

Capacitance (C) depends on:
1. Area of plates.
2. Distance between plates.
3. Dielectric material (k).
Units: Farad (F), smaller = μF, nF, pF.
Types:
Fixed value capacitors: Value fixed (paper, ceramic, disc).
Variable capacitors: User adjustable.
Specifications: Type, value, DCWV, tolerance.

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Parallel Grouping
Purpose: Achieve higher capacitance.
Cₜ = C₁ + C₂ + C₃ …
Voltage: Same across all capacitors.
Condition: All ratings ≥ supply voltage, polarity observed.

Series Grouping
Purpose: Reduce capacitance, withstand higher voltage.

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 Cₜ: 1/Cₜ = 1/C₁ + 1/C₂ + …
Voltage: Divides across capacitors.
Condition: Voltage drop < rating, polarity maintained.

Cells in Series and Parallel

Series Connection
Purpose: Increase voltage.
Config: – of one → + of next.
Effect: Higher voltage output.
Application: EV packs (e.g., 800V).

Parallel Connection
Purpose: Increase current capacity.
Config: All + together, all – together.
Effect: Higher capacity for driving range.
Application: EV packs combine series + parallel.

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Magnetic and Electrical Concepts

Magnetic Effects
Electricity in motion → magnetic effects.
Current in coil → magnetizes soft iron bar.
Moving bar magnet in coil → induces current.

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 Electromagnets → used in motor vehicle trade (relays, cuts).
Magnetic field around conductor when current flows.
Lines: circular, symmetrical, perpendicular to current.
Right-hand screw rule for direction.
Coil with many turns = solenoid, acts like bar magnet.
Reversing current → reverses magnetic poles.
Magnets:
Invisible field of force = magnetic flux (Ø).
Strongest at poles.
Unlike poles attract, like poles repel.
Force ↑ when distance ↓.
Types: Natural, Artificial.
Property: Retentivity → temporary / permanent magnets.

Heating Effects
Electrical energy → heat energy.
Current in wire → heating (used in heaters, bulbs, gauges).
Heat ∝ current × resistance.
High current → high heat.
Power (wattage) = heat dissipating capacity.
Heat ∝ I² × R.

Thermo-Electric Energy
Thermo-electric energy = electricity from waste heat.
Uses Seebeck effect.
Source: waste heat of IC engine (coolants, exhaust).

Thermistors
Thermistor = temperature-sensitive resistor.
PTC: Resistance ↑ as temperature ↑.
NTC: Resistance ↓ as temperature ↑.
Made from doped polycrystalline ceramic compounds.

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 Thermocouples
Circuit of wires of different metals → thermo-emf generated.
One wire cool, other hot → emf.
Measured by galvanometer.
Works on Seebeck effect.

Electrochemical Energy
Produced by electrochemical processes.
Two metals in salt solution → generate electric charge.
Wet cells (lead-acid batteries) → DC supply.
Batteries:
Store electrical energy as chemical.
Charging via electrolysis.

Photovoltaic Energy
Photovoltaic energy = solar energy.
Used in Solar Electric Vehicles (SEV).

Piezo Electric Energy

Piezoelectric sensors: convert pressure/acceleration/force → electrical charge.
Application: initiate combustion in glow plugs of IC engines.

Electromagnetic Induction
emf induced when magnetic flux changes.
Faraday’s First Law: emf induced when flux changes.
Faraday’s Second Law: emf ∝ rate of change of flux.
Types:
Dynamically induced → moving conductor in stationary field (generators).
Statically induced → changing flux in stationary conductor (transformers).
Lenz’s Law: induced current opposes cause.
Induction motors: rotating magnetic field in stator induces current in rotor → torque.

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 Relays, Solenoids

Solenoid
Coil of wire + metallic core → uniform magnetic field.
Converts electrical → mechanical work.
Construction:
Hollow core, iron plunger.
Two windings: pull-in (series), hold-in (shunt).
Operation: windings pull plunger, operate lever, close circuits.
Applications: starter motors, 4WD, fuel injection, power windows, central locking, A/C, door
locks.

Electromagnetic Relay
Remote/electrical multiplier switch.
Construction:
Electromagnet (core, coil).
Movable armature with spring.
Contacts on frame.
Operation:
Coil energized → armature attracted → contact switches.
Acts as SPDT switch.
De-energized → spring resets.
Delay: due to inductance + armature inertia.
Parts:
Frame, core, hinges, spring, coil.
Contacts: corrosion-resistant, need maintenance.
Types: high voltage, low voltage, power, solar, signal, latching, change-over, potted, flasher,
time delay.
ISO relays → standard terminal patterns.
EV application: between battery & inverter, controlled by BMS.
AC relays for HVAC, DC relays for battery systems.

Primary and Secondary Windings in Transformers

Transformer: two coils (no electrical connection).
Primary winding: connected to AC source → produces varying flux.

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 Secondary winding: links flux → induced voltage → supplies load.
Application: Ignition coil in petrol engine.
Secondary winding: ~21,000 turns.
Primary winding: 200–300 turns.
Steps up low voltage → high voltage (spark generation).

