5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

Mapping
Thursday, 13 April 2023 5:11 AM

42068_clas…

43608_clas…

Index
Physiography of India (mountain, plains, plateau, and islands)

A brief introduction to the Map classes and their importance for the examination
• Both from World's perspective and India's perspective
○ World:
• Political Locations - Boundaries and neighbours
• Physical - Mountains, Plains, rivers, etc
• Economic Aspect - Transporation, Minerals
• Oceanic and Current related
○ India:
• Mountain, Plateaus, Island, Rivers
• Environment - Wetlands, NP, TR, BR, Ramsar Sites, etc
• Transportation, resources, etc
• Current related locations from India's perspective
• Tribes of India through Map, etc

Basics of World Mapping:

• 7 Continents and 5 Oceans
○ Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Southern Ocean
○ Ocean cover 70% of the earth's surface
○ Southern Ocean is the fifth Ocean and is the recent edition ie in the year 2000 by International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO)
○ Rationale - As it does not mix with other waters easily due to westerlies
○ Unofficially the Southern Ocean is also called Austral Ocean

• Pacific Ocean:
○ The Pacific Ocean is the largest and the deepest ocean on average and has a Pacific Ring of Fire
○ It is twice the size of the Atlantic Ocean
○ The Pacific Ocean has the deepest point in the ocean i.e. Mariana Trench that is Challenger Deep; Major country near is the
Philippines; Approximately it has a depth of 10, 994 metres
• Atlantic Ocean:
○ It is the youngest Ocean - 250 million years is its age
○ It is the 2nd largest ocean and is in S-shape
○ The most prominent feature is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which is also in S-shape
○ The Drake Passage connects the Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic Ocean

[Link] - … 1/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• Indian Ocean:
○ Only Ocean to be named after a country
○ The Indian Ocean is connected to land towards the North
• Arctic Ocean
○ It is the smallest ocean out of all the 5 oceans
○ It has no landmass and is covered with ice
○ The area under the ice is decreasing due to Global warming
○ The polar bear is the largest land carnivore which is there in the Arctic
○ Due to Arctic amplification, the impact of Global warming is more as it has a fragile ecosystem
• Temperature increase *2 times as compared to rest of the planet
• Why?- sea ice melting reducing earth's albedo, global atmospheric winds transfer energy towards higher latitudes.

• As per IPCC’s Report (AR6), Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is showing signs of weakness and it is very likely to
decline over 21st century
• Because of ice melting -> salinity decreases -> less sinking -> AMOC weakens
○ Human beings have been existing here for long times; Also, Neanderthal existed here

Continents:
• Asia
○ Continents as per size - Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, Oceania is in decreasing order
○ No standard and official definition for the continent
○ Till the edge of the continental shelf, it is continent and beyond it is part of world oceans
○ The Ural Mountains as the boundary between Europe and Asia

○ Caucasus Mountain Region - Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia

[Link] - … 2/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

○ Turkey connects both Asia and Europe; Istanbul (earlier Name - Constantinople, Silk Route used to pass through this)
• Strait of Bosphorus - connecting the black sea with Sea of Marmara
○ Seas - the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea
○ Asia and Africa - the Sinai Peninsula is under the control of Egypt

○ New Guinea Island - Boundary between Asia (Indonesia) and Oceania (Papua New Guinea)
○ Highest Point of Asia - Mount Everest is between Nepal and China
○ Deepest Point on the continent - Dead Sea (between Israel and Jordon)

• Europe
○ It is called the Peninsula of the Peninsulas
○ Vatican City - Smallest Country is in Europe
○ Alps Mountains and Mount Elbrus(Russia) in Caucasian Mountains which is the highest Point
○ The Caspian Sea is the lowest point in Europe

• Africa
○ Africa is the only continent through which Tropic of Cancer, Capricorn and Equator passes through it
○ Strait of Gibraltar
• Connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates the Iberian Peninsula in Europe from Morocco in
Africa.
○ Nile River
• Mouth - Nile Delta, Egypt in Mediterranean Sea
• Left -White Nile
• Right - Blue Nile, Atbara

○ Dark Continent - Because it was not explored much

○ The highest point of Africa - Mt Kilimanjaro
ड़ो रे
[Link] - … 3/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
• एकला खड़ो रे
• Stratovolcano, dormant

○ Lowest Point of Africa - Lake Assal (Djibouti)

• Americas
○ It consists of both North and South America
○ Both are connected but not connected to other continents
○ North American - Greenland (Denmark), USA, Canada, Mexico, etc
○ South America - Chile, Argentina, till the Drake Passage
○ Americas are called the New World
○ Latin America excludes USA and Canada
• Predominantly languages derived from Latin are spoken i.e. French, Spanish, Portuguese

○ Highest Point of N. America - Mount McKinley or Denali in Alaska, etc

• South America
○ Andes and Drakes passage
• Andes

• Countries - Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.

• Highest mountain peak - Argentina's Mount [Link]
○ Amazon River and Orinocco River passes through Venezuela

•
[Link] - … 4/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
•

• Amazon Drainage Basin - Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.

○ Angel Falls is the highest waterfall in the world ie 979 metres

• Exist on Churún River, a tributary of the Carrao River, itself a tributary of the Orinoco River.
• Exist in Venezuela
○ Highest Point of S. America - Mt Aconcagua in Argentina ie 6960 metres
○ Deepest Point of S. America - Valdez Peninsula

• Oceania
○ Presence of a large number of Islands - Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia; Australasia
○ Micronesia - Kiribati and Marshall Islands
○ Melanesia - Papua New Guniea Islands, Fiji Islands (due to Melanin Pigmentation), Solomon Islands
○ Polynesia - A large number of islands spread over a large area; Hawaii Island (50th State of USA), Eastern Island, New Zealand

○ Great Dividing Range - Australia

• 5th longest mountain range, exist parallel to the east coast of Australia

[Link] - … 5/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
○ Southern Alps - New Zealand

○ Mount Wilhelm may be considered the highest mountain in Oceania

• In Papua new guinea
○ Deepest point - Lake Eyre in Australia
• Antarctica
○ It is also called as White continent as 99% of it is covered in ice
○ It is also called Terra Australis Incognita i.e land south unknown
○ Vinson Massif is the highest point in Antarctica

○ Antarctic Treaty System, 1961 - Antarctica belongs to no one and is for peaceful purpose, etc
• The Antarctic Treaty (1959)
• Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991)

○ About Antarctica

– Antarctica is the world’s southernmost and fifth largest continent. It is also the world’s highest, driest, windiest, coldest, and iciest
continent.
– The continent is divided into East Antarctica (Greater Antarctica) and West Antarctica (Lesser Antarctica). They are separated
by Transantarctic Mountains.
– East Antarctica is composed of older, igneous and metamorphic rocks whereas West Antarctica, is made up of younger, volcanic and
sedimentary rock.
a. West Antarctica, is part of the “Ring of Fire,” a tectonically active area around the Pacific Ocean.
– Mount Erebus, located on Antarctica’s Ross Island, is the southernmost active volcano on Earth.
– Longest River: Onyx
– Largest Lake: Vostok

Indian Mapping:
• Neighbouring Countries:
○ Land Boundary - Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Bangladesh, China
• Through Wakhan Corridor India is connected to Afghanistan
• Bangladesh (4000 Kms), China (3500 Kms), Pakistan (3300 KMs), Nepal (1700 KMs), Myanmar (1650 Kms), Bhutan (700
Kms), Afghanistan
○ Maritime boundaries
• Sri lanka, Maldives, Indonesia, Thailand, Pakistan, Myanmar, Bangladesh

• Extreme Points of India:

• Northenmost - In Gilgit Baltistan and Indira Col near Siachen

[Link] - … 6/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• Southernmost - Cape Comorin, Kanyakumari (on land) and Indira Point(great nicobar)
• Easternmost Point - Kibithu (Arunachal Pradesh)
• Western Most Point - Sir Creek (Kutch, Gujrat)
• Highest Point - Mt K2 or Mt Godwin Austin(gilgit), Kangchenjunga(Sikkim)
• Lowest Point in India - Kuttanad, Kerela (famous for below sea level rice cultivation)

• States and Union Territories (UTs):

○ 28 states in India and 8 Union Territories (UTs), etc

○ Border states of Chattisgarh(7) - Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh.
(Not Bihar)
○ No direct passage between Rajasthan and Maharashtra
○ Ladakh is connected to Himachal Pradesh (not Punjab)
○ Haryana has no international border and is not connected to Uttrakhand directly
○ States which don't have any international borders (5)
• Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, Telangana.
○ Punjab and Rajasthan are connected directly and have an international border with Pakistan
○ Paonta Sahib - is an important pilgrimage site for Sikhs and the Yamuna river crosses Himachal Pradesh here

• South:
○ Kerala has boundaries with Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
○ Tamil Nadu has boundaries with Kerela, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
○ There is no border between Telangana and Odisha
○ There is a direct border between Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh

• East:
○ There is a border between Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
○ No border between Chhattisgarh and Bihar
○ No border between Madhya Pradesh and Bihar
○ No border between Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand

[Link] - … 7/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• Northeast:
○ Sikkim has only a border with West Bengal
○ Assam has a border with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya, West Bengal
• Capitals

World
• Asian Continent - Political

• Regions - West Asia/Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia, South-East Asia
• Boundary between Asia and Europe - The Arctic Ocean, Ural Mountains, Caspian Sea
• Water bodies Surrounding - Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea; Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman; Bay of
Bengal; Andaman Sea (on the eastern side of the Andaman Islands), Gulf of Thailand; South and the East China Sea, Yellow Sea, Sea
of Japan(East Sea), Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea

West Asia:

[Link] - … 8/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

○ West Asia includes Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.
○ Cyprus -
• It is a member of the EU
• Geographically located on the continental shelf of Asia
• In the UN it sits in the Asia-pacific group
○ Turkey is both in Europe and Asia
• Ankara is the capital of Turkey
• The Aegean Sea and Sea of Marmara (connected with the Black Sea) - separate European Turkey and Asian Turkey
• Istanbul (earlier Constantinople - silk trade used to pass through) is in European Turkey
• It is the largest city of entire Europe.
○ Iran
• Capital is Tehran
• Waterbodies - Caspian, Sea, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf
○ No country in West Asia is landlocked except Armenia.
○ UAE(Capital - Abu Dhabi) is between Saudi Arabia and Oman (Muscat)

○ Houthi rebels in Yemen and the civil war is going on

○ Qatar (Doha) - It is a peninsula; with only a border with Saudi Arabia

○ Bahrain - It is an island
○ Riyadh is in the middle of Saudi Arabia; Mecca and Medina are in Saudi Arabia; Monarchy still prevails there
○ The capitals of these countries are important
• Oman has a coast in the Persian Gulf

• Gulf of Oman - Oman and UAE

○ Gulf of Aden - Yemen, Somalia, Djibouti
○ Red Sea - Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Israel, Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Jordan

[Link] - … 9/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

○ Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba (Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Israel, Egypt - two ports Al Aqaba - Jordon; Elat - Israel)

○ Jordan (Amman) - has a coast in the Gulf of Aqaba; the Jordon River marks the border between Jordan and Israel; It enters and
drains into the dead sea (the lowest point on the continent of the earth)

○ Israel - the land of Jews; Jerusalem is capital

○ Palestine - West Bank (west bank of Jordon river) and Gaza
○ Lebanon (Beirut is the capital)
○ Syria - Damascus is the capital of Syria
○ Golan Heights - occupied by Israel in 1967 during 6 days of the war; junction of Syria, Jordan, Israel and Lebanon

○ Shia countries - Iran, Iraq and Bahrain and Lebanon; ruler of Syria i.e. Assad but people are Sunni
○ Sunni - Saudi Arabia
○ Kurdistan - Border area of Turkey, Iraq and Syria; tribal people who live here are Kurds

○ GCC - Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, UAE and Oman are part of it; Iran and Iraq are not part of it
○ Turkey
• North Anatolian fault - transform fault

[Link] -… 10/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

Central Asia:
• 5 Central Asian Countries - Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan
• Afghanistan is not traditionally part of Central Asia
• India has a border with Afghanistan in Wakhan Corridor
• All are landlocked countries except Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan
• Uzbekistan is doubly landlocked - surrounded by all landlocked country
○ Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan are the only “doubly landlocked” countries (all their neighbors are also landlocked countries).

• Borders of caspian sea - Russia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan

• Capitals:
○ Kazakhstan - Noor Sultan(Astana)
○ Uzbekistan - Tashkent
○ Kyrgyzstan - Bishkek (Pamir Knot, Bishkek Declaration for Snow leopard Conservation)

○ Turkmenistan - Ashgabat
○ Tajikistan - Dushanbe

South Asia
• They are called SAARC Countries
• Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives

South-East Asia:
• It has 10 countries that are members of the ASEAN
○ 5 countries form the mainland - Myanmar, Thailand (maritime boundary with India in the Andaman Sea), Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia;
also known as Indo-China
○ 5 Island countries - Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, Philippines
• This region has maximum Archipelago due to Ocean-Ocean Convergent boundaries
• Coco Islands - Myanmar has a maritime boundary with India

○ Alleged for chinese involvement in establishing surveillance and civilian infrastructure.

• Order of capitals of South east Asian countries

• Hanoi
• Naypyidaw
• Vientiane
• Manila
• Bangkok
• Phnom Penh
• Kuala Lampur
• Singapore
• Jakarta
• Thailand - Bangkok (Bangkok Declaration - ASEAN was established through this declaration)
• Cambodia - is famous for its Angkor vat Temple; Phon Penh is the capital
• Malaysia - Kuala Lumpur is the capital; Islamic majority country
• Singapore - Island; is the world's busiest port
• Indonesia - Sumatra, Java; Jakarta is the capital and is in Java; now the capital is being shifted; It has the highest Islamic population in
the world
○ The new capital of Indonesia is Nusantara
• Brunei - Bandar Seri Begawan is the capital

[Link] - … 11/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
• The Philippines - Manila is the capital; it has 3 important regions i.e. Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao
• Note : East Timor is part of Asia but not part of ASEAN

• Strait of Johor separates Singapore from Malaysia.

• Large number of volcanoes around Indonesian islands and replenishing it of nutrients.
• Borneo islands (one of the pristine regions; rainforest vegetation)
• Singapore --> Singapore city (the strategic route for trade through narrow passage).
• Brunei --> Bandar Seri Begawan.
• Philippines --> Manila.
• Taiwan --> Taipei.

East Asia

• It consists of a total of five countries of China (Beijing), Mongolia (Ulaanbaatar), North Korea (Pyongyang), South Korea
(Seoul), and Japan (Tokyo situated on Honshu island).
• Only Russia and China surround Mongolia.
• Mongolia is rich in Uranium.
• 38th parallel, a popular name given to latitude 38° N that in East Asia roughly demarcates North Korea and South Korea.
• Japan has four major islands: Hokkaido (northernmost); Honshu (bigger one), Sikoku, and Kyushu.
• Tokyo is the largest city for the urban population in the world (the second largest in New Delhi by population).

•
[Link] -… 12/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
•

• Russia & nearby regions:

○ Known as the erstwhile USSR or the Soviet Union consisted of 15 countries are Russia, five Central Asian countries
(Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), Georgia, Armenia (rich in petroleum and Gas resources),
Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

• Countries surrounding the Caspian Sea (the largest lake): KRAIT --> Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Russia, Iran and Turkmenistan.
• Aral Sea (90% dried) is situated between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.
• Armenia is a landlocked country.
• Between Armenia and Azerbaijan (Muslim-dominated country), the land/region is called Nagorno Karabakh (currently
in Azerbaijan).

Europe

○ ELLBU
○ P
○ GCS

[Link] -… 13/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
○ AHRM

○ SCB - SM - BMA - G

• Eastern Europe : Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Hungry, Slovenia, Croatia, Bos., Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Montenegro,
Albania, Macedonia, Greece.
• Western Europe: France, Germany, Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, Belgium, LUX, CH, Italy.
• Waterbodies of Europe: the Caspian Sea, Black sea, Aegean sea, Mediterranean sea, Adriatic sea, Black sea, Norwegian sea, North
Sea, Baltic sea, etc.
• Scandinavian countries include Norway, Sweden, and Demark.
• Nordic countries include Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland and Greenland.
• England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
• England and Wales are called Britain.
• England Wales and Scotland are called Great Britain.
• Great Britain and Northern Ireland together called the United Kingdom (UK).

• The Republic of Ireland is a separate country and is not a part of the UK.
• Countries having borders with the Atlantic Ocean are Portugal, Spain, France, the UK, Iceland, Norway.
• North sea touches the UK, Norway, Germany, Denmark, etc
• Spain, France and Italy have coastal borders with the Mediterranean sea.
• Germany has their coasts with both the North Sea and the Baltic sea.
• The Baltic sea covers Germany, Poland (capital: Warsaw), Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
• Three Baltic countries are Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
• Adriatic sea: Italy (Western side of the Adriatic sea) + SCB MA (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro and Albania).
• Aegean Sea: Turkey and Greece.
• Sea of Marmara provides the link between the Aegean sea and the Black sea.
• The black sea covers six countries : BRUGRT (Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Georgia, Russia and Turkey).
• The sea of Azov surrounds two countries: Ukraine and Russia.
• The youngest country in Europe is Kosovo (separated from Serbia and recognized by the UN).
• NOTE: Kindly go through the EU and Non-EU countries and groups like Eurozone.

Americas
• Northern America:
○ It consists of Canada, the USA, Mexico, Central America, Caribbean islands and Denmark(Greenland).
○ Canada (the land of Lilies and the capital is Ottava) is the second-largest country in terms of area.
○ The capital of the USA is Washington D.C.
○ The USA: 48 mainland states + Alaska + Hawaiian islands
○ St. Lawrence makes the boundary between Canada and the USA.
○ Rio Grande River separates the USA and Mexico.
○ Mexico (capital: Mexico city) is situated between two Gulfs: the Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of California.

[Link] -… 14/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• Central America consists of seven countries:

○ Four countries (GBEH: Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras) in the north and three are in the south (NCP: Nicaragua,
Costa Rica and Panama).
• GBEHNCP (Great Britain में एक हलवाई नान छोले और पनीर बनाने गया)
○ Except for Belize and El Salvador, all other five Central American countries touch the borders of both the Carrabian sea and the
Pacific ocean.
○ The northern triangle is denoted by three countries of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras.
○ Entire Caribbean islands are divided into the Greater Antilles and the Lesser Antilles.
○ Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic (CJ-DH chief justice Dhananjay High) consist of the Greater Antilles.

○ Bermuda Triangle
• Bermuda is a territory of the UK.
• Puerto Rico is a territory of the USA

• Southern America:
○ Venezuela is a petroleum dominated economy.
○ Lake Maracaibo is a rich resource of petroleum

○ The largest country in Southern America is Brazil.

○ The Equator passes through Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador (ECB)
○ Other countries are Colombia, Suriname, Guiana, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay (a landlocked country), Bolivia
(a landlocked country), Peru and Chile.
○ Argentina is known for Silver.
○ Chile and Colombia have borders with both the Atlantic ocean as well as the Pacific Ocean.
○ The major southernmost islands are Tierra del Fuego.
○ Lithium triangle countries are Argentina, Chile and Bolivia.(ABC)

[Link] -… 15/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

Africa:
• The countries that have coasts with the Red Sea are Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti.
• Sudan was separated into Sudan and South Sudan.
• Darfur is situated in the region of Sudan.
• Djibouti code of conduct for maritime security.
• Ethiopia is known for one of the best coffee quality in the world.
• Horn of Africa: SEED that is Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti.
• Eastern coastal countries are Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Madagascar, etc.
• Tanzania is famous for Kilimanjaro.
• Namibia is famous for the Namib desert (known for its highest sand dunes in the world).
• Five countries that touch the Mediterranean sea are Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt (MATLE).
• Atlas Mountains - across Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
• Sahara Desert -
○ Libya, Algeria, Egypt, Tunisia, Chad, Morocco, Eritrea, Niger, Mauritania, Mali, and Sudan.
• MATLE
• M-MN-CSE
• Jasmine revolution happened in Tunisia.

[Link] -… 16/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

1. MATLE
2. MMNCSE (मन मोहन ने अब CSE पढ़ायेंगे)
3. Tropic of cancer - WM-MALE (M- mauritiania)
4. NCC-SES
5. GCC में तन के UK गया (GCC-UK-T)
i. equator passes through GCCUKS(somalia)
6. AZ-malamaal
7. NBZMM

Australia
• Coastal cities of Australia connotes for BSCMAPH consist of Brisbane, Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne, Adelaide, and Perth from the east
to west.

[Link] -… 17/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

Arctic circle and Antarctica

• In the Arctic circle, India has a station called Himadri in the Svalbard region.
• The Arctic Council was established on 19 September 1996 when the governments of Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Finland,
Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden, and the United States signed the Ottawa Declaration.
• India has regions in Antarctica that are Dakshin Gangotri (abandoned), Maitri (currently operational), and Bharti.
• Dakshin Gangotri was the first scientific base station of India situated in Antarctica, part of the Indian Antarctic Programme.

[Link] -… 18/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

Important passes

• Tropic of Cancer (passes through North America, Africa and Asia)

○ In Africa : Western Sahara, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Algeria, Egypt, Libya.
○ In Asia : Bangladesh, China, India, Myanmar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, United Arab Emirates.

• Tropic of Capricorn:
○ Tropic of Capricorn passes through Chile, Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil (Abbreviation is BCAP) in South America.
○ In Africa: Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique, Madagascar and South Africa (NB-MMS).
○ In Asia and Ocean: Australia.

• Equator:
○ In Africa: Gabon, Congo, DRC, Uganda, Kenya and Somalia (GCCUKS).
○ In South America: Ecuador, Columbia and Brazil (BCE).

[Link] -… 19/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• Prime Meridian passes only through the UK, France and Spain in Europe.
○ The prime meridian and Equator meet at the Gulf of Guinea.

Mountains

• Nature of formation
○ Block mountain
○ Fold mountain
○ Volcanic mountain

• Based on the age of formation, there are four types.

○ Precambrian mountains (540 million years ago), highly weathered mountains.
• Example Laurentian plateau (eastern Canada)
○ Caledonian mountains 450 to 350 Mya (old fold mountains)
• Example 1 Appalachian Mountain, rich in iron ore and coal reserves.
• Example 2 - Aravalli in India
• Example 3 - Great Dividing Range.
• Example3 - Southern alps (New Zealand)- The highest peak is Mt cook (aka Aoraki)
○ Hercynian mountains Formed during (250 to 350 Mya) aka block mountain.
• Example Black Forest (on the border of Germany and France). It’s the horst and graben in Rhine valley, Vosges is block
mountain (horst)
• Black forest source of Danube River
• Ural mountain (partly Block Mountain due to rifting and it’s also old fold mountain) between Siberian and Eastern Russia
• Altai Mountain and they are block mountains.
• Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Russia
○ Alpine mountains such as the Himalayas. - at plate margins
• Another example Pamir knot Armenian Knot, Karakoram range, Kunlun Shan
• Hindukush- Afghanistan
[Link] -… 20/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
• Taurus mountain in turkey
• Caucus mountain
• Zagros mountain and Elbrus mountains in Iran
• Khyber Pass is located on Hindukush Mountain in Pakistan.
• Mont Blanc is the highest peak of the alps.
• Africa - Atlas Mountain, highest peak Mt Kilimanjaro(not in atlas), Mt Kenya (on the equator) but snow-capped throughout the
year due to its altitude.
• Rocky Mountain, Alaska range (Highest peak is) Mt McKinley aka Mt Denali.
• Rocky mountain in North America. The Sierra Nevada extends into Mexico as the Sierra Madre.
• Andes mountain In South America and the highest peak is Aconcagua (Brazil is not part of the Andes). There are 7 countries
through which the Andes pass and they are Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.

Rank Range Continent Country Max. elevation Highest point

Mid Atlantic Ridge 65,000 kilometers
1 Andes 7,000 kilometers South America Argentina 6,962 m Mount Aconcagua
Bolivia (22,841 ft)
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Peru
Venezuela
2 Southern Great Escarpment Africa Zimbabwe 3,482 m Thabana Ntlenyana
South Africa (11,424 ft)
Swaziland
Lesotho
Namibia
Angola
3 Rocky Mountains 4,800 kilometers North America Canada 4,401 m Mount Elbert
United States (14,439 ft)
4 Transantarctic Mountains Antarctica Antarctica 4,528 m Mount Kirkpatrick
(14,856 ft)
5 Great Dividing Range 3,500 kilometers Australia Australia 2,228 m Mount Kosciuszko
(7,310 ft)
6 Himalayas 2,400 kilometers Asia India 8,848 m Mount Everest
Pakistan (29,029 ft)
China
Bhutan
Nepal
Afghanistan
Myanmar
7 Ural Mountains Asia and Europe Russia 1,895 m Mount Narodnaya
Kazakhstan (6,217 ft)

Volcanos of the world

• Types of volcanos
○ Active - Erupted at least once in the human history
○ Dormant (Not erupted in the human history) but has a link with a magma chamber
○ Extinct – cut-off from the Magma chamber.
• North America
○ Mt St Halen’s (active volcano) - USA
○ Largest volcano - Mouna loa (active volcano) and Mauna kea (dormant) are both on Hawaiian island)
○ Highest volcano in the world Ojos del Salado in South America and its active volcanos

○ Cotopaxi and Chimborazo are active volcanoes in Ecuador

• Europe

[Link] -… 21/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
○ Mt Vesuvius in Italy and Mt Stromboli on aeolian islands in tyrrhenian sea in Italy, Mount Etna - Sicily island
• Asia
○ Mt Fuji in Japan, Krakatoa volcano between (Java and Sumatra) erupted in 1883.
○ Mt Merapi on the island of java, Mt Semeru (the highest volcano in Indonesia), last erupted in Jan 2021.
○ Most active volcanos of Indonesia is Sinabung in Sumatra
○ Philippines taal volcanos.
• Antarctica
○ Mount erebus - ross islands in southern Pacific Ocean.
• Volcanos in the news in the last 2 years
○ White island volcanos, 2019 in New Zealand.
○ Volcano Sangay Ecuador’s (2020)
○ Cumbre vieja (la Palma) canaries island of Spain (Dec 2021)
○ Mt Aso in Japan.
○ Hunga Tonga in Tonga island and erupted in Jan 2022.

Deserts of the worlds

• Cold deserts
○ Gobi deserts
○ Ladakh deserts
○ Mohave, Namib, Atacama Desert etc
• Africa desert example Sahara
• Sahel region - semi-arid desert
• Sandy desert of Sahara is known as erg
• Rocky desert is known as HAMADA
• Libya has a Libyan desert
• Nubian desert in Sudan
• Eastern desert in Egypt
• Namib desert is known for the highest dunes in the world
• The Kalahari Desert in Botswana. It’s one of the driest deserts and Bushman lives here.
• Swampy area of North of Botswana Okavango swamps.

• North America
○ The Mojave Desert. It has Death Valley. The lowest point in North America
○ Sonoran or Arizona desert.
• South America
○ The Atacama Desert
○ Patagonian Desert (Chile and Argentina). It’s a national park.
• Deserts Of Asia
○ Rub al Khali in Arabian Peninsula.
○ Dushte kavir and Dushte lut are salt desert
○ Karakum desert is a cold desert in Turkmenistan.
○ Thar desert India
○ Gobi Desert in China

• Australia desert
○ Great Victorian desert
○ Great sandy desert
○ Tanami desert
○ Simpson desert

Important local winds

[Link] -… 22/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

Plateau

• Australia
○ Kimberley plateau in Australia
○ Temperate grassland known as Downs.
○ Ayers rock in Australia is the largest sandstone monolith in the world
• North America
○ Great planes (part of Canada and USA). Aka as prairies (wheat-growing region).
○ Columbia and Colorado Plateau between Rocky and cascade mountain.
• Asia
○ Anatolia plateau is in Turkey from which originates tigress and Euphrates rivers
○ Tibetan Plateau - largest as well as highest plateau formed due to convergence plate boundary. The average height is 4500
meters
• South america
○ Altiplano - Chile, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina
○

Rivers

[Link] -… 23/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• North America
○ Alaska Yukon river for gold placer deposits. drains into the Bering Sea
○ McKenzie river in Canada it’s the largest river in Canada and drains into the Arctic Ocean
○ Columbia river from the Columbia plateau drains into the Pacific Ocean and the Colorado River in the Gulf of California.
○ Colorado river has Grand Canyon.
• NCERT वाला फोटो
○ Mississippi river. its delta looks like a bird’s foot. It drains into the Gulf of Mexico.
○ St Lawrence river drains into the Atlantic Ocean. This river has Niagara waterfall (USA and Canada border)
○ Hudson river has a long island and the city is New York

• South America
○ Brazilian islands are famous for coffee plantations.
○ Highest navigable lake is Lake Titicaca in the Andes mountains
○ Selvas are the rainiest of South America
○ Llanos are to the north of Selvas
○ Pampas are the temperate grassland of South America.
○ Amazon river widest river in the world
○ 2nd widest river in the world is the Brahmaputra.
○ Paraguay and Uruguay rivers in South America
○ Drakensberg plateau near to coast

• African rivers
○ Nile river. it flows for 6650 km. Major tributaries are White Nile (Lake Victoria), Blue Nile (Ethiopia), and Atbara (Ethiopia highland).
• Lake Nasser is a manmade lake in the region.
• Millennium dam on Blue Nile River.
○ Congo river, Congo Forest. Congo river cuts the equator twice.
• It originates from Lake Tanganyika.
• Stanley waterfall on Congo River. It's a series of seven waterfalls.
○ Zambezi river passes on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe. It has Victoria waterfall and drains into the Indian ocean.
○ Limpopo river crosses the tropic of Capricorn twice and drains into the Indian ocean.

• Rivers of Europe
○ Lisbon is located on river Tagus River
○ Paris is located on the seine river. It drains into the English Channel.
○ English Channel is a water channel between France and UK.
○ Thames river through London. It drains into the North Sea
○ Rhine river flows through Germany and drains into the North Sea. It originates in the Alps. It crosses a total of 6 countries (France,
Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria, and Liechtenstein.
○ Rhone is France's Major river and drains the Mediterranean sea.

• Black sea
○ Danube, Dnieper, and Dniester drain into the black sea.
○ Danube 2nd the longest river in Europe,
○ The Volga is the longest river in Europe.
○ Kyiv is located on the bank of the Dnieper river.
○ Pripyat river which flows through Chernobyl drains into Dnieper.

• Three important rivers of European Russia

○ Volga river drains into the Caspian Sea.
○ Don river Drains into a sea of Azov. Sea of Azov connected to Mediterranean Sea etc
○ Ural river
○ The Aral Sea near the Caspian Sea
○ The Aral Sea dried up 90 % in the last 20-30 years. After hydroelectric power plants were built by the Soviet Union. The Aral Sea is
between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. It’s fed by the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya

• Asian Russian rivers

○ Lina river from lake Baikal and drains into the arctic ocean

• West Asian rivers

○ Tigris and Euphrates originate from turkey and merge with each there before draining into the Persian Gulf.

• China rivers
○ Four major rivers of China from north to south
• Amur river. Forms border between Russia and China.
• Huang Ho River (yellow river). (Named yellow because of yellow-coloured sand coming from loess plateau) it drains into the
yellow sea.
• Chang Jiang River (the third-longest river in the world) aka Yangtze River. Drains into East China seas. Three Gorges dam
is located on this river.
• Shanghai is located near the Mouth of the Yangtze River
• Pearl river. Hongkong and Macau are located on the Pearl river

• Rivers of Southeast Asia. (West to East)

○ Irrawaddy river (flows through Myanmar). Drains in Bay Of Bengal
○ Salween river drains into the Andaman Sea
○ Chao Phraya river on which Bangkok is located. drains in the gulf of Thailand
○ Mekong river comes from China and drains into the South China sea. It touches five countries of Indochina. That’s why India has
Mekong Ganga cooperation MGC). It formed the border between Cambodia and Myanmar.
[Link] -… 24/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

Important lakes of the world

• NORTH America
○ Great bear lake.
○ Great slave lake. known for its copper and gold deposits.
○ Five great lakes of North America (caused due to glacial erosion in the Ice age (west to east) - SHMEO
• Superior lake.
• Lake Superior is known for superior quality iron ore.
• Michigan lake
• Except for Michigan all the lakes share a border with USA and Canada.
• Chicago is located on the bank of Michigan
• Huron lake
• Eire lake
• Ontario river.
• Toronto is located on the bank of the Ontario River.
○ Between Superior and Huron, the canal is Soo canal
○ Hudson river connects to Erie there is a canal called as Erie canal

• Lakes in Africa
○ Lake Assal and it’s the lowest point in Africa. In Djibouti
○ Lake tana source of Blue Nile Ethiopia.
○ Lake Turkana in Kenya
○ Lake Victoria . It’s the third-largest lake. (Caspian is 5 times largest than lake superior and superior is the 2nd largest lake).
• The Equator passes through the lake.
• It shares borders with Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania.
○ Tanganyika lake. It's 2nd deepest lake. (Lake Baikal is the deepest lake in the world)
○ Nyasa lake (in Malawi).

• Lakes in Asia
○ Dead sea
○ Sea of galilee
○ Lop Nur near Gobi Desert China. It's the nuclear testing site in china.
○ Tonle sap is the lake of Cambodia.

[Link] -… 25/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
○ Lake Toba in Sumatra. Its caldera lake,
○ Lake kajin sara lake in Nepal. The highest lake in the world
○ Lake Eyer the lowest point of Australia and known for natural springs

Ocean

• Isthmus - narrow land connecting to bigger land

• Strait is a navigable waterway that connects two large water bodies.
• Panama is known for Panama Canal. The USA constructed it in 1914. The length of the canal is 65kms it connects Panama City to the
colon.
• Isthmus of Suez (the Sinai Peninsula and Africa). Suez Canal was constructed in 1869.
• Isthmus of Kra, the proposed canal is the Kra canal in Southeast Asia

Peninsula

• Land surface covered by the ocean on three sides.

• Important peninsulas of the world are
○ Baja California peninsula
○ Florida peninsula
○ Iberian Peninsula of Europe On which Spain and Portugal are located.
○ Demark is also a peninsula.
○ Cape Verde is the westernmost part of Africa.
○ Southernmost part of Africa is Cape Agulhas.

• Important islands of the world

○ Largest island is Greenland.
○ 2nd largest new Guinea island
○ Borneo is 3rd largest
○ 4th is Madagascar
○ Galapagos island of South America. It's from Ecuador. Darwin made his experiments on Galapagos Island. The Equator passes
through it.
○ It's UNESCO's first World Heritage site. It has the largest tortoise in the world.
○ St Helene island

• The Mediterranean Sea

○ Balearic island controlled by Spain
○ Sardinia island of Italy. (Known for viticulture)
○ Corsica belongs to France. Napoleon was borne here.
○ Cicely belongs to Italy.
○ Malta island is an independent country.
○ Crete island belongs to Greece.
○ Cyprus island near Turkey.

• The Indian Ocean

○ Socotra island. It controls the ships coming from Suez Canal. It's under Yemen. It was leased to the USA till 2021. Yemen rebels
Houthis captured the Socotra Island.
○ Lakshadweep
○ The Maldives
• Airship and docking facilities to be built by India on the assumption island
• Comoros
○ Agalega island is part of Mauritius.
○ Reunions island - France
○ These above islands created an informal group name as vanilla islands for promoting tourism. Sri Lanka is also part of it. India has
proposed A and N be accepted as part of the vanilla island.
○ Chagas archipelago. It’s under the UK. Historically it's part of Mauritius.

Strait and channel

• Strait is narrow and shallow. Strait is natural.
• Channel is wide and deep. it is natural as well as manmade. Channel is always navigable
• Denmark strait between Iceland and green land
• Drake passage Between south America and the Antarctic
• Mozambique and Madagascar by Mozambique channel.
• Marmara and the black sea is the Bosporus strait
• Strait of Kerch between sea Azov and black sea
• France and England - English Channel.
• Bab al Mandab between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
• The Strait of Hormuz is between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.
• Strait of Malacca between Malaysia and Indonesia
• Palk strait between India and Sri Lanka
• Formosa Strait between Taiwan and china

• Naval Chokepoints

[Link] -… 26/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• Malacca - Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) and the South China Sea (Pacific Ocean).
• Hormuz - Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Oman
• Bab el-Mandeb Strait - Red sea and gulf of Aden
• Suez - mediterranean sea and red sea
• Bosphorus - Black sea to sea of marmara
• Dardenelles - sea of marmara to aegean sea
• Gibraltar - atlantic to mediterrannean
• Panama - pacific to atlantic
• Bering strait - pacific and Arctic

MINERAL AND DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE WORLD

• REFER TO THE HANDOUTS

MAJOR HIGHWAYS OF THE WORLD

• The highway is a term used in India
• In the USA, it is called Freeway, In Germany, it is called Autobahns; In France, it is called Autoroute; In England, it is called Motorways;
In Italy, it is called Autostrade.
• Transcontinental Highways - Which connect two parts of the continent.
• Most important is Pan American Highway-Pan-American Highway, the network of highways connecting North America and South
America.
• Trans African Highway Network- 56000 km- Not completed yet. It is implemented by the United Nations Economic Commission for
Africa (UNECA), the African Development Bank (ADB), and the African Union in conjunction with regional international
communities.
• Asian Highway Network - Agreements have been signed by 32 countries. India is also a part of this network. It is implemented by
UNESCAP and Funded by Asian Development Bank.

• The International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) is a multi-modal connectivity project that establishes transport networks
(ship, rail, and road routes) for moving freight between India, Russia, Iran, Europe and Central Asia.

[Link] -… 27/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

○ The modern-day INSTC is a multi-modal transportation route linking the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf to the Caspian
Sea via Iran, and then onwards to northern Europe via St. Petersburg in Russia.
○ Mumbai is at the southern hub of the route.
○ The route extends to Bandar Abbas in Iran via sea.
○ From Bandar Abbas to Bandar-e-Anzali by road on the Iranian mainland. From Bandar-e-Anzali to Astrakhan by ship across the
Caspian Sea. Astrakhan is a Caspian port in the Russian federation. The city lies on the two banks of the Volga River. From
Astrakhan to other regions of the Russian Federation, and further into Europe by Russian Railways.
○ Ashgabat Agreement is an agreement to implement an International transport transit corridor between Central Asia-Persian Gulf-
India. Pakistan is also a part of this.

• OBOR- This project was started in 2013. It has two components Belt and Road. China OBOR invests in nearly 70 countries and
international organizations.
• China-Myanmar Economic Corridor - Was recently proposed. China connecting Myanmar and the Indian ocean. It is a Building road
and rail transportation from Yunnan Province in China through Muse and Mandalay to Kyaukpyu in Rakhine State (in News because of
the Rohingya crisis)
• IMT (India-Myanmar-Thailand): It is under implementation. It will connect Moreh in India with Mae Sot in Thailand via Myanmar. India
proposed to include Cambodia and Vietnam also but still, it is not accepted.
• Global Gateway Project - Opposite project Of OBOR
• Three Seas Initiative of Europe: It is a regional effort in Europe to expand cross-border energy, transportation, and digital infrastructure
and boost economic development in the area between the Adriatic Sea, Baltic Sea, and the Black Sea.

Railways
• In the US-Northern Transcontinental and Southern transcontinental
• Trans-Siberian Railway
○ The Trans-Siberian Railway offered a critical transportation link between European Russia and Siberia and the Russian Far East
at the time.
○ It is the world's longest railway line, stretching over 9,289 kilometres from Russia's capital, Moscow, to Vladivostok, which is
located in the Sea of Japan.
○ It crosses the Ob and Yenisei rivers in the Ural Mountains.
○ It connects Europe and Asia.
○ The Trans-Siberian railway travels through eight different time zones from beginning to end.
• Trans-Continental Railway- From Perth to Sydney

Types of Ports
• Entrepot Ports: These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different countries for export. Singapore is an entrepot for
Asia.
• Port of Call: These are the ports which originally developed as calling points on main sea routes where ships were used to anchor for
refuelling, watering and taking food items. Later on, they developed into commercial ports. Aden, Honolulu and Singapore are good
examples.
• Oil Port: These ports deal in the processing and shipping of oil. Some of these are tanker ports and some are refinery ports. Maracaibo
in Venezuela, Esskhira in Tunisia and Tripoli in Lebanon are Tanker Ports. Abadan on the Gulf of Persia is a refinery port.
• Naval Ports: These are ports which have only strategic importance. These ports serve warships and have repair workshops for them.
Kochi and Karwar are examples of such ports in India.
• Riverine Ports
• Bandar Abbas
• Chabahar Port
○ Chabahar Port is a seaport in Chabahar located in south-eastern Iran, on the Gulf of Oman. The port of Chabahar is located on the
Makran coast of Sistan and Baluchistan Province, next to the Gulf of Oman and at the mouth of the Strait of Hormuz. Being close
to Afghanistan and the Central Asian countries of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan etc.
• Sittwe Port:
• Duqm Port - The Port of Duqm is strategically located situated on the south-eastern seaboard of Oman. India can use it.

• String Of Pearls Include - From Eastern Part - Sittwe- Chittagong - Hambantota - Gwadar - Mombasa (Kenya)

• NEED- The Northern European Enclosure Dam (NEED)

• Nepal - Mustang Valley: The Mustang Valley consists of Lower Mustang and Upper Mustang, which was once the former
kingdom of Lo. It is said that Mustang valley contains a very good amount of Uranium.
• Panmunjom : Demilitarize the zone between North Korea and South Korea. Created between 38 Degree North parallel.

[Link] -… 28/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
• Addu Atoll - Southernmost island of Maldives.
• Faroe Island - Belongs to Denmark
• Peru was in News Recently - Because of an Oil spill which resulted in the declaration of 90 days of environmental emergency.
• In Nepal Micro-Hydropower Project : Langtang
• In Bhutan, WLS is in News - Sakteng WLS (China is claiming Sakteng belongs to them)
• New Caledonia : Pacific Ocean - French Overseas territory

INDIA
• Important Cities located in the same Longitude
○ Mumbai - Surat, Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Jodhpur, Islamabad (Pakistan)
○ Srinagar - Amritsar, Jaipur, Belagavi, Mangalore
○ New Delhi - Manali, Shimla, Delhi, Bhopal, Bengaluru, Kanyakumari
○ Kanpur and Chennai are located on the same longitude
○ Lucknow and Vijayawada
○ Allahabad And Raipur
○ Varanasi and Vishakhapatnam
○ Patna and Ranchi
○ Gangtok and Kolkata
○ Shillong and Dispur
○ Aizawl and Port Blair

• In the Latitude:
○ Agra - Jaisalmer; Jaipur; Agra; Gorakhpur; Guwahati; Dispur
○ Surat and Nagpur and Raipur are on the same latitude
○ Mangalore, Bangalore And Chennai

• Cities located close to the Tropic of Cancer

○ Above the TOC : Aizawl and Agartala
○ Below the TOC : Bhuj, Gandhinagar, Ahmedabad, Bhopal, Jabalpur, Ranchi, Kolkata

• State Located on the same Latitudes and Longitude

• TOC Passes through Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram.
• UT of India: 8 UT- Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, Jammu and Kashmir,
Ladakh, Lakshadweep, and Puducherry.
• Pondicherry: UT was formed in 1962 out of the four former colonies of French India. Pondicherry (now Puducherry)
and Karaikal along India’s south-eastern Coromandel Coast, Yanam, farther north along the eastern coast, and Mahe, lying on the
western Malabar Coast, surrounded by Kerala state.
• Daman And Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli:
○ Daman and Diu are two widely separated districts situated on the southern side of Gujarat.
○ Daman is an enclave on Gujarat’s southern coast and Diu encompasses an island off the southern coast of Gujarat’s Kathiawar
Peninsula.
○ Dadra and Nagar Haveli consist of two separate parts. Dadra is surrounded by the state of Gujarat and Nagar Haveli lies on the
borders of Maharashtra and Gujarat.
○ Both were colonised by the Portuguese and were liberated in December 1961.
○ Daman Ganga river flows in Dadra and Nagar Haveli

• NCT: 11 districts under NCT. The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally
known as the National Capital Territory of Delhi.
• NCR: Broader region.
• Jammu-Kashmir and Ladakh:
○ Jammu: Hindu dominated. Geographically, they are low hills part of Shivalik and lesser Himalayas. Vaishnav-Devi is in Jammu.
○ The Jammu Bordered States - Punjab (Pathankot) and Himachal
• Kashmir Valley: Muslim Majority area, Srinagar HQ.
• Ladakh : Buddhist Majority.
○ Political Division:
• India: Jammu, Kashmir Valley & Ladakh region
• Pakistan (since 1947): Gilgit-Baltistan & Azad Kashmir region
• China (after 1962) : Aksai Chin region
• Johnson's line shows Aksai Chin in erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir (now Ladakh) i.e. under India's control whereas
McDonald's Line places it under China's control.

[Link] -… 29/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• The Line of Actual Control is towards China and the Line of Control is toward Pakistan
○ The Shaksgam Valley was ceded to China by Pakistan in 1963 when both countries signed a boundary agreement to settle their
border differences.
○ The Siachen Glacier is the longest glacier in the Karakoram range and the second-longest in the world outside of polar regions.
○ The Siachen Glacier is a glacier located in the eastern Karakoram range in the Himalayas just northeast of the point NJ9842 where
the Line of Control between India and Pakistan ends.

• Galwan Valley
○ The valley refers to the land that sits between steep mountains that buffet the Galwan River.
○ The river has its source in Aksai Chin, on China’s side of the LAC, and it flows from the east to Ladakh, where it meets the Shyok
river on India’s side of the LAC.
○ The valley is strategically located between Ladakh in the west and Aksai Chin in the east (currently controlled by China)
• Pangong Tso lake
○ It is Brackish water.
○ Pangong Tso is 135 km long, of which more than two-thirds is under Chinese control.
• Daulat Beg Oldie: DBO is the northernmost corner of Indian Territory in Ladakh, and has the world’s highest airstrip.
○ Its strategic importance is that it connects Leh to DBO, virtually at the base of the Karakoram Pass that separates China’s Xinjiang
Autonomous Region from Ladakh.
• Demchok Sector:
○ It is a disputed region centred on the villages of Demchok situated near the confluence of the ChardingNullah and Indus River.

• Doklam Plateau
○ The Doklam Plateau is a disputed patch of land at the junction of Tibet, Sikkim (India), and Bhutan.
○ The area of Doklam is of great strategic significance to India, China, and Bhutan.
○ The Doklam is an area characterized by a plateau and a valley, located between Chumbi Valley (Tibet), Ha Valley (Bhutan), and
Sikkim (India).
○ The Chumbi Valley and Siliguri Corridor to the north and south of Doklam are important mountain chokepoints.

WITH NEPAL
○ KALAPANI
• Located in the easternmost corner of Uttarakhand’s Pithoragarh district
• It is wedged in between Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh and Kalapani.
• The area is under India’s control but Nepal claims the region because of historical and cartographic reasons.

[Link] -… 30/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

SIR-CREEK
○ Sir Creek is a 96 km strip of water in the marshes of the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
○ It is a disputed region between India and Pakistan. The creek roughly separates the Kutch region in India and Pakistan’s Sindh
province.
○ Sir Creek opens up into the Arabian Sea.
○ It is an important fishing ground and is one of the largest fishing sources in Asia. Another reason for its significance is the possible
presence of oil and gas reserves under the sea in that area.

Physiography of India (mountain, plains, plateau, and islands)

• Mountains
○ Himalayan Mountain
○ Parallel ranges
• Trans Himalayas
• Great Himalayas (tallest continuous mountain)
• Lesser Himalaya
• Shivalik's
• Divisions of Mountains of North
○ Trans Himalayas
• Karakoram ranges.

[Link] -… 31/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
• Rocks of the Karakoram range are volcanic in nature and hence black. Its region of glaciers. K2 is the highest peak in
the Karakoram range. K2 is also called Godwin Austin. It's the 2nd highest peak in the world (8600 Meters). its Indian
highest peak.
• K2 is steeper than Mt Everest.
• Ladakh ranges between Shyok and the Indus River.
• South east corner of Ladakh is Pangong Tso.
• In these regions, there is a breed of sheep Changthangi goat which is famous for Pashmina wool.
• Zaskar range.
• Tso Morori is a lake in the south-eastern part.
• Its brackish water lake
○ Greater Himalayas
• These Himalayas extends from Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal
Pradesh.
• It is single continues range from west to east.
• Average height is 6000 meters
• Westernmost point of the Greater Himalayas is the Nanga Parbat and the easternmost part of Namcha Barwa.
• Mt Everest is part of these Himalayas.
• West to East - Nanga Parbat (Jammu and Kashmir), Kamet (UK), Nanda Devi (UK), Dhaulagiri(Nepal), Annapurna (Nepal),
Manaslu (Nepal), Everest (Nepal), Makalu (Nepal), and Kangchenjunga(Sikkim) and Namcha Barwa(Arunachal Pradesh).

○ Middle Himalayas
• It’s made of multiple ranges.
• Aka as lesser Himalayas of Himachal Himalayas.
• Average height is 4000 meters.
• Pirpanjal is the northernmost part of the Middle Himalayas. They are in HP as well s Jammu and Kashmir.
• Between Pirpanjal and Greater Himalayas, there is the Jhelum River and Kashmir valley
• Dhauladhar in Himachal. Kulu valley between Dhauladhar and Great Himalayas.
• Kangra valley to the south of Dhauladhar. Dharamshala is near Kangra valley.
• Mussoorie range and Nagtibha range Uttarakhand
• Mahabharat range in Nepal.
• Arunachal Himalayas (lesser Himalayas and Shivalik’s merged at Arunachal)

○ Lesser Himalayas
• Known for hill stations. Such as Manali, Dalhousie, Dharamshala, Shimla, Solan, Mussoorie, Nainital, Darjeeling (West
Bengal)
• Duns are between Lesser Himalayas and Shivalik.
• Duns is the longitudinal valley between the Himalayas.
• Example- Dehradun, Udhampur dun, Pathankot dun.

○ Shivalik’s range
• Average height is 1000 meters.
• Duars formation along the foothills of Shivalik Himalayas such as Assam.

○ Northeast mountains called Purvanchal Himalayas.

• Assam, Arunachal, etc
• Nagaland - Naga hills
• Manipur - Manipur hills. (at the centre there is lake Loktak lake)
• Mizo hills (run north to south) in Mizoram. Aka Lushai hills.
• The State of Mizoram is called as Molasses basin because of soft unconsolidated deposition.
• Tripura has Ridge and valley topography.
• Meghalaya Hills. (Garo Hills, Khasi, and Jaintia) part of Meghalaya plateau.
• Barail and Mikir hills.

• Passes in the Mountains

[Link] -… 32/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
○ Passes are also known as ghats (in southern India).
○ In Jammu and Kashmir
• Karakorum Pass (highest pass in India at 5600 meters)
• Burzil pass (Srinagar to Gilgit) on the Northsides of the great Himalayas
• Khardung-la passes North of Ladakh (It had the highest motorable road OF World)
• Presently highest motorable road is Umling la
• Zoji la connects Srinagar to Leh. It’s located on Zaskar Mountain.
• Zoji la tunnel is the longest bi-directional tunnel in entire Asia. (14 Km)
• Banihal Pass (connects Jammu and Srinagar) Banihal pass known for having Jawahar tunnel.
• Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Tunnel connects Jammu to Srinagar also knowns as the Chenani Nashri tunnel
○ Himachal Pradesh passes.
• Rohtang pass above Manali.
• Atal tunnel connects Manali to Spiti valley
• Bara lacha la pass (connects Manali to Leh).
• Shipki la - India-China
• Sutlej river enters India through this pass
○ Uttarakhand
• Thaga la pass
• Mana pass
• Niti pass
• Dharma pass
• Limibiduriya pass
• Lipu lekh pass

○ Sikkim
• Jelep la
• Nathu la
• Naku la
○ Arunachal Pradesh
• Tawang Pass
• Tunga pass
• Bum la pass
• India Myanmar and Tibet trijunction pass is Diphu pass.

[Link] -… 33/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• Glaciers
○ Trans-Himalayan region
• Largest nonpolar glacial is the Fedchenko glacier in Tajikistan.
• 2nd largest is the Siachen glacier near Nubra valley
• Baltoro glacier near Siachen glacier on Karakorum mountains and In POK.
• Hispar Glacier is the longest non-polar glacier in the Karakorum range.

○ Himachal Pradesh
• Bara shigri glacier -> Chenab River originates from this glacier.
• Sonapani glacier near Rohtang pass near Lahul Spiti.
○ Uttarakhand
• Banderpunch glacier is above Yamunotri.
• Some headwater of Yamuna is derived from banderpunch.
• Gangotri glacier->Bhagirathi River originates from this glacier
• Chorabari glacier.
• Kedarnath glacier.
• Milam glacier.
• Pindari glacier
○ Sikkim
• Zemu glacier near base of Kanchenjunga.

• Peninsular region
• Mountains

[Link] -… 34/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

○ Aravallis
○ Vindhyas
○ Satpura
○ Western ghat
○ Eastern ghats
○ Gir range in Gujarat.
○ Extension of Vindhya’s is Kaimur hills
○ Ajanta, Satmala, Balaghat, and Harishchandra west to east in Maharashtra.
○ Aravalli passes through three states and 1 UT (Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana, and Delhi). The highest peak is Mt guru shikar
○ Aravalli’s is taller in the southern part
○ Vindhya’s and Satpura are an example of Block Mountain.