Module Name: Basic Building Maintenance

Module Code: CET 04211

Taught by: Nicolaus Andimile Cosmas

Academic Year: 2022/2023

Learning Objectives:

 Identify defects in Civil Engineering structures

 Identify types of maintenance for building structures
 Select maintenance methods for building structures
 Repair defects in building structures
 Identify defects in building services
 Identify types of maintenance for building services.
 Select maintenance methods in building services
 Repair defects in building services.

Learning Materials

Audio/Video, power point slides, site visits

References:

Required References

1. Allen, E. (2008), Fundamentals of Building Construction Materials and Methods

2. Ching, F. D. K. (2008), Building Construction Illustrated

3. Mehta, M., Armpriest, D., and Scarbough, W. (2007), Building Construction:Principles,

Materials and Systems

4. Pumia, B.C., Ashok, K.J. and Jam, A.K. (2009), Building construction 10th edition,Laxmi
publications (P) ltd.

Integrated Method of Assessment

Continuous Assessment Components 60%

Test 1: 15%
Test 2: 15%
Assignments: 25%
Attendance: 5%

Final Examination 40%

1
What is Building Maintenance?

This refers to the process used to hold, keep, sustain or preserve the building or structure to
an acceptable standard or normal functioning conditions. Maintenance is also the process of
ensuring that buildings and other assets are in good condition and operate with good
efficiency.

Importance of Building Maintenance

 Extends Building or Equipment Life

 Reduces Costs or saves funds
 Saves Energy( expenses)
 Improves the Experience of Your Occupants.
 Limits the dangers e.g in case of gas leaks

Defects in Buildings

Building defects can be identified by the users themselves or by inspection by those

concerned with maintenance management. Practitioners have the capability to identify
defects that are not yet obvious, at least to users. The appraisal of defects is usually
undertaken through a sequence of site procedures that provide the necessary information
on which to make an assessment as to the condition and fitness for purpose.

The extent to which a building is maintained is driven by the necessity to protect the
building performance, increase productivity and increase user’s satisfaction. Maintenance
could emanate due to different factors, e.g. problems arising from poor design, bad
workmanship, substandard materials and components, as well as the unaccommodating
behaviour and nature of the users and occupants. Maintenance costs increase with the age
of the building. However, older buildings constructed of well-established materials
andcomponents and using well-tried and tested techniques (and which in all probability have
been updated and improved) may not be subjected to heavy maintenance works or
expenditure. The major sources of maintenance are as follows:

1. Poor Design:
This is a maintainability issue. Building maintainability is a design characteristic. It is
concerned with ease, accuracy, safety and cost of building maintenance. Some
buildings are designed without considering the maintainability aspect, thereby
making maintenance difficult, expensive, risky, unsafe and tedious. A building should
be designed/constructed so that its maintenance can be performed with
minimum cost and time.

2. Poor Workmanship:
Labour plays a very important factor towards reducing maintenance works. The
consequence of labour on the performance of construction projects are multifaceted
as the workforce factor starts from the concept and design stage and continues
throughout the construction and building operation stages. The design and

2
 construction team as well as the maintenance personnel must display a high level of
competency and be able to work in sync. It is not difficult to postulate that even
with high-quality materials and components, the building will eventually fail if the
workforce that put the building together are not good at the job. Poor workmanship
could be the result of lack of know-how, know why, know when, know what,
training and skill, or just plain negligence.

3. Defective Materials and Components:

Substandard and defective materials and components will lead to maintenance
problems, if not at the commissioning stage then surely later, when the building is
operational. In order to reduce the impact of the problem, durable and
industryproven materials and components should be given priority.

4. Usage and Age:

All built facilities, irrespective of materials, components or workmanship used will
with usage and time, encounter structural and systemic deterioration and decay.
Maintenance in terms of usage is hinged on, and very much related to, the culture of
the occupants. However, a question that must be addressed is who is the design/
building meant for? A suitable answer to the question is very important towards
reducing the impact of maintenance due to usage and age of the buildings.

5. Climatic and Environmental Factor One of the characteristics of the construction

industry’s outputs is that they are remarkably different from the outputs of other
industries. By and large, the products are exposed to atmospheric weather condition.
Buildings are constantly subjects of sunlight, rain, frost action, humidity,
condensation, wind and pollutions of all sorts.

Buildings are affected by climatic and environmental factors. This is even if the
architects and/or engineers designed the building correctly and the contractors
constructed or built correctly. Hence, a major cause of maintenance problems in
buildings is exposure to climate and weather conditions. Different building materials
and components react differently to weather. Therefore, to minimise the
maintenance expenditure, there must be a proper selection of materials and
components, as well as alternative designs for different atmospheric conditions and
geographical locations.

6. Nature of Users:
In certain types of building, especially university, hospital and market buildings,
because of the complex nature of the users, the users are the human enemies of
these buildings, through various activities, namely vandalism, violence and
arsonists. In university buildings, due to the intriguing nature of the users coupled
with constant changes of users that could have diverse backgrounds, there seems to
be high demand for maintenance or improvement.

3
 Types Of Maintenance:

Preventive Maintenance

“Preventive maintenance is a scheduled program of regular inspections, adjustments,

lubrication, or replacement of worn or failing parts in order to maintain an asset’s function,
and effciency.”

Preventive maintenance is intended to keep minor problems from escalating into major
problems.

4
Predictive Maintenance (PdM)

PdM stands for predictive maintenance. Predictive maintenance is similar to PM (preventive

maintenance) in many respects. The difference between the two is that PM is time-based
while PdM is condition-based. That means that PM tasks are scheduled according to a
calendar while PdM tasks are scheduled when indicated by some sort of measurable wear
factor.

Changing air flters every 3 months would be considered PM since the schedule is time-
based—every 3 months. Changing air flters only when the flters are getting dirty would be
PdM. Many commercial air conditioners offer this feature. Many AC units have pressure
sensors in the air flters compartment and will flash the word “flter” on the thermostat
display when the air flters are beginning to get dirty and the air flow is starting to become
obstructed.

Corrective Maintenance

Corrective maintenance is also known as “reactive maintenance” or just “repairs.” Corrective

maintenance is fxing something that is already broken. This type of maintenance is probably
the most common type of maintenance done in most facilities. In organizations that do not
do PM or do very little PM, the amount of corrective maintenance can become
overwhelming. The purpose of a PM program is to reduce the amount of corrective
maintenance that needs to be done. Even with an effective PM program is in place,
corrective maintenance can never be completely eliminated.

As its name implies, corrective maintenance is any maintenance that corrects a problem; as
opposed to PM that attempts to prevent problems before corrective maintenance is
necessary. A few familiar corrective maintenance tasks would include patching leaking roofs,
replacing motors with seized bearings, and replacing burned out fluorescent bulbs.

Most corrective maintenance comes to the maintenance department from complaints by

building users.

Deferred Maintenance

Deferred maintenance is another way of saying “no maintenance.” Deferred implies that we
will do some maintenance in the future but not today. Maintenance is often “deferred” when
there are budget crisis.

Emergency Maintenance

Emergency maintenance is the more urgent sibling of corrective maintenance. While

corrective maintenance needs to be done timely, emergency maintenance needs to be done
immediately. Emergency maintenance can include gas leaks, broken water pipes, roof leaks,
broken windows, backed up sewer lines, no heat calls in winter, no cooling calls in summer,
snow and ice removal, or any maintenance issue that puts your facility or people at risk of
further harm. Safety, health, and environmental compliance items usually make up a large
percentage of emergency maintenance.

5
Call-back Maintenance

After making repairs, front-line maintenance personnel should be expected to do two things.
First, verify the original problem is gone. This means to not only replace the obviously
defective part but to also operate the equipment after the repair is made to verify that it is
operating properly. The second expectation is that they spend a few minutes inspecting the
rest of the equipment and looking for other problems that might arise.

Maintenance personnel need to always be on the lookout for anything that might become a
problem later. An attitude of continual improvement is invaluable and is what PM is all
about.

Classification of Maintenance (Maintenance Techniques)

 Routine Maintenance/ Ordinary Repairs

 Periodic Maintenance
 Major Repair or Restoration

6
 Content

Meaning of maintenance
Importance of Maintenance
Objective or Necessity of maintenance
Factors influencing repair and maintenance
Importance of Maintenance ­

All the building components start deterioration after

certain period due to action of various

natural forces like rain, sunlight, wind etc. Sometime

there may be proble ms in the buildings due to use of

poor construction material s, due to poor workmanship

or faulty design etc.

In such situations, repair of a building becomes an

inevitable process otherwise there defects/ problems

in the building will go on multiplying and will reach a

point of no return. Hence regular maintenance is needed

so as to:
-Extend Building or Equipment Life
-Reduce Costs or save funds that would be
needed in case of major repair
-Save energy that faulty equipment might waste(
expenses)
-Improve the experience/confort of Your Occupants.
-Limit the dangers e.g in case of gas leaks
Meaning of maintenance ­

The British Standard has defined maintenance as 'The

Combination of all technical and administrative actions

carried out to retain an item in order or to restore it to a

state in which it can perform its required function."

Hence in simple terms "Maintenance is defined as the

work undertaken to keep the structure in good

condition so as to enable it to carry out all those

function smoothly for which it has been constructed."

Or maintenance refers to the process used to hold,

keep, sustain or preserve the building or structure to
an acceptable standard or normal functioning
conditions. Maintenance is also the process of
ensuring that buildings and other assets are in good
condition and operate with good
efficiency
Objective or Necessity of maintenance ­

1. To keep the structure in good appearance and working

condition.

2. To prevent damages, deterioration and decay of

structure caused due to adverse effects of

weathering agencies.

3. To make improvements by rectifying defects in the

structure caused due to use of poor building materials L

s L
or poor workmanship.

4. To strengthen the structure and to restore them

back to their original standards.

7%
5. To sustain the utility value ( value for money) p '=
6. To enhance serviceability of the structures ( its

ability to fulfilling its function adequately)

7. To avoid crisis maintenance by regular and planned

maintenance programme.
Factors influencing the repair and maintenance

1. Age of property -

It is most important to access

the age of the structure before

•
•
planning the maintenance of a

structure.

The remaining useful life of

building will only justify the

amount of capital spent for the

repair and maintenance of

building.
2. Total costs involved ­

Total costs involved for the repair and maintenance of a structure is a major factor

which influence the decision to undertake maintenance operation.

The cost of maintenance should be worked out before starting the maintenance

work of a structure. It include expense on the material and labour required

3. Availability of resources -

Maintenance of a structure can be taken up only when the availability of all the

physical resources is ensured.

The resources include material, equipment and labour.

4. Urgency of maintenance ­
An urgent maintenance work may be required for repair of services ( e.g
plumbing,gas or electricity) or repair of fittings/ components. For urgent

maintenance work, the cost will become of secondary importance.

5. Future use of the structure

The future use of the building must be considered before starting the maintenance

operation.

The extent of repair and timing of maintenance should be duly considered.

2s'! j

'

. ¥
!,j?_ .

#
6. Social consideration

The following factors are also considered while planning the maintenance of a
building.

The maintenance should be planned properly to minimize nuisance.

The maintenance work should be undertaken without disturbing the occupants or if

possible it may be carried out when the building is unoccupied.

Disturbances such as noise, dust, smell and the interruption of services should be

kept minim al .

!}4
"
'.
e'

ail
•

"
- '

'

'
' .

I
J
 Content

Deterioration

Factors causing deterioration

1 . Human factors

2. Chemical factors

3. Environmental factors
Definition of Deterioration/Decay.­

- In maintenance engineering, deterioration is defined as the gradual and

continuous process of degeneration of a structure o r its components which render

it unusable.

Deterioration or decay is the development of defects in a structure may be due to

natural cause s or ageing.

If deterioration is not checked or is allowed to occur, decomposition of material

results and replacement become s the only solution.

The rate of deterioration depends on the resisting capability of materia ls

Lu f

'
' ' '

"
Factors causing Deterioration ­
The deterioration of structure may be due to single or a combination of several

factors.

1. Human factors

2. Chemical factors

3. Environmental factors
Human factors ­
- Most of the deterioration of structures is due to human factors.
1. Use of poor construction materials

2. Poor workmanship during construction

3. Lack of knowledge about factors causing

deterioration.

4. Failure to carry out routine maintenance.

5. Lack of supervision during construction.

6. Lack of awareness of maintenance need among the

users.

7. Poor planning, budgeting and allocation of funds for f

maintenance work.

8. Blatant abuse of building, its fittings, finishing etc.

9. Having a casual approach towards repairs and a negative attitude of waiting until

emergency measure are required.

1 0 . L a c k of proper cleaning resulting into formation of injurious material (alkaline and

acidic) which attack the building components in contact.

11. Misuse of Building
It includes the use of building for which it has not been designed. Blatant misuse of

building, its fittings, furnishing etc. may lead to deterioration of the building.
Chemical factors

- Chemical reactions take place due to contact of certain materials with surrounding

environment.

This leads to disintegration, softening or discoloration of materials or components.

Corrosion is the result of chemical reaction between metallic material with air and

water of the atmosphere.

Environmental factors
•
1. Atmospheric moisture

absorbed water

Atmospheric moisture is regarded as the

principal agent causing deterioration of

1
the structures.

Moisture is always present in the

atmosphere and when surface

temperature falls, condensation occur .s

Water frozen in the pores of material can

cause spalling of the surface, cracking or

disintegration.
2. Temperature effects

Temperature changes cause temperature stresses in the materials of the structure.

These stresses cause rupture and result in failure of the building material.

Lo •
•

I
. •
• •
• •
• •
•
• •
• •
i A !
•
•
. Lo h AL >:
.

•
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •

•
3. Gaseous pollutants of air ­
The ever increasing pollution also is the major source causing deterioration of

structure s.
SO,is the most aggressive gaseous pollutant which causes corrosion of some

metals and cause s some stones to blister and spa II.

CO, also forms a weak acid, capable of slowly eroding limestone. The extent of

carbonation in concrete has a marked influence on the corrosion rate of

reinforcement.

White marble often

turns yellow due to
oxidation. Iron can -
be found in many
natural stones; •
� .

when exposed to •
+FF a a e
�

water, acids, or
bleach the iron will 1 r £ £ -
start to oxidize and •

turn yellow.
4. Solid contaminants ­
The dirt from the atmosphere also has adverse effect on the building. The dirt also

contains some soluble salts.

It absorbs water form the atmosphere and accelerates corrosion rate of metals and

deterioration of some stone surface s.

5. Ground water and salts -

Salts present in the groundwater rise in solution by capillary action. On evaporation

of water, salt deposits remain on the surface and damage the building.
Usually it causes efflorescence(powdery deposits) and defacing of building

surfaces and finishes.

More seriously if magnesium sulphate is present in groundwater,

disintegration of rendering and masonry surface can occur.

Acidic ground water can cause disintegration of concrete.

6. Biological agencies ­
ae,
Some construction materials get affected by biological agencies such as alg

moss, termites etc. The attack of termites on timber is very prominent.

 Content

Effects of agents of deterioration on b u i l d i n g

material

1 . Brick

2. Timber

3 . Concrete

4. Metals

5. Paint

6. Plastic
Effect of various agen s of t deterioration on different building materials

It is necessary to understand the effect of various agencies causing deterioration of

building material to take proper protection against these agencies.

The choice of building material is governed by ­

a. Ability to withstand the effect of climate

b. Ability to fulfill the designed function

c. Reaction with surrounding material

d. Ease of maintenance and replacement

e. Overall economic acceptability

Bricks Cement Concrete

Sand Reinforcement Glas

Plastic
1. Brick ­
- Generally bricks have good durability. The most common effects of weathering on

bricks are

a. Efflorescence (deposition of white powdery material causing disfigurement of

bricks)

b. Spalling of the external surface

c. Change in appearance
2. Timber

a. Timber decay s as a result of destructive action

Dry
of fungi (called dry rot) growing o n i t.

rot requires a moisture content of

about 20% and spreads very rapidly
b. Insects infection (beetles, termites)

destroys timber used in building

c. Exposure to natural weathering agents

such as rain, wind and temperature

contribute a lot to fast decay of timber.

Steps to avoid deterioration of timber ­

a. Proper seasoning of timber (reduction of moisture content to optimum level) is done to

make is last longer.

b. Preservative are used to preserve the timber from decaying. Such treatment is done tc

ensure a longer, trouble free life of timber.

3. Concrete

Concrete is a relatively durable material but its durability is affected due to the

following factors.

a. Freezing and thawing -

Water entering in the pores of

concrete freezes in cold climate.

Due to increase in volume of

water on freezing results into

disintegration of concrete.

Concrete located in exposed

condition are more susceptible

to such attack.

Water f pressure
b. Sub-soil salt attack ­
When the water soluble sulphates in soil come into contact with concrete cause

its expansion, spalling and disintegration.

The extent of damage of concrete will depend upon the amount and type of

sulphate s present the

in ground water and the quality of concrete.

c. Alkali - silica reaction ­

Silica present in aggregates reacts with the alkalis of cement in the presence of

water resulting in formation of a gel which expands and damage s concrete.

d. Corrosion of steel ­
Corrosion of steel bars in R.C.C. structure reduce s the durability of concrete in

contact with steel bars.

Rusting of steel bars causes spalling and cracking of concrete. Deterioration is

aggravated in case the concrete is permeable or the concrete cover to steel

reinforcement is inadequate.

Clear Caver r Cr

e s
Deterioration of concrete can be controlled by the following steps ­
1. Using optimum water cement ratio

2. Using sound and fresh cement

3. Using durable densely graded and non reactive aggregates

4. Using proper batching and mixing equipment and methods

5. Providing thorough and uniform compaction

6. Providing proper curing

7. Providing proper cover to R.C.C.

(Ct

[Link]

rte

•
Cr
• •
.Cf

•"4
4. Metals ­
Metals used in building have good durability. Durability of metal is affected by

corrosion. It is aggravated by the presence of dissolved atmospheric gaseous

pollutants, dirt etc. The risk of corrosion is increased when metals are in contact

with other building material such as brick or plaster.

In R.C.C. member it is the concrete cover that cracks first. Therefore the cover to

steel in R . C . C . structure should be according to the exposure of the structure to the

environment. When steel corrodes very much, then we can see both broken

concrete and corroded steel.

• •
brpo [Link]

$rt.a

«
•

•
•
5. Paints

Paints are coating of coloured liquid material applied on the surface of the finished

parts of the building, which on drying forms a n impervious coat and protects the

surfaces f rom the effects of atmospheric agencies, decay of wood and corrosion of

metal and also serves as a decorative surface.

Defects observed in Paints ­

1 . Blistering ­

This is due to trapping of water vapor behind the painted surface. This forces the

paint into little bubbles or blisters.

'

•
•

«
tt ,..
I

....
2. Fading

- When the painted surface is exposed to direct sunlight, gradual fading of colour due

to loss of brightness of pigment [Link] prevent fading or discoloration, weather

resistant pigments should be used in the paint as they provide protection against sun,
wind, water and other elements that can cause the exterior surface to fade, crack or peel
over time

[Link] -
This is the development of dull patches due to presence of moisture or chilling of

surface glossy coat.

 blooming flaking
To prevent this, the
surface should be
cleaned and rubbed
with abrasive paper
before applying paint.

Other causes of defects :­

in paints are

a. Use of poor material ­

All the paints should be selected of good quality in relation to their exposure

condition
b. Application on damp surface - Dampness breaks down the adhesion of the paint with
the surface of the component causing flaking and cracking form the surface.
c. Poor workmanship -

It is one of the main cause of paint deterioration and defects.

Poor workmanship can be attributed to incorrect, inadequate or non existent

surface preparation. Over thinning of paint, improper brush selection, poor brushing

techniques and failure to apply the specified number of coats may results in

deterioration of paints.
6. Plastics ­
A wide range of plastic s are used in building. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has the widest

application. Special plastic s s

are used for large drainage chamber , plumbing,

drainage fittings and wall tiles.

The following defects are observed in plastics

a. Short wave solar radiation degrades plastic

by causing embrittlement and change in

surface appearance.
'� � y .
b. Moisture in general has little effect but can

reduce bond strength between glass fiber and

(depeding on temperature and

polyester resin •

exposure time and nature of polyester)

c. Plastics creep under continuousloads(constant
stress) and special precautions are needed
when stresses are high.
7. Stones -

The following deteriorations are observed in natur al stones due to

various weathering agencies.

1. If wetting and drying are frequent due

to rainfall, the surface of the stone gets

slowly eroded. i

2. Frost ( a deposit of small white ice crystals) •

may also attack some limestone.
g_ - :2 28 ­
3. Marble is attacked by sulphur dioxide
­
gases. •

4. One major cause of damage in all types of

stones can be due to corrosion of embedded
fixtures. Rusting of iron and steel cramps and
dowels cause extensive damage to limestones and
sandstones.
 Content

Investigation

Diagnosis

Objective of investigation of defects

Systematic approach/procedure of investigation

Steps involved in the systematic approach of investigation

Introduction ­
•
All the building components start deteriorating

after a certain period due to action of various

natural forces like rain, sunlight, wind etc.

Sometime there may be problem s in the

building due to use of poor construction

material, due to poor workmanship or faulty

design etc.

This deterioration, if left unchecked can cause

serious defects in the building and these

defects can become the source of building

failure.

This adverse situation can be avoided or at

least reduced considerably if we are able to

understand the reason of these defects.

Hence investigation of defects is the most

important aspect in order to minimize the

adverse effects of defects.

Investigation ­
Investigation is the process of examining and inspecting the structure or its

components to collect information on the basis of which the exact cause of

defects can be known so that effective remedial strategy can be adopted

accordingly.
Diagnosis ­
Diagnosis is the interpretation of the results obtained from investigation. The

general approach to diagnosi ng the defects in a structure is to critically analyze

all the probable causes of defects and ultimately identify the true cause.
Objective of investigation of defects ­
1. To classify the damages as structural or non structural
2. To identify the causes/sources of defects.
3. To assess the extent of damage ( due to corrosion, fire, earthquake or any

other reason).
4. To assess the residual strength of the structure or its components.
5. To assess the possibilty of rehabilitation.
6. To prioritise the defective elements as per urgency for repair.
7. To select and plan the effective remedy.
Systematic approach/procedure of investigation ­
Investigation of defects in building/structure are required to collect the information

on the basis of which diagnosis is done.

It is necessary that investigation of defects is carried out in a systematic and

scientific m a n n e r.

A systematic investigation should fulfill the following requirements ­

1 . It should be well planned

2. It should be thorough and timely

3. It should examine all possible aspects of defects.

4. The scope and objective of investigation should be clearly decided.

5. The investigatio n team should have sound and thorough knowledge about all

possible aspects.

6. Investigation should be carried out using appropriate tools and kits.

The following steps are involved in the systematic approach of investigation­

1. Preliminary investigation of the defects in the structure

2. Physical inspection of the structure

3. Interviews with building users, review of documents and design

4. Consideration of environmental effects
5. Testing of materials and carrying non-destructive tests
6. Detailed diagnosis of defects
7. Estimation of actual loading

8. Estimation of actual load carrying capacity of the structure

9. Relevant repair and appropriate strengthening of members as per
requirements as per requirements
 Content

Scope of investigation

Factors to be ascertained (to find out) during investigation of defects

Preliminary investigation

Sources of information

Systematic steps of diagnosis of defects are given below

Scope of investigation

-The scope of investigation of a particular defect depends mainly on the

amount of fund s allocated for this purpose and the effort that can be spent on

it.
The scope of investigation involves the following

a. Nature of the defects

b. The cause of defects

c. What to be done after investigation

Factors to be ascertained (to find out) during investigation of defects ­
- The following factors must be ascertained during investigation of defects in structure

1. Appearance and type of cracks

2. Load carrying capacity of the affected structure

3. Difference in design load and actual service load, if any.

4. Spread of defects (localized or over the entire area)

5. Permeability of the affected concrete

6. Extent and source of dampness in building

7. Chloride level of concrete

8. Carbonation and depth of carbonation of affected concrete

9. Degree of corrosion

[Link] of defects in woodwork

1 1 . Causes of leakage in water supply and drainage system

)
Preliminary investigation ­
Deterioration of a building structure means certain elements of the building ha ve
become incapable of serving the expected use due to some damages in the element.

The main consideration of such investigation is to find the source and root cause of the

damaging force.

For this purpose, it is very important to collect all the relevant data related to the

affected structure

The following steps are taken in the preliminary investigation of the defects in building

1. The deteriorated building is kept undisturbed

2. During the first visit to the site, photographic data of the deteriorated building is

collected

3. All symptoms at the site are carefully recorded for further analysis

4. All the concerned persons are interviewed to elicit information about the probable

cause of defects .
Sources of information

1. Drawing and specification ­

These provide the details of materials used and method of construction. But in

actual practice there may be some deviation during the construction f rom the

drawings and specifications.

Hence actual details of construction can be known by actual inspection, other site

notes etc.
2. Consultant/Architect's instruction ­
- It will be helpful in providing clue to variation in material and specification changed

during the course of construction.

3. Site notes, reports

These provide information regarding the sort of difficulties encountered, the quality

of workmanship achieved, the extent to which precautions were taken to protect

material at site and weather condition experienced during construction.

..
•
..
•

; 7 +

t ­
•
•
s,
4. Maintenance manuals and other records -

- These provide accurate details of alternation and addition carried out since the

completion of building and history of any defect.

5. Interviews -

Interviews with the users and those associated with design construction and

maintenance can provide useful information on various aspects of building defects.

MAINTENANCE

MANUAL

. feet f% .f%. .tole

de 1344, 2a46. 2444.146. 94.%

E. F A. A 4 F

c€
fHDI

-� - ---• -
6. Inspection -

All the important information regarding deterioration of building can be obtained

through inspection of the deteriorat ing building.

Information regarding quality of original construction work, ageing, crack patterns ,

deflections, relative displacements etc. are obtained during inspection.

7. Tests and measurements

Various tests and measurements provide information on properties of material such

as moisture contents, physical and chemical properties, cracks and defiections etc.

•
.•

-
Detailed steps for diagnosis of defects ­
Diagnosis of defects is a very challenging task which plays key role in the

assessment of damage to structure.

- Assessment of damage is necessarily an interactive procedure based on the data

obtained, form investigation.

To minimize the likelihood of errors, damage assessment must be carried out

carefully in a scientific manner.

Diagnosis of defects can be done on the basis of documents, interviews with the

stakeholders etc.

Sometime symptoms of damage in buildings are common but the causes

responsible for such damage may be deferent.

Hence diagnosi ng the exact cause of damage, out of a large number of possible

causes, is actually a challenging and demanding task.

Systematic steps of diagnosis of defects are given below­
 Content

Non destructive tests (NDT)

Purpose of Non destructive tests (NOT)

Rebound hammer test

Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) Test

Concrete core tests

Non destructive tests (NDT) and destructive tests ­

l I -

•
-
' . °

'
I

t . •;•
� ti'
• •

l
Non destructive tests (NDT) ­

- Non destructive tests are used to assess the in-situ properties of structure. The

following are the salient features of non destructive tests.

1. These tests are less time consuming and relatively inexpensive

2. Th ese tests are used for diagnosing the defects without disturbing the performance

of the structure members

3. These tests can be used to assess the in situ strength, quality, location and the

extent of cracks, voids and honeycombs.

4. These tests are useful in determination of extent of corrosion in the structure.

5. These tests can be helpful in confirmation of suspected deterioration of the

structure.

6. These tests are more useful in case s where data of structure (like drawings, grade

of concrete used) is not available.

Purpose of Non destructive tests (NDT)­

1. Determination of concrete strength, presence of cracks, voids and honeycombing.

2. Determination of depth of concrete cover, bar diameter and spacing

3. Determination of extent of corrosion of reinforcement

4. Determination of chemical attack on concrete

5. Determination of permeability

6. Determination of defects in metals and welded joints

Some commonly used important Non Destructive Tests ­
1. Rebound hammer test -

This test is conducted to get an idea about the strength and quality of the concrete in
relation to standard requirements
-The typical rebound h a m m e r is shown in figure below.

-
The hammer is applied on the surface of the concrete member (Beam, column etc.)

to be tested at a particular point.

The elastic rebound of the hammer after impact is measured on a scale as a

Rebound number, which is a measure of surface hardness.

The hammer can be pressed horizontally or vertically, upward or downward.

This test is done on many points on a grid to get an average value.

The estimation of concrete compressive strength of the cover and the below

concrete is obtained form the test results.

Average Rebound Number on the tester Quality of concrete

> 40 Very good (hard layer)

30 to 40 Good

20 to 30 Fair

< 20 Poor
2. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) Test -

This is a recognized non destructive test to qualitatively assess the homogeneity of

concrete.

This test can also detect internal flaws. voids or cracks and segregation in concrete

of the structure.

This test consists of measuring travel time (T) of ultrasonic pulse produced by a

transducer. held in contact with one surface of the concrete member under test and

receiving the same by a similar transducer in contact with the surface at the other

end.

With the path length (L = distance between the two probes) and the time of travel

(T). the pulse velocity ( V = L T ) is calculated.

Llltrasenie Pulse Uelecit Test en

Concrete
­

f­

%
\
Higher the elastic modulus and density of the concrete higher is the pulse velocity.

This test can be conducted on three modes, as shown below. They are called direct,

semi - direct and indirect. Of these the direct test is the best. The other tests are

carried out where the direct test cannot be conducted due to obstructions.

The pulse velocity obtained in direct test is related to the condition of concrete as

given in table below.

Pulse velocity obtained by Condition of concrete

Direct test (Km/sec)

>4 Excellent

3.5-4.0 Good

3.0-3.5 Medium

< 3.0 Poor

 This test is done in many places in the building. Usually, the results of this test may

vary from member to member.

But a number of readings should be used to assess the general quality of

construction.

This test is also done on a grid marked on the concrete member.

The pulse velocity in concrete may be influenced by ­

1. Path length

2. Presence of reinforcing bar

3. Moisture content of the concrete the velocity is increased with increased moisture

content.

Detection of defects ­
In the region of imperfections. the ultrasonic pulse is diffracted around the periphery

of the defect and takes more time to reach the receiving transducer.

Thus the transit time is more and the ultrasonic pulse velocity is reduced.

The magnitude of reduction in the pulse velocity indicates the extent of

imperfection.
3. Concrete core tests ­

This is the direct way of measuring actual

strength of concrete.

Concrete cores are cut by means of a rotary

cutting tool with diamond bits. In this

manner, a cylindrical specimen is obtained.

- The core is then soked in water, capped

with molten sulphur to make its ends plane

and parallel.

This core is then tested in compression. In

this way, we get the compressive strength

of concrete used in the structure which

gives the idea about the quality of concrete.

 Content

Defects in building

Main causes of defects

1. Dampness

2. Relative movement of members of b u i l d i n g s due to various forces

3. Effect of environmental factors

4. Lack of proper design

5. Lack of proper construction practices

6. Lack of suitable maintenance practice

Note:
Prevention is better than cure. Defects create hazards leading to serious or fatal
injuries. Most defects can, at their early stages, be discovered through visible or
detectable symptoms. If not promptly rectified, minor defects can develop into
serious ones, causing failure or sudden collapse, endangering lives and becoming
more costly to rectify.
Defects in building.­

- Defects in buildings may be defined as any fault, deficiency or imperfection in a

building component which adversely affects its functional performance and

appearance.

•
In new buildings defects may occur due to use of inferior construction material, poor

workmanship, lack of supervision and undesirable effects of weather or environment.

In old building defects may develop due to lack of maintenance and deterioration of

material with ageing.

Main causes of defects which are responsible for defects in building are

classified as follows ­

1. Dampness

2. Relative movement of members of buildings due to various forces

3. Effect of environmental factors

4. Lack of proper design

5. Lack of proper construction practices

6. Lack of suitable maintenance practice

•
Dampness-

It is the main cause of many defects in buildings some are as given below.

1. Stains on different surface s of building s

2. Efflorescence or white patches on the

wall or concrete surface of the building

3. Falling of paint films, wall papers,

plaster etc.

4. Weakening and disintegration of

building material s of the building.

5. Corrosion of steel reinforcement or

other metals used in the building

6. Decay of timber used in the furniture or

joinery in the buildings

7. Visible water such as a film of moisture

or drops of water on a surface in the

buildings

8. Occurrence of bad smell in the building

Cause s of dampness
1. Rain penetration

2. Rising of ground water by capillary action through foundation

3. Leakage from water supply , sanitary pipes or leakage of Air

Conditioners drains
4. Condensation of water from atmosphere

5. Entrapped water during construction process

Relative mo vements of members of building due to various forces -

Defects in buildings are also caused by movement of one member of the building

relative to another member.

Movement in the building components may be due to any one or a combination of

some factors out of the following

1. Applied forces (Dead loads, live loads, wind loads etc.)

2. Temperature stresses (expansion and contraction of member)

3. Change in moisture content (shrinkage or swelling in members)

4. Physical changes (creep, fatigue, settlement etc.)

5. Vibration (due to earthquake, impact loads, machines etc.)

et
•
+ 4.­
z= ii

i ?
�

Stgt -
let
Sat

-•
>
••
•

-[ 1 r
4
=
Effect of environmental factors

The following environmental factors also affect the building components and

material which causes defects in buildings

1.

2
Solar radiation

Temperature changes
-
3. Humidity

4. Air pollution (solid, liquid and gases)

5. Ground salts

6. Biological agencies

Sunlight

•
-
- 1 :
I I
o ol
i '
••

oaf
Lack of proper design ­
Defects in building may also occur due to lapses in the proper design. It may be

due to wrong consideration of design loads, inappropriate provision of sections,

reinforcement, choice of wrong construction material etc.

Lack of proper construction practice ­
- Defects in building may be due to nonobservance of standard construction

specification, poor workmanship, inadequate supervision and inspection also.

Lack of suitable maintenance practice

In the old building defects may develop due to lack of maintenance and

deterioration of material with ageing.

Hence to avoid defects in building, proper and timely maintenance is required.

- . -- -

· 5
•
Main defects and their cause s in various elements of building ­
1. Foundation

2. Basement

3. D.P.C.

4. Walls

5. Columns

6. Beams

7. Roofs and terraces

8. Joinery work

9. Decorative and protective finishes

1 O. Services
 Content

Main defects and their cause in various elements of building

1 . Foundation

2. Basement

3. D .P.C .

4. W a ll s

5. Columns

6. Beams

7. Roofs and terraces

8. J o i n e ry work

9. Decorative and protective fi n i sh e s

[Link]
 Foundation

Defects Causes

Excessive settlement or 1. Low bearing capacity of soil

differential settlement of 2. Inadequate depth or width of foundation

foundation 3. Overloading of soil

4. Construction of additional storey without

strengthening of existing foundation

Read about the leaning tower of Pisa(55m tall, 3m deep foundation)

s t l

■
4Mettert ffeet.4 tteet
witteat cede wt rec
 Foundation

Defects Causes

Crack in foundation 1. Low bearing capacity of soil

2. Differential settlement of foundation

3. Construction activities on the adjoining land

4. Over loading

5. Due to earthquake

6. Vibration due to heavy machinery traffic etc.

• .

. ..

'
 Foundation

Defects Causes

Disintegration of foundation 1. Freezing and thawing

2. Chemical reaction such as sulphate attack on

cement concrete
 Basement

Defects Causes

a. Inward bulging of wall of 1. Inadequate design

basement 2. Poor workmanship

3. Excessive lateral pressure due to active earth

pressure and water pressure

4. Excessive rainfall

, l

• •
» ,

i
AL.
 Defects Causes

b. Cracks in raft slab 1. Inadequate design

2. Non provision of expansion joint

3. Construction joints not treated ( Construction joints

are joints between different concreting days)
 Base

Defects c. Causes

Crack in basement wall 1. Differential settlement of foundation

2. Excessive thermal stress

3. Lateral pressure and excessive shear force

 Basement

Defects Causes

d. Efflorescence 1. Use of poor quality material

2. Use of salty water during construction

3. Continuous dampness

4. Alternate wetting and drying

There are three categories of materials that can be used as DPC:
1. Flexible materials [ Bitumen felts( hessian based or glass fiber-based), Plastic
sheeting( polythene sheeting)]
2. Semi-rigid Materials: Materials like mastic, asphalt, or a combination of materials of
layers
3. Rigid Materials: Materials like slate and cement concrete. The selection of DPC
material depends on the climate and atmospheric conditions, nature of the structure,
and the situation where DPC is to be provided.

D.P.C.

Defects Causes

a) Cracks 1. Improper construction joints and expansion

These can be observed joints
especially in rigid materials 2. Excessive loading
DPC 3. Differential loading
4. Shrinkage ( Mortar shrinkage)
 D.P.C.

Defects Causes

b. Rising dampness 1. Poor construction practice

2. Poor quality material used in D.P.C.

3. Non provision of damp proof membrane

4. D.P.C. Not wide enough to cover full width of

wall
 Load Bearing Walls

Defects Causes

a. Outward bulging of walls 1. Overloading of walls

2. Inadequate lateral support ( horizontal)

3. High slenderness ratio i.e. thickness of wall

insufficient in relation to height

4. Vibration due to heavy traffic or machine

 L oad Bearing Walls

Defects Causes

b. Structural cracks 1 . Non provision of expansion joints in long wall

Long continuous horizontal or vertical 2. Foundation laid on shrinkable clay

3. Sulphate attack on joint mortar and deterioration
cracks that penetrate through
of materials
finishes into the concrete or bricks, 4. Differential settlement of foundation
or Diagonal cracks at corners of 5. Vegetation growth in wall

window or door 6. Serious overloading

7. Damage by accidents

Detailed investigation must

be carried out to identify the 1

'
cause(s) which must be
removed or rectified before
the cracks are repaired.
Immediate attention is needed •

as the building may collapse

without further warning.
A structural engineer is needed
for such a defect.
 Load Bearing Walls

Defects Causes

c. Efflorescence 1. Presence of soluble salts in building material

2. Alternate wetting and drying

 Non Load Bearing Walls

Defects Causes

a. Cracks between panel walls and 1. Inadequate support at base

structural elements e.g. brick wall 2. Differential movement between partition and
and beams/columns or Cracks at surrounding load bearing structure
head and side
3. Deflection of upper floor joint

• •

I •

'

"
 Parapet Walls

Defects Causes

a. Cracks 1. Deflection and tilt due to wind/earthquake

2. Insufficient provision of expansion joints

3. Rusting of reinforcement

Note that Parapet walls are highly

exposed to the sun and other
elements of weather
 Boundary Walls

Defects Causes

a. Cracks 1. Moisture movement in walls

2. Vegetative growth in foundation or wall

3. Differential settlement of soil

b. Wall leaning 1 . Inadequate foundation and lateral support

2. Scouring of foundation soil(Soil erosion on one side)

3. Uneven swelling of foundation soil

4. Differential settlement of foundation

 Boundary Walls

Defects Causes

c. Masonry disintegration 1. Rising dampness

2. Sulphate attack

3. it
Unsu able bricks and mortar to exposure

condition

d. Collapse of boundary wall 1. Inadequate foundation

2. (Soil erosion on one side)

Scouring of foundation soil

3. Poor bonding
 Content

Main defects and their cause in various elements of building

1 . Foundation

2. Basement

3. D . P. C .

4. W a l l s

5. C o l u m n s

6. Beams

7. Roofs and terraces

8. J o i n e ry work

9. Decorative and protective finishes

[Link]
 Column
Defects Causes

1. Excessive loading
a. Cracks
2. Eccentric loading (not along the centre)
3. Corrosion of reinforcement

4. Temperature stresses

1
 Column
Defects Causes

b. Buckling (bending) 1. Inadequate design

2. Excessive slenderness ratio

3. ( not along the centre)

Eccentric loading

c. Crushing of columns 1. Excessive loading beyond compressive strength

of concrete
 Column
Defects Causes

d. Spalling 1 . Corrosion of reinforcement

2. Insufficient cover to reinforcement

3. Carbonation or chloride attack or use of salty water

in concrete mix
4. Ageing
5. Overloading
 Beams

Defects Causes

a. Excessive deflection, 1. Excessive span/effective depth ratio

lateral bulging 2. Excessive loading / overloading

3. Inadequate design

4. Construction failure

5. Poor workmanship

6. Excessive vibration

7. Corrosion of reinforcement

4dltlor treks
 Roof and Terrace

Defects Causes

a. Deflection 1. Excessive span/effective depth ratio

2. Excessive loading

3. Inadequate design

4. Poor workmanship

Defect»on (D
 Roof and ice

Defects Causes

b. Crack
1. Excessive loading
2. Inadequate design
3. Improper mix design

4. Inadequate compaction and curing

5 Shrinkage in concrete
6. Persistent water leakage
7. Weak concrete caused by the use of
salty water in concrete mix
 Roof and Terrace

Defects Causes

1. Corrosion of reinforcement
c. Spalling
2. Insufficient cover to reinforcement

3. Carbonation or chloride attack

4. Freezing and thawing

5. Weak concrete caused by the use of salty water

in concrete mix
 Roof and Terrace

Defects Causes

e. Ponding 1. Inadequate slope and drainage

2. Inadequate design of rainwater pipes

3. Blockage of the drainage system

• r.
• ,

\ �

- • •

- ,.
'\
I
-- - •
 i
Ce ling Plaster
Defects Causes

a. Cracks 1. Physical impact

2. Shrinkage

3. Deflection of structure panels

b. Loss of adhesion 1. Absence of mechanical bond

 Joinery Works (Frames)

Defects Causes

a. Surface damage 1. Use of inferior grade timber

2. Inadequate protection of tim ber

3. Moisture ingress into tim ber
b. Cracking and softening 1. Dry and wet rot

2. Nailing and physical impact

 Joinery Works (Frames)

Defects Causes

c. Distortion 1. Moisture content causing expansion and

contraction

2. Poor workmanship

3. Extreme temperature and humidity

4. Improper fixing and adjoining masonry

5. Corrosion of holdfast/anchors

• Door frame clamping.

 Joinery Works (Doors and Windows)

Defects Causes

a. Door sticking 1. Warping of thin members

3. Inadequate hinge support

4. Loosening of hinges

5. Presence of moisture in the atmosphere

 Joinery Works (Doors and Windows)

Defects Causes

b. De-lamination of plywood 1. Inadequate protection against moisture

panels 2. Inappropriate specification

c. Decayed window boards 1. Inadequate protection against moisture

Delamination in plywood occurs when the glue holding the two pieces of veneer fails. All delamination
occurs because something is not being done correctly at the plywood manufacturing
mill. The exceptions would be for plywood that is exposed to extreme heat (which melts the glue) or
quite a bit of wetting (which may dissolve the glue or may promote decay)
 Content

Main defects and their cause in various elements of building

1 . Foundation

2. Basement

3. D . P. C .

4. Walls

5. Columns

6 . Beams

7. Roofs and terraces

8. J o i n e ry work

9. Decorative and protective fi n i s h e s

 Decorative and Protective Finishes

Defects Causes

a. Blistering 1. E n t r a p p e d moisture forces the paint into

little bubble or blister

b. Bleeding 1. The resinous deposits of the sub surface coming

to surface of paint cause bleeding

Paint bleeding is diffusion of a soluble coloured substance from a substratum, into and through a paint
or varnish coating from beneath. Consequently, it produces undesirable staining or discolouration.

-
 Decorative and Protective Finishes

Defects Causes

1. Lifting up and peeling away of the paint due to loss

c. Flaking/Peeling
of adhesion . This is caused by poor surface preparation
or Incomplete application of primer coat

d. Chalking 1. Powdering of the surface paint due to external

exposure to sunlight resulting in degradation

of paint binder

$4

•
I
 Decorative and Protective Finishes

Defects Causes

e. Blooming 1. Development of dull patches due to presence of

moisture

.1

r;
-..
'

Blooming
 Content

Materials for Repair, maintenance and protection

Introduction

Basic characteristic of a good repair material

Compatibility aspects of repair materials

Application of different materials in repairs

Anti corrosion coatings

Adhesives/bonding aids

Repair mortars

Curing compounds

Joints sealants

Waterproofing systems for roofs

Introduction ­
Every building structure has a certain definite serviceable life, which depends

upon the quality of construction materials used, workmanship, environmental

factors and preventive maintenance.

Therefore, different repair materials are required to protect and maintain the
original form and quality so as to prevent total deterioration of the structure.

A large number of new repair material are available for treating many of the

building defects quite effectively to retard this process of deterioration.

Basic characteristics of a good repair material ­
1. Good bond strength with existing materials

2. Low shrinkage properties

3. Mechanical properties of the repair materials should be as close to the base

materials as possible

4. ( Easy to work with)

Good workability

5. Harden in the minimum possible time.

6. Coefficient of thermal expansion of the repair material should be compatible with
that of the base materials

7. The repair material should have low air and water permeability. This will ensure

that moisture will not penetrate through it to the old concrete

8. The repair material should have minimum curing requirement

9. The color and texture of the repair material should match the old concrete surface

1 0 . T h e repair material should be safe to use for worker s and should be environmental
friendly.
Compatibility aspects of repair material ­
Compatibility means consistent structural behavior of repair material with the

original material.

Hence compatibility means the repair material and original building material are

having the same properties and after repair both the material s behave as a

monolithic unit without bond failure under variety of forces and weather condition.

Hence it is very essential that the properties of the repair material and the original

material are almost the same otherwise repair of a structure will not last for a long

period and defects will reoccur after certain period.

Compatible aspects of repair materials can be discussed on the following criteria

1. Compatible mechanical properties and strength

2. Compatible coefficient of thermal expansion

Compatible mechanical properties and strength ­
The repair material should have compatible mechanical properties with that of base

material.

This property is designed to ensure uniform flow of stresses and strain in loaded

structure.

If repair concrete is having strength much different than the base material it could

lead to non uniform flow of stresses and may result in an early failure of the repair

patch.

For example if M - 1 5 grade of concrete has been used in original construction, the

grade of the repair material should neither be less than the M - 1 5 nor higher than

M-15
Compatible coefficient of thermal expansion ­
The coefficient of thermal expansion of repair material and the original material of

the building structure should be almost the same, otherwise temperature variation
can cause failure either at the bond line or within the section of the lower strength

material.

Glass 0.85 mm

Steel/Concrete 1.2 mm,,

f,ma 2.4 mm

Neopren rubber 12 mm
 Content

Materials for Repair, maintenance and protection

Introduction

Basic characteristic of a good repair material

Compatibility aspects of repair materials

Application of different materials in repairs

Anti corrosion coatings

Adhesives/bonding aids

Repair mortars

Curing compounds

Joints sealants

Waterproofing systems for roofs

Types of repair materials

- Depending upon the requirement, properties and uses, the repair materials can be

broadly classified into the following categories -

1. A n t i corrosion coating

2. Adhesive/bonding aids

3. Repair mortar/concrete

4. Curing compounds

5. Joints sealants

6. Waterproofing systems for roofs

1. Anti corrosion coating ­
- Anti corrosion coating are provided to steel reinforcement to increase resistance

against corrosion. These are also called rebar primers.

The following are the main ideal characteristics for a rebar primer

1. It should provide good bond to steel and subsequent repair layers

2. It should provide sufficient resistance to penetration of moisture up to steel

reinforcement by film formation

3. It should provide sufficient resistance to progressive rust creep under the primer.

4. It should be easy to apply

Examples of some primers -
a. Cement mortar slurry
b. Polymer modified cement slurry
c. Non passivating epoxy
d. Passivating epoxy ( using nitric or citric acid to make the
steel surface passive- non reactive)
e. Zinc rich epoxy( both as a protective coating on steel rebars
and as a primer before applying concrete etc)

etore Pt asvaton
2. Adhesive / Bonding aids

When the repairs are to be carried out at a high temperature, water loss at the

interface between the repair material and the prepared concrete may result into a

poor bond.

Hence under such circumstances, it is necessary to provide a bonding coat prior to

the application of repair material.

The major advantage of adhesive bonding is that it allow s adhesion without

changing the shape of the element to be attached. The adhesive bond line also acts

as moisture barrier.
There are two main categories of adhesive ­
a. Solvent free adhesives

b. Water-based adhesives (Water borne adhesive )

Solvent free adhesives

Solvent free adhesives cure by polymerization of monomeric resins. Solvent free

adhesives are epoxies. polyesters. Acrylics. silicones, etc.

-
Water-based adhesive (Water borne adhesive)
Water-based adhesives are supplied as pre-mixed solutions, or are formulated as dry
powders, which producers and distributors must then mix with water in order to obtain
its adhesive properties.
Latex and latex powder are the commonly used water borne adhesives to bond

concrete.

These adhesive s are generally used for bonding fresh unhardened concrete to

hardened concrete.

Latex and latex powder are generally made by emulsion

polymerization techniques. These adhesive s include

polyvinyl acetate, vinyl acetate copolymers,

poly acrylic esters.

The following are the main application s of adhesives

a. Bonding of wet concrete to hardened concrete

b. Bonding of concrete and other materials

3. Repair mortar/Concrete ­
- There are many reasons for the deterioration of the reinforced concrete elements.

Corrosion of reinforcement, sulphate attack or alkali-silica reaction results in

extensive cracking/ spalling.

In such situation, it is necessary to remove the damaged concrete and refill it with

repair mortar and concrete

The repair mortar can be broadly classified as

1. Cementitious mortar

2. Polymer modified cementitious mortar

3. Resin mortar

Cementitious mortars

Portland cement mortar with low water content finds its application as a good

repair material. Low water contents reduces shrinkage of the repair portion while

the effectiveness gets increased.

The properties of cement mortar can be further modified with the addition of

suitable admixtures like super plasticizers, hydrophobic agents, pozzol ana, fly

ash etc.
Polymer modified cementitious mortar ­
Certain polymer can be added to cementitious mortars to help overcome many of

the problems of using unmodified mortar as repair material.

The polymers used as admixture for cementitious systems are milky white

dispersions (latex) in water. Polymers enhance adhesion,

toughness, flexural or tensile strength, and resistance
to chemicals, and freezing and thawing resistance of
mortar.
Th is mortar can be placed in a single application

of 1 2 to 1 5 m m thickness which gives adequate

protective cover.

- It is mainly used for the repair of reinforced

concrete, where the cover to be replaced is more

than 1 2 mm and less than 30 mm in thickness.

Resin-based Mortar ( Epoxy-resin Mortar)
Epoxy mortar is a polymer-based bonding paste that comprises materials such as
epoxy resins, solvent, binder, mineral fillers and some additives. The epoxy element
is a two-component organic polymer that is blended with sand and, sometimes with
coarse aggregate. Epoxy mortar with or without the aggregate will provide an
impermeable environment and barrier that will protect reinforcing steel against
corrosion. It offers the following advantages:
-High-strength and high-hardness
-Excellent adhesion to many different materials
-Ease of mixing
-Cures quickly
-Strong moisture impermeability
-Stain resistant
-Good abrasion, impact and chemical
resistance
 Content

Materials for Repair, maintenance and protection

Introduction

Basic characteristic of a good repair material

Compatibility aspects of repair materials

Application of different materials in repairs

Anti corrosion coatings

Adhesives/bonding aids

Repair mortars

Curing compounds

Joints sealants

Waterproofing systems for roofs

4. Curing compound ­
Curing of concrete is required to ensure hydration of concrete so that concrete
maintains sufficient free water within its structure to allow hydration of cement to
continue.

Curing methods are generally classified into three major groups: water retention
methods(covering), water addition methods( e.g sprinkling, ponding), and
temperature control methods ( e.g steam curing which is mainly is used where early
strength gain is needed and where heat is required for hydration, such as in cold
weather)
Curing compounds can be used where water addition methods prove to be hard. A
concrete curing compound is a compound which helps to prevent the loss of
moisture content from the concrete.
t

,,..-

--
-
- --
; •

..
-
.., v
4 A
5. Joint sealant ­
In building structures, the term sealant is specially used for sealing of expansion

joints and gap between dissimilar building material.

A joint sealant is any material provided to maintain a seal or act as barrier between

two sides of a joint which may be subjected to some degree of movement.

- .

-
A Sealant does not contribute to the structural properties of the joint but perform s
the following functions ­
1. Sealant s accommodate movement of various elements.

2. Sealant s exclude rain, snow and wind from the interior of a building.

3. Sealant s provide sound insulation

4. Sealant s prevent heat losses arising f rom movement of air through the joint.

5. Sealants resist freeze/thaw ( Play the role of water proofing).

Characteristics of an ideal sealant

-Compatibility when used in combination with other

materia ls

-Ease of mixing and preparation for application

-Proper adhesion to faces of the joint
-Freedom from creep, slump or cold flow.
-Ease of application over a practical temperature range
-No undue shrinkage
-Resistance to weathering and
-Durability
-Freedom from regular maintenance
-Capability of being repaired or resealed
-The sealant should be soft.
-It should be flexible.
-It should not be affected by weather
changes.
-It should be strong against stress and
stress relief cycle.
 Content

Materials for Repair, maintenance and protection

Introduction

Basic characteristic of a good repair material

Compatibility aspects of repair materials

State application of following materials in repairs

Anti corrosion coatings

Adhesives/bonding aids

Repair mortars

Curing compounds

Joints sealants

Waterproofing systems for roofs

6. Waterproofing material for roofs ­
a. Butyl rubber sheeting (BR sheeting) - It is used for waterproofing of roof slab and

treating leaking roofs of building.

- It is tough, black and flexible sheeting with considerable abrasion resistance.

- The sheets are of thickness 0.5 mm to 2.0 mm. Hot vulcanizing of sheet is preferred.

b. Polyisobutylene sheeting (PIB sheeting) - It is black, flexible waterproofing

sheeting similar to the BR sheeting with improved properties.

The PIB sheets have increased life in ultraviolet light, ozone and a wide range of

chemical environments. PIB sheets do not support fungi growth.

c. Bituminous emulsions/sheet - It is frequently used in protection of leaking or

damaged concrete roof slab against ingress of water.

Minimum two coats are to be applied, the second coat at right angle to the first to

help eliminate pinhole. It is cost effective and easy to apply.

d. Epoxy and polyurethane (PU) resin coating - These are basically two or more

component organic polymers and can be formulated to give coating of wide range

of characteristics.

Concrete should be free of dust and oil to ensure bond with repair material. For

water proofing a minimum thickness of 0.5 mm in 3 coats is recommended. It can

be applied by brush or spray.

e. Polymer based waterproofing coating - These are single component based on

modified polymers and are free from tar, bitumen and solvents.

The product is available in paste like consistency. The product is applied on

cementitious substance by means of brushes or roller after one coat of primer.

The dried coat forms a seamless membrane which is flexible and elastic in nature.

The coating has adequate resistance to ultraviolet rays and does not break or flake

after multiple thermal cycles.

These coating s s
have special feature of --

1. Special adhesion to substrate

due to polymer base.

2. Application for waterproofing of

old and new terraces, roof slabs,

balconies and parapets.

3. Suitability for structures of

complicated geometry like

domes, arches, shell, folded

plates etc.
 Content

Preventive maintenance considerations

Surface preparation techniques for repair

1 . Acid etching

2. Chemical cleaning

3. Sand blasting

4. Shot blasting

5. Stem cleaning

6. Vacuum cleaning
Introduction ­
With the use of best quality construction materials, good workmanship for

construction under sincere and experienced supervision, we get a building

structure with negligible defects and with extended life span.

In spite of this, defects do occur in the building structure due to many factors

which are beyond our control.

In such situation s, remedial measures are needed to repair these defects.

Repair means making good, but prior to any repair work , it is essential to establish

the extent and root causes of the problem.

•
Preventive maintenance ­
Preventive maintenance of a building structure means adopting such measures in

advance which will prevent any problem before it becomes serious.

For preventive maintenance, a systematic approach has to be followed. It must

start form top.

Preventive maintenance can be implemented during various phase s of the life of

a structure.

1. During design phase, by following standard design criteria and selecting good

quality construction material.

2. During construction phase, by adopting good workmanship, standard techniques,

sincere and experienced supervision, defects can be avoided and useful life span of

the building structure can be prolonged. This will result in reduction of maintenance

cost.

3. During maintenance phase, periodical inspection should be carried out to detect

any defect. The root cause of these defects should be identified and appropriate

repair strategy should be worked out.

Surface preparation for repairs ­
Successful repair work requires knowledge and understanding of surface

preparation using appropriate techniques.

In the absence of adequate and proper surface treatment, the repairs, with even

the best quality materials may fail.

The techniques of surface preparation

•
•
varies from case to case depending •

on various factors. There are certain

materials like dust, efflorescence, oil,

grease, tar, and gum, known as

contaminants, which cause problem s

related to adhesion, curing and

application of repair materia ls. These

materials must be removed before any

repair starts.
Different methods of surface preparation ­
1. Acid etching ------------

2. Chemical cleaning

3. Sand blasting

4. Shot blasting

5. Stem cleaning

6. Vacuum cleaning

1. Acid etching.­ before etching after etching

This technique is used for preparing concrete surface for repairs so that repair

materials can be applied successfully.

This technique is also used to roughen the flat smooth surface which has turned to

be slippery due to long use.

In this method, diluted acid is sprinkled on the concrete surface and broomed until

bubbling ceases. Then the surface is thoroughly flushed with clean water.

- During this operation, suitable ventilation of the area should be provided.

2. Chemical cleaning.

The solution of trisodium phosphate with hot water is used to remove various

contaminants from the concrete surface.

Detergents, cleaners and emulsifiers can also be used for this purpose.
3. Sand blasting. ­

In this method of surface preparation, fine aggregate abrasives propelled by clean

compressed air are thrown on the surface to be prepared.

Sand blast cleaning produces a textured, physically sound substrate free of

surface contaminants and fi n e s .

The sand blast cleaning process removes any loose paint, coating or debris so
the surface can be washed and cleaned with ease, resulting in an extremely
smooth surface.
4. Shot blasting.­

This method involves impacting the surface with high velocity abrasive steel shots. The

shots are thrown against the concrete f rom an enclosed high rotating paddle wheel.

The abrasive, dust and contaminants are then removed by a separate dust collector.

It provides a clean, physically sound substrate, with a relative uniform texture. This method

is particularly useful and cost effective on large unobstructed horizontal surfaces.

5. Steam cl e a n i n g ­

Steam cleaning is an effective method of removal of many forms of water soluble

contaminants that may be present on the surface.

Steam cleaning machines produce wet or dry steam directed at the surface in

high concentration and at high velocity.

Detergents and other chemicals are often added to water to increase

effectiveness.
6. Vacuum cleaning. ­

Vacuum cleaning is a final step to remove loose dust or dirt on a prepared surface

immediately prior to coating or patch repair application

Basic consideration for surface preparation -

1. Complete removal of any unsound material or any surface contaminants

2. Removal of spa I led concrete caused by corrosion of steel reinforcement

3. Removal of weak concrete from the surface

4. Removal of corrosion products from steel reinforcement

5. Providing rough but uniform surface

• •
. - -
• • «

•
••

•
 Content

Method of crack repair

1 . Epoxy injection

2. Grooving and sealing

3 . Stitching of cracks

4. Flexible sealing by sealant

Method of crack repair

Cracks in concrete structure is a common phenomenon. Cracks even if harmless

,
should be immediately attended to otherwise, these may lead to several other

defects which may endanger the structure.

The following are the common crack repair techniques

1. Epoxy injection

2. Grooving and sealing

3. Stitching of cracks

4 Flexible sealing by sealant

•
1. Epoxy injection/Pressure injection ­
Epoxy injection is an effective technique for bonding cracked concrete section.

Epoxy injection can be used to restore structural soundness of building, bridges

and dam where cracks are dormant or can be prevented form moving further.

Cracks as narrow as 0.05 mm can be bonded by epoxy injection.

In this method holes at close

intervals along the cracks are

drilled.

Epoxy under pressure is injected to

seal the cracks. This method

cannot be used if the cracks are

actively leaking.

Although moist cracks can be

injected, but water or other

contaminants in the cracks reduce

the effectiveness of the epoxy

repair.

Success of this method depends

upon correct understanding of

injection materials, equipment,

technique and sequence of steps.

2. Grooving and sealing -

Grooving and sealing is the most common method of crack repair. This method is

applied for cracks that are dormant (not active) and are of no structural

significance.

,
This method involves enlarging the crack along its exposed face for sealing with

suitable material.

This method is suitable for sealing both fine pattern cracks and large isolated

cracks and other defects.

In this method the surface of the grooved joints (enlarged cracks) is cleaned with

blow of air and allowed to dry before placing the sealant.

The purpose of the sealant is to provide a barrier to water from reaching the

reinforcing steel. This helps in getting rid of moisture problems on the far side of

the member. Epoxy compound s are often used as sealant s.

Groove cut with saw

or chipping tools Joint sealant

e •
minimum[

--f- :.___ "--

(a) (b) tc)

3. Stitching of cracks

Stitching is a simple cost effective technique for restoring the tensile strength of a

cracked concrete element.

I 1 1 4 ) 1 1
This method involves drilling holes on both side of the crack, cleaning the holes

and anchoring the legs of the stitching dogs (LI-shaped metal links with short legs)

that span the crack, with either a non- shrink grout or an epoxy resin based

bonding system.

In case of flexural member the stitching is done on the tension face.

Note variable length, location and orientation of staples

so that tension across the crack is distributed in the
concrete rather than concentrated on a single plane

Moles drifted in concrete

·•,-J 10 r■c11t,■ 11■p1 ... FIii

holes with non-shrine

grout or poy.

•
'-
••
Stitching staples
5. Flexible sealing by sealant -
In this method, active cracks are

cleaned by sandblast or water jet or

both and filled with a suitable field

moulded fiexible sealant. The slot or

groove for the sealant should have a

suitable width and shape for the

expected movement.

The active cracks may be sealed with

a flexible surface seal where the

appearance is not important.

 Content

Repair of surface defects of concrete -

The following are the common surface defects of

concrete

1 . Bug hole

2. Form tie holes

3 . Honey comb and larger voids

Repair of surface defects of concrete ­

Surface defects are unavoidable phenomenon in concrete construction. It is

recommended to repair surface voids within 24 hours after removing the

framework so as to avoid drying of the base concrete.

The following are the common surface defects of concrete

1. Bug hole

2. Form tie holes

3. Honey comb and larger voids

1. Bug holes
Bug holes are small surface voids or holes formed when entrapped air within the
fresh concrete migrates and reaches the surface of cast in situ concrete during
placement and compaction.
•
•• • •
• • •. •
•
-·
•
•
%

, •
•
•,•
• •

'
•
•
•
• ¢ •
• •
• •• •
• • •
•· • •

•
• • •
•
•
• • « • «
•• •
•
•

.
• •
4
•
' •
• •• • • • •
• • •
• •

••
..
·,
• •
•
• • • •
•·

-
• .
•
i
• •
•
•, •
•

•
'
• •
•
« • •
• •
• • •
.
• •
• •
-
•
d
t •
• • •
•
• • •
• •
Sack rubbing is an effective method to repair bug holes. A good mix for sack

rubbing contains, one part portland cement. 1 . 5 t o 2 parts fine sand and enough

water to produce a consistency between that of thick paint and masonry mortar.

Wet the existing concrete and apply the

prepared grout to the entire surface with a

rubbing hand float, forcing the grout into all

the voids.

The next step is to rub the excess grout off

the surface, and the timing of this step is

crucial. If done too soon, some of the grout

may be pulled form the bug hole, if done

too late, the grout may be hard to remove

form the surface.

A common method to remove excess grout is to rub the surface with burlap (gunia)
or sack. After removing the excess grout curing should be done for adequate

period.

•
•

. ' - -
• •
•

• - .. - •
•
• •
•
• - • •
• •
•

•
• • • •
2. Form tie holes

A common type of form tie is plastic cones at the surfaces. The cones act as a

spreader for the forms, aid in reducing grout leaks and makes breaking back snap

ties easier.
But after removal, a typical cone leaves a hole in the surface about 25 mm wide

and 40mm deep. The most common method to fill form tie holes is to simply

trowel mortar into them.

•
3. Honeycomb and larger voids

Improper mixing and inadequate compaction results into honeycombs or larger

voids in concrete.

. " •
•••
�
]
. .
h ' .
it
A

! •
t �-
.
-
.

'
•
'

i
. •
• .

•
t, 1
l ' il
For the repair of this defects, use light chipping hammer to remove the required

affected voided concrete.

Indiscret e impact of hammer can fracture the adjoining concrete surface also and

therefore, follow chipping with sandblasting or water blasting to remove fractured

surface if any.
A general method to place the repair material is to simply trowel it into the void. A

suitable mix contains one part portland cement and 4 parts sand, adequate

admixture and water cement ratio of about 0.35.

If the repair is deeper than 25 mm, apply the mortar in layers not thicker than

15-20 mm to avoid sagging and loss of bond.

After placing each layer, wait about 30 minutes before placing the next layer. To

complete the repair, overfill the void slightly and finish by trimming and trowelling.
Repair of corroded RCC element ­
For the repair of corroded reinforcement, the following steps are taken

1. Chip off all loose and cracked concrete in RCC component

2. Remove concrete cover completely to expose corroded reinforcement

3. Remove all loose and deteriorated concrete by wire brush

4. Clean the reinforcement thoroughly to remove all rust of corroded steel by sand

blasting or chemical wash

5. Wash and saturate all cavities in adjoining concrete with clean water and remove

all free water before placing repair mortar

6. Apply bond coat just prior to patch repair mortar or concrete.

7. Apply patch repair mortar or concrete or grout on the damp cavity surface

8. In case of loss of steel section, additional steel reinforcement may be tied to the

existing bars prior to application of bond coat

9. Fill the cavity with repair mortar or concrete and consolidate thoroughly with rod

and mallet or vibrating

-
[Link] fill prepacked aggregate concrete in the cavities after applying bond

coat and finish with pressure grouting with repair mortar

1 1 . A p p l y a protective coating on the finished surface of the repaired element

The ordinary method do not give satisfactory results and the problem reoccurs very

fast due to the following two main reasons

a. Corrosion of steel is not removed totally and the root cause is not eliminated

adequately

b. Bonding between old surface and new repair material is not developed
 Content

Prevention of corrosion in reinforcement

Good concrete practice

Use of latex modified concrete

Use of silica fume concrete

Epoxy coated reinforcing bars

Use of membrane and sealers

Inorganic corrosion inhibitors

Organic corrosion inhibitors

Prevention of corrosion in reinforcement

Corrosion in reinforcement is the most serious problem for RCC structures. Most of

the failure of RCC structures are only due to corrosion in reinforcement used in

concrete .

Reinforcement can be protected from corrosion in following ways

1. By sealing the surface of concrete to prevent ingress of chlorides and moisture

2. By modifying the properties of the concrete to reduce its permeability. This

technique retards the flow of moisture and chlorides to the reinforcing steel.

3. By protecting the reinforcing bar to reduce the effects of chlorides which do reach

the steel.

.
- 4

• --
$
f

., a .,
' � •
• '
• , , •.-•
• -
-
- V
•

Mostur«enters Rust euitd up ot buly finny

marlin cracks begins corrosion prur c8

and porous to forn woduct cats spatting ot

disruptive tensile concrete,

a48
tress pour« of

tt tr
The following are the different methods adopted for controlling corrosion ­
a. Good concrete practice ­

- Good quality concrete provide s adequate protection against corrosion of embedded

steel.

- The following steps are involve d in good concrete practice

1. Maintain a low water cement ratio. This will reduce the permeability of concrete.

2. Provide adequate cover to reinforcement. It will increase the time it takes for the

chlorides to reach the steel reinforcement.

hr Corer
pod coon
urf

.°
crCvr
• Cr

_.I

le Co-wt
3. Provide adequate curing of concrete and do not allow fresh concrete to dry

without curing for at least seven days of wet curing. Drying reduces hydration

and increase s permeability and shrinkage.

4. Use water reducing admixtures to give the concrete enough workability

5. Compact the concrete thoroughly using suitable vibrators.

b. Use of latex modified concrete

- -Latex modifies the pore structure of concrete and reduce its permeability.

-Latex modified concrete has some problems of cracking, therefore, it should be

placed in the evening or at night to reduce cracking.

-Relative cost of latex modified concrete is high but performance is good.

,
c. Use of silica fume concrete

Silica fume is an extremely effective pozzolanic material that reacts with calcium

hydroxide produced in hydrated cement paste to form additional cementitious

material.

As a result, the permeability of the concrete is significantly reduced. Performance of

silica fume concrete is good to excellent, it has a moderate cost.

This concrete is approximately equivalent to latex modified concrete in its chloride

permeability.

Silica Fume
d. Epoxy coated reinforcing bars ­
Pre cleaned reinforcing steel bars are provided with a coating of powdered epoxy.

s the
This coating physically block penetration of chloride to reinforcing bars which

increases the durability of reinforcement.

e. Use of membrane and sealers -

- Membranes and sealers have the ability to bridge the cracks in the concrete. This

helps prevent chloride and water entry.

Membrane like urethanes, neoprene, epoxies are used in multiple layers to the

concrete surface.

The effectiveness of all these materials decreases over time and they are required

to be applied at a regular interval.

,
a '
Notes Part 2
Solutions to Different Defects
After understanding the size and nature of problems in building maintenance and management from
Chapter 3, readers can find from this chapter principles and guidelines in selecting the appropriate
solutions. While Section 4.1 to 4.4 of this Chapter concentrate on the maintenance aspects, Section
4.5 mainly covers more on management related issues such as the formation and operation of Owners'
Corporation (OC).

Methods and knowledge on the repair of common defects and removal of nuisance are provided in this
Chapter for general reference. The repair or rectification process as described are technical in nature
and in most cases require professional input. Under no circumstances should this Guidebook be
referred as a workman's manual or a "do it yourself" guide. Building owners, Owners' Corporation (OC)
or Owners' Committee should always engage the services of qualified building professionals as Project
Consultants or Project Managers to advise, supervise and handle all the technical, contractual and
legal matters in relation to the works and the required contracts. This Chapter is a very useful tool for
their communication with the building professionals and contractors.

To exhaust all the available methods on every possible building defect or nuisance is not the intention
of preparing this Guidebook. Readers should refer to other relevant sources if an in-depth knowledge in
a particular area is considered necessary.

Precautionary measures for the safety of the public should be completed before the commencement of
the repair works. Double scaffolding, protective screens, catch fans are usually required for repair of
the external finishes/tiles of the buildings. Tight budget should never become an excuse to compromise
public safety during the repair works.
4.1.1 Building Defects

Section 3.2 of Chapter 3 gives a general picture of the common defects found in buildings. The
following are some common methods in dealing with such defects. The methods listed below are not
exhaustive. New materials and technology emerge in the market from time to time. Owners should
seek advice from building professionals on the method, cost, durability and compatibility in selecting
suitable materials for the repairs. In carrying out the repair works mentioned in paragraph (a) and (b)
below, supervision of works by a qualified building professional is necessary.

(a) Structure

(i) Defective concrete/ concrete spalling

Patch repair

It is the most common repair method for minor concrete defects such as surface spalling. Damaged or
defective concrete is to be hacked off down to sound substrate and patched up with appropriate repair
mortars to protect the steel reinforcement from rusting. Two types of materials are commonly used for
patching up by hand:

Cementitious mortars such as cement mortar and polyester-modified cementitious mortar or Polymer-
modified cementitious mortar

Resin-based mortars such as epoxy resin mortar and polyester resin mortar

After all defective concrete has been hacked off, rusty reinforcement bars should be properly cleaned,
and primed with suitable cement/epoxy based primer matching the mortar used for patching if the
environment is particularly aggressive, before patching up. Only primers specially manufactured for the
purpose can be used, otherwise, the bonding strength between concrete and steel bars will be
impeded, totally nullifying the repair efforts. Furthermore, before patching up, the exposed concrete
surfaces and the steel bars must be dust free to allow effective bonding with the new mortars.

Replacement of reinforcement bars

Should circumstances arise that the diameters of the reinforcement bars are found substantially less
than their original sizes after the "rust shells" have been removed, addition or replacement of steel bars
is required. The process involves identification of the type of existing steel bars, assessment on the
required replacement/supplement of reinforcement bars and the required lapping of the new and old
bars. Structural calculations may also be required.
 Partial/ complete demolition and replacement

When the defective concrete is extensive and penetrates beyond the steel bars, partial or complete
demolition and re-casting of the affected members may be required. Under such circumstances, a
building professional suchas a Registered Structural Engineer is required to give advice on the details
of the materials and construction methods, and supervise the works. Precautionary measures such
as installation of temporary propping maybe required.

(ii) Structural cracks

As mentioned in Chapter 3, structural cracks deserve immediate attention. Detailed investigation

should be carried out first to identify the underlying cause of the cracks. The cause of the problem must
be properly addressed before sealing up the structural cracks. Otherwise, the danger of sudden
collapse will persist.

Identifying the cause of structural cracks should best be carried out by a structural engineer who
should also advise on courses of action to remove the problem and the subsequent repair method.
Such repair works should also be carried out by contractors registered under the Buildings Ordinance.

After identifying and addressing the problem causing the cracks, the repair of the cracks is usually
done by pressure injection of non-shrinkage grout or epoxy resin or by open-up and refill/recast with
concrete.

(b) External Walls

(i) Wall tiles/finishes

External wall tiles or panels of wall finishes insecurely fixed to external walls will likely fall off without
any further warning symptoms resulting in disasters to pedestrians. All loose parts should first be
removed to eliminate the imminent danger and replaced to maintain protection to external
walls. A proper key between the existing concrete wall and the newly finished layer as well as
the bonding of individual tile to its bedding mortar is crucial to avoid recurrence of the same
defects. Proper preparation of the exposed surfaces of the existing wall for a physical key with
the new mortar tar; use of suitable bonding agents or adhesives for the mortar; and special
adhesivesfor the tiles are essential means for this purpose.
4.1.1(b) External Walls (continues)

(ii) Cracks

Cracks should be repaired by injection of specially designed chemicals or through open-up

and repair by mortar with the required key mentionedin Section 4.1.1(b)(i) above.

(iii) Loose concrete

After the external wall tiles or finishes have come off, loose concrete, honeycombing, spalling
may be revealed. Loose parts should be thoroughly removed down to the sound concrete
substrate. Then, suitable repair mortar should be applied in accordance with description in
Section 4.1.1(a)(i) of this Chapter. Should the defects be found so extensive that
replacement/addition of steel reinforcement bars, partial or demolition and re-casting of certain
parts of concrete elements is considered necessary, readers should also refer to Section
4.1.1(a)(i) of this Chapter for details.

(iv) Claddings

Stone claddings used in the external walls, like other forms

of cladding such as aluminium, are usually mounted on a
system of hooks or angles anchored onto the external walls,
commonly known as dry fixing. The components of such
system are designed to resist weather attacks. However,
pollution such as acid rain or other unexpected chemical
attacks may shorten their life span, leading to failure. The
whole system should be regularly inspected. Care should
also be given in examining the requisite
expansion/movement joints and sealant to ensure their
proper functions.

Cracked or bulging panels should be removed immediately to avoid accident. Before

replacement, the cause of the defect should be identified and eliminated to avoid recurrence of
the same defect. Should the existing cladding system be identified to be not suitable for the
building, it must be totally replaced. Although such decision may be difficult to make, it is the
only effective means to extirpate chronic and recurrent defects. Examples of such drastic
replacement in Hong Kong are not rare.

In any repair process for external stone cladding, dry fixing type stone cladding system
should never be replaced by the traditional mortar wet fixing method which leads to
disastrous results.
(c) Windows

(i) Repair

Glass panes

Any broken or cracked glass panes should be replaced at once with the same type and
thickness of glass.

Steel windows

Steel windows are subject to rusting and should be regularly

re-painted with primers and re-finished. Putty for holding
glass panes should be maintained. Hinges should be
regularly lubricated and replaced if necessary to avoid
dislodgmentof sashes.

Aluminium windows

Bar hinges in aluminium window system is one of the most common sourcesof problem that leads to
dislodgment of sashes. They should be regularly checked for any loose fixings, deformation,
cleared of dust and dirt and lightly lubricated to avoid friction causing undue load on the fixing.
Should any of the aluminium angle for securing the glass panes be found missing, replacement
must be done at once to avoid falling of glass panes.

In the processing of replacing fixing components such as screws and rivets, measures against bi-
metallic action leading to corrosion must be taken to avoid direct contact between two
incompatible materials. A common example of bi-metallic action is between aluminium and
stainless steel.

Locking devices

Locking devices of window sashes should be replaced if they cannot function properly. Otherwise,
damage may result in typhoon.

(ii) Replacing major components

Deformed window sashes or frames, usually revealed after typhoon, are unstable and have to
be replaced at once.
 4.1.1(c) Windows (continues)

Replacement of window frames is inevitable if:

 the frames have deformed, be come insecure, deteriorated to a considerable extent; and
 thequality of the frame or its waterproofing materials filling the gap between the frame and the
parent structure is in doubt, leading to constant leakage beyond repair.

In the process of installing the new window frames, readers may wish to note the following
points:
 window frames should be securely and rigidly fixed in place to window opening in walls by
fixing lugs;
 suitable
waterproofing grouting should be properly applied between the window frame and the
opening with an additional coat of waterproofing material around the frame;
 for aluminium windows, joints in window frames and sections should be properly se aled with
suitable se alant. The window frames should be suitably equipped with water bars at its sill to prevent
entry of water. A continuous gasket of suitable materials should also be properly applied along the
whole perimeter between the window frame and openable sashes; and

4.1.2 Building Services Installation

(a) Electrical Installation

(i) Registered Electrical Contractors/workers

The repair and maintenance of electricity supply system should be

undertaken by registered electrical contractors/ workers. Name
lists of registered electrical contractors/workers are available for
reference at the Electrical and Mechanical Services Department's
(EMSD) Customer Services Office and web site, as well as all
District Offices.
 (ii) New installations, additions or alterations

New installations, additions or alterations of electrical installations should comply with the safety
requirements of the Electricity Ordinance.

Before carrying out any addition or alteration:

• feasibility studies should be carried out by qualified building services engineer or registered
electrical contractor, depending on the scale of thejob;

• future electricity consumption requirements should be considered; and

• consent by the electricity supplier and the Owners' Corporation of the building must be
obtained.

When the electrical work (including new installation, addition, alteration and repair) is completed,
the qualified building services engineer and registered electrical contractor should inspect and test
the electrical installations and certify that the installations are safe and comply with the safety
requirements of the Electrical Ordinance in the Work Completion Certificate (Form WR1).

(iii) Periodic inspection

Owners should ensure that the power loading generated by the appliances and installations do not
exceed the maximum loading approved by the electricity supply company. Qualified building
services engineer or registered electrical contractor should be consulted if in doubt.

Electrical installations with an approved loading exceeding 100 amperes

in residential apartments, shops, offices and communal areas of the building should be inspected,
tested and certified (Form WR2) at least once every 5 years to ensure safety.

(iv) Other guidelines

• All electricity installations should be properly earthed.

• Concealed electrical wiring of new installations should have mechanical protection.

• Distribution boards should have identification labels to indicate the purpose of individual
electrical circuits.

• Sufficient socket outlets should be installed for individual heavy-current electrical

appliances.
 4.1.2(a) Electrical Installation (continues)

• Earth leakage circuit breakers must be installed for socket outlets.

• Socket outlets should be installed as far away as practicable from water taps, gas taps
and cooking appliances to avoid danger of short circuitsor fire risks.

• No socket outlet should be installed in a bathroom except for electric shavers.

• If an electric water heater is installed in a bathroom, the on/off switch should be installed
outside the bathroom.

• Outdoor socket outlets or electric switches should be of weatherproof types.

• Use electrical appliances with safe 3-pin plugs.

If in doubt, consult the electricity supplier, qualified building services engineer or registered electrical
contractor as appropriate.

(b) Fire Service Installations

Basic fire service installations in the building generally include hose reels, fire extinguishers, fire
alarm systems or automatic sprinkler systems. These installations and equipment are for preventing
spread of fire, giving alarms or extinguishing fire.

To ensure that these installations work efficiently at all times, a registered fire service installation
contractor should be employed by the OC to maintain, inspect and certify the installations at least
once every year. When the fire service installation is found not working properly or damaged,
immediate repair should be carried out.
 (c) Lift and Escalator Installation

Reliable lift service not only enhance convenience to residents but can also save lives. A
registered lift (and escalator) contractor should be appointed to carry out the following tasks:

 inspect, clean, lubricate and adjust the lift at least once a

month;
 test and examine the safety equipment annually; and
 test the full load, overload device and the brake once
every 5 years.

Apart from ensuring that the lift or escalator meets with the
necessary safety standards, building owners should also
monitor the following aspects, including:

 annual renewal of the permit to use and operate the lift;

keeping and updating of records of work for EMSD
inspection;
 inspecting to ensure that no dangerous gaps exist in
escalators; and
 upkeeping the lift machine room and the lift pits in clean
and tidy conditions.

(a) Water Supply System

(i) Components
The water supply system usually consists of incoming pipes and gate valves, upfeeding pumps,
water tanks at various locations, downfeeding pipes, water meters, special valves and
accessories.
4.1.2(d) Water Supply System (continues)

(i) Fresh water supply systems

Many old buildings still use galvanized iron (G.I.) pipes for the fresh water supply. As G.I. pipes are
prone to corrosion over time, they are currently prohibited by the Water Authority. Maintenance
works in these buildings should include the total replacement of the G.I. pipes by suitable approved
materials such as copper pipes or PVC lined G.I. pipes.

Readers are always encouraged to employ licenced plumbers in carrying out works related to the
water supply syste

4.1.3 Water Leakage and Drainage Nuisance

(a) Roof

(i) Dealing with roof leakage problem

Total replacement of aged waterproofing construction is the

most reliable method in dealing with roof leakage problems.
Partial patch repair has some limitations, and will be discussed
in detail at paragraph (vii) underthis heading.

(ii) Types of waterproofing materials

The common waterproofing materials used in Hong Kong can be classified based on their application
methods, namely, liquid-applied and membrane- applied. Some materials can be exposed to weather
and sunlight but others require protection such as cement sand screeding or tile finishes. Some
materials are more elastic and suitable for anticipated movements in the roof structure. Life spans
of such materials range from 5 years tomore than 20 years.

(iii) Workmanship

Good workmanship is vital in waterproofing works. Areas of concerninclude:

• gradient of roof surfaces which should be laid to provide an adequatefall to avoid ponding;

• the thickness of the waterproofing materials applied;

• overlapping of the material at junctions ;

• upturns of the material at parapets and walls, protruding pipes and ducts, sharp corners are
potential areas of problems;

• downturns of the material into drain holes; and

• prevention of excessive movement caused by equipment installed on top.

Effective waterproofing work also depends largely on whether their integrity will be damaged by
pumps/condensers of air conditioning systems causing excessive movements, unauthorized building
works (UBW), pipe supports, etc.
4.1.3(a) Roof (continues)

(vii) Partial repair

Partial application of waterproofing materials may be effective provided that the source of leakage
such as punctures can be accurately pin-pointed, and the repair material used is compatible with the
existing one. The main concerns are the adequacy of overlapping and bonding between the newand
old waterproofing materials. Sufficient fall of finished floor to prevent ponding should also be
provided as far as possible. Inevitably, patch repair usually has a higher failure rate than total
replacement of waterproofingconstruction.

(viii) Other repair methods

There are other repair methods available in the market e.g. the use of chemical additives to
existing concrete surfaces or chemical injection into the cracks and voids. Since they can be
applied from the floor below to stop the leakage, they are recommended as a temporary measure
when the upper floor or the roof owner is not co-operative in the repair work. However, the result
may not sustain as water will still find its way down via other weak points.

(b) Buried Pipes

(i) Repair

In order to locate source of the leakage, the pipe works may need
to be exposed for visual inspection. Alternatively, advanced instrument
may be introduced to scan and identify the source. The whole
component bearing the defect should be replaced as far as
practicable for more durable results. In principle, repair works should
not create further weak points for leakage. Pressure test should be
carried out before coveringup.
(ii) Water supply pipes

Water pipes are often subject to high pressure and vibration. They therefore tend to be more
problematic over time. Hot water pipes will be even more vulnerable due to thermal movements
resulting from constant hot and cold cycles. If an overhaul of such system is considered, readers should
consider relocating and exposing the pipes above ground as far as possible. Alternatively, the
pipes can be installed in trenches or pipe ducts and made accessible by panels for inspection and
repair. Readers may refer to the guidelines published by the Civil Engineering Department and the
Works Bureau on the investigation and repair of buried water-carrying services as mentioned in
Appendix 7.

(iii) Pipes sleeves

Pipes passing through walls or floors should be protected by sleeves. They would become weak
points in resisting the invasion of water if the gap around the sleeve and the pipe has not been
filled to their entire depth with suitable waterproofing materials. Depending on the nature of the pipes
and the compartment they pass through, such filling materials should also be elastic or with
fireproofing properties.

(c) External Walls

(i) Common sources of leakage

Apart from sleeves, common sources of leakage in external walls are:

• deep cracks/crevices penetrating the finishes and

the body of the wall.

• defective concrete found in the wall.

• defective or loss of external finishes to protect the

wall from direct attackof rain.

(ii) Common repair methods

• Cracks/crevices on external walls can either be repaired by chemical injection or

opening up followed by repair with waterproofing mortar.

• Weak points in the wall such as holes, honeycombs, dirt and foreign matters should be
removed and patched up by suitable waterproofing mortar.
4.1.3(b) External Walls (continues)

The repair can be done internally or externally, depending on the location of the weak spot. Upon
application of the repair mortar or chemical injection, the surface can be smoothened and
plastered. The external wall should then be covered with finishes to match with existing ones. If
considered necessary, special additives to the mortar or rendering on the external wall can be
applied to improve its waterproofing abilities.

(d) Windows
If deformed windows or frames are causes of the water leakage, they should be replaced.

All sashes should be tightly fitted. If leakage occurs at the junction between the sash and the frame,
the gasket around the sash should be checked and if necessary, replaced.

If leakage occurs at junction between members of the frame assembled together by rivets, the
sealant for the junction gap should be checked andre-applied if necessary.

If leakage occurs at the filling materials between the frame and the wall, the following remedial
measures can be used concurrently to ensure performance:

The defective packing should be replaced with compacted waterproof cement sand grouting.

External junction between the frame and the packing should be further protected by applying
suitable mastic or silicon sealant along the perimeter of the frame.

• The window sill in the external wall should be graded to fall away from the window to
avoid ponding. A groove in the external wall finishes at the top of the window opening
should also be formed to drip-off the watercarried from the external wall above.

• Internally, the cracks on the packing around the frame can be sealed by injection of
suitable materials.
(e) Bathrooms, Kitchens or Balcony Floors

(i) Sources of leakage

In bathrooms or kitchens, the source of the leakage must be identified

before any repair works can be considered. If it is the loosening of
components in the drainage system such as bottle traps under the sink,
basin or bathtub, simple fixing can stop the leak. However, if defective
water supply pipes are identified as the culprit, licensed plumbers
should be engaged to replace the defective parts or overhaul the
entire system.

A common cause is defective sealant around the bathtubs, basins, sinks or defective waterproofing
system at the floor. This problem can be easily dealt with by replacement of sealant. However, if
there is a "wet floor"
habit, the waterproofing system of the floor is put to test. Should the cause be identified as water
spilled on to the floor, it is always advisable to reconstruct the entire waterproofing layer instead of
patch repair.
In balconies where ponding may be frequent due to heavy rain or blockageof drain outlets by rubbish, the
waterproofing system has to be sound inorder not to create nuisance to the floor below.

(ii) Repair

Before reconstructing the waterproofing layer of a floor, all the sanitary fitments and finishes
should be removed to allow the formation of a continuous waterproofing construction.

Waterproof cement sand screeding or other similar materials is commonly used. The screeding
should be applied to have sufficient upturns at the base of the walls, and have an adequate fall to
the floor drain to prevent water ponding.

Sanitary fitments are to be installed on top of the waterproofing layer without penetrating it. The
floor surface under the bath tub or shower tray should be formed with a fall to avoid trapping water
at their bases if water leakage ever occurs.
4.1.3 (c) Bathrooms, Kitchens or Balcony Floors (continues)

After applying the floor finishes, the joints between tiles should be grouted properly with waterproof
cement mortar.

Junctions of wall finishes and bathtub or shower trays should be sealed with suitable silicon
sealant. Wall tiles should be fully bedded with cement sand mortar and joints fully grouted with
waterproofing cement. Gaps between marble tiles should be fixed with flexible waterproofing joint
sealant to prevent long term minor movement giving rise to cracks for water penetration.

Should the source of leakage be identified from drains embedded in walls and floors, repair
methods are similar as described in Section 4.1.3(b) of this Chapter. Readers should always
consider changing an embedded drain to an exposed one to avoid future difficulty in maintenance.

(f) Common Drains

The defective section(s) should be replaced and securely fixed onto the external walls or floors.
For old buildings, building professional should be appointed to assess whether it would be more
economical to replace all the common drains in the long run.

(g) Underground Drains

(i) Manholes

Manholes should be readily accessible for regular maintenance. Access to them should not be
obstructed by floor finishes, planters or furniture items.
Foul air leaking from manholes could be stopped by repairing the edges of the manhole opening,
cracks in the manhole and manhole cover or using a double-sealed type manhole cover.

Manholes and their covers may subside or may be damaged due to unforeseeable heavy traffic
loads. Under such circumstances, the existing manhole should be replaced by a more heavy duty
manhole with suitable designs.

(ii) Drains

Conditions of underground drains with diameter 100mm or more can be checked by close-circuit
television (CCTV) camera. The scanning can reveal cracks, leakage or other defects along the full
length of the drain. Replacement work can then be implemented accordingly.

(iii) Blockage

Minor blockage of drain can usually be cleared either by high-pressure water jet or rodding. In
case of serious blockage by materials such as cement, the defective portion might have to be
exposed and replaced.

4.1.4 Slopes and Retaining Walls

Typical Routine Maintenance Works for Slopes and Retaining Walls are as follows:

Features Typical Maintenance Works Required

(a) Surface Drainage System (e.g. • Clear debris, undesirable vegetation and other
drainage channels, obstructions.
catchpits and sand traps)
• Repair minor cracks with cement mortar or flexible
sealing compound.

• Rebuild severely cracked channels.

(b) Weepholes and Surface • Clear obstructions (e.g. weeds and debris) in
Drainage Pipes weepholes and pipe ends.

• Probe with rods for deeper obstructions.

 4.1.4 Slopes and Retaining Walls (continues)
Features Typical Maintenance Works Required

(c) 'Rigid' Surface Cover (e.g. • Remove undesirable vegetation growth.

chunam and shotcrete)
plaster like or sandscreed
like
• Repair cracks or spalling.

• Regrade and repair eroded areas.

• Replace surface cover which has separated from

underlying soil.

(d) Vegetated Surface • Regrade eroded areas with compacted soil

Cover followed by re-planting.

• Replant vegetation in areas where the vegetated

surfacing has died.

(e) Rock Slopes and • Seal up open joints or provide local surfacing to
Boulders prevent ingress of water.

• Remove loose rock debris.

• Remove undesirable vegetation growth.

(f) Structural Facings • Re-point deteriorated mortar joints on masonry face.

• Repair cracking or spalling of concrete surface and

replace missing or deteriorated joint fillers and
sealants.

Note : Safe and easy access should be designed and maintained for carrying out the maintenance
works.
This section provides the basic principles in planning for long term maintenance. Some topics
though look theoretical, can give readers some ideas on the importance of planning ahead and
carrying out preventive measures to minimize any possible danger to lives. Interested readers are
encouraged to consult other text and publications for more in-depth understanding on the subject.
With some background knowledge in the field, readers may find it easier to communicate with
building professionals to device action plans for long term effective maintenance.
4.4.1 Maintenance in General
The following are aspects of maintenance that should be considered forformulating plans:
(a) Servicing
It includes periodic inspection, cleansing, oiling (mechanical parts) and adjustments. The objective
is to minimize wear and tear, and to prevent breakdown.
(b) Repairs
Apart from regular servicing, building elements, installation and facilities require repairs from time
to time. Repairs are
usually on a need basis and in most cases are passive response. Good design, materials and
workmanship together with proper use and regular maintenance can contribute to deferring the
first major repairs. In addition to the above, regular and thorough inspection and
regular repairs can also help defer the subsequent major repairs.

(c) Replacement
When a building element or part of a system reaches the end of its economic expected lifespan,
repairs are not advisable. Replacement will be more cost effective.

(d) Upgrading
This might involve re-decoration, improvement and refurbishment, etc., to upgrade part or portion
of the building to a higher standard.
4.4.3 Survey of Existing Conditions

Before any maintenance works are carried out, a condition survey of the building is usually
conducted. The purposes of a condition survey are to:

• understand current conditions and degree of deterioration of the building;

• identify the causes of deterioration so that appropriate repair methods canbe specified;

• assess the extent of works, prepare for budget, plan the implementation priorities and program; and

• estimate the quantities of repair and maintenance works for the preparationof contracts.

4.4.6 Maintenance Cycle

The following maintenance cycles are suggested for reference. They are dependent on the
particular circumstances of the building, and the cycles can be adjusted to suit a circumstances
and level of maintenance expected. However, for essential items which affects safety of the
occupiers and the public such as external wall finishes, fire services and lift installations, the
following suggestions should be regarded as the reasonable cycle and should not be lengthened.
Facility Items of Work Cycle

External Walls Redecoration 4-5 years

Painting

External Walls Regular inspection yearly

Finishes
Detail inspection and check up 5-6 years

Internal Walls Redecoration/touching up 3 years

Structural repair as and when

necessary

Fresh Water Inspect grease, switches pumps & checkvalves monthly

Supply

Cleanse water tanks & check valves 3 months

Flushing Water Inspect, grease, switch pumps & checkvalves monthly

Supply

Cleanse water tanks & check valves 6 months

Windows, Inspect condition & refix yearly

External
Railings & Repainting (steel and iron) 2-3 years
Metalwork

Drainage-Roof Check and cleanse drains and surfacechannels Bi-weekly and before and
aftertyphoon/heavyrainfall

Drainage above Check externally for defects or vegetationgrowth yearly

ground

Drainage- Check and cleanse manhole 2 months

Underground
C.C.T.V. survey for underground drains (if frequent 2 years
subsoil movements are expected)

Lifts Oiling & servicing monthly

Overhaul yearly

Fire Services Inspect & refix by management staff weekly

Overhaul & report to Fire ServicesDepartment yearly

Fire-resisting doors 1-2 days

 4.4.6 Maintenance Cycle (continues)

Facility Items of Work Cycle

Play Equipment Inspection by management staff 1-2 days

Inspection by mechanics/specialist yearly

Slopes and Inspection of surface drainage channels and surface At least once a year
Retaining protectionby management staff beforethe onset of the wet
Walls season, and after a
heavy rainstorm or a
typhoon
Routine maintenance inspections At least once a year
beforethe onset of the wet
season, and after a
heavy rainstorm or a
typhoon
Inspection by a qualifiedGeotechnical Engineer At least once every 5 years

Others Alarms, Communal Aerial Broadcasting Distribution 6 months -1 year

System(CABD), security, etc.

Roofing, floors, finishes yearly