Stator and Rotor Coils in Motor

Motor = stator (stationary) + rotor (rotating).
Stator Coils:
Made of steel laminations + windings.
DC motors: field coil = non-moving, produces field.
Induction motors: AC in stator → rotating magnetic field.
BLDC motors: DC supplied, switching generates AC waveform → EM field.
Rotor Coils:
DC motors: armature with commutator + brushes (reverse polarity).
Induction motors: induced current in rotor → rotation.
BLDC motors: rotor = permanent magnets.
SRM: rotor with salient poles, no magnets/windings, works on reluctance.
Traction Motors: used in EVs, high torque/power (BLDC, PMSM).
Motor Control: MCU/inverter → controls speed & torque.
Maintenance: check damage, continuity, bearings, brushes, alignment.

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Electrical Concepts

Basics of AC & DC

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 Direct Current (DC)
In DC circuit → electrons flow steadily in a single direction.
Constant voltage polarity.
Produced by wet cells (lead-acid batteries).
Alternating Current (AC)
Electrons flow forward and backward periodically.
Voltage polarity changes periodically.
Allows efficient electric generators, motors, power distribution.
Predominant in high-power applications.
Portable devices use DC power.

Various terms in AC
+ve Cycle and -ve Cycle → complete change in value and direction = cycle (positive +
negative half-cycle).
Frequency → number of cycles per second.
In India = 50 cycles/second (c/s).
Formula: N × P / 120.
Time Period → time to complete one cycle.
RMS Value (Root Mean Square)
Steady DC current producing same heat as AC.
Also called virtual/effective value.
I_r.m.s = 0.707 × I_max.
V_r.m.s = 0.707 × V_max.
All AC voltmeters & ammeters read RMS.
Peak Value → maximum value attained.
Instantaneous Value → value at any instant in cycle (e.g., V, i).

Single Phase and Three Phase Supply

Single Phase AC System
Voltage peaks at 90° & 270°.
Completes cycle at 360°.
Power not constant.
Wires: 1 neutral + 1 power.
Efficient for ≤1000 watts.

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 Simpler design, lower cost.
Three Phase AC System
Uses 3 power wires (each 120° out of phase).
All 3 phases complete by 360° → constant power.
Circuit types: Delta (no neutral), Wye (neutral + ground).
Efficient for high power.
Used in data centers, mobile towers, power grids, ships.

Terms like Line and Phase Voltage/Currents

Line Voltage → between two lines.
Phase Voltage → across one component.
Line Current → through one line.
Phase Current → through one component.
In balanced Y circuits:
Line Voltage = Phase Voltage × √3.
Line Current = Phase Current.

Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductor Properties

Conductors
Many free electrons → easy flow.
Valence shell: 1–3 electrons.
Examples: Copper, Aluminum, Zinc, Lead, Tin, Eureka, Nichrome, Silver, Gold.
Conductivity: Silver 100%, Copper 94%, Gold 67%.
Properties:
Charge density = 0 inside.
Free charges only on surface.
Resistance ↑ with length, ↓ with cross-section.
Insulators
Few or no free electrons.
Valence shell: 5–7 electrons.
Also called dielectric materials.
Examples: Air, glass, rubber, plastic, paper, porcelain, PVC, fiber, mica, dry wood.
Properties: High dielectric strength, temperature resistance, flexibility, mechanical
strength, non-hydroscopic.

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 Semiconductors
Properties of both conductors & insulators.
Valence shell: 4 electrons.
Examples: Silicon, Germanium.
Properties:
Resistivity < insulator, > conductor.
Negative temperature coefficient (resistance ↓ with ↑ temperature).
At 0 K = insulator, at ↑T = conductor.
Conductivity ↑ with doping.
Low power loss, lightweight, small size.
Used in diodes, transistors, IC chips.

Different Types of Electrical Cables

Cable = insulated conductor(s) inside covering.
Classified by: covering type, gauge, number of conductors, material, insulation strength,
flexibility.
Types of Cables:
Single core, twin core, three core, four core, multi-core.
Coaxial cable (radio frequency, TV).
Communications cable.
Direct-buried cable.
Flexible cables.
Heliax cable.
Non-metallic sheathed cable (NM, NM-B).
Metallic sheathed cable (AC, BX).
Steel wire armored cable.
Twinaxial cabling.
Twin-lead.
Twisted pair.
Construction
Wires made of aluminum or copper.
Insulated with color-coded thermoplastic.
Grouped wires + outer sheath = cable.
Wire Gauge
Refers to diameter of conductor.

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 Measured by SWG or micrometer.
AWG system has formula.
Higher gauge = smaller diameter.
Circular area doubles every 3 gauge sizes.
Current Carrying Capacity
Max current without overheating.
Directly proportional to diameter.
Automotive Wiring
Multi-strand copper with PVC insulation.
Sizes: 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.5, 2.5, 4, 6 mm.
Identified by color codes & numbers.
Terminals & Connectors
Types: ring, spade, hook, quick bullet butt, flagged.
Insulated & non-insulated forms.
Connectors prevent fire hazards, bulky size.
Examples: molded, hard shell, bulkhead, weather-pack, metri-pack.

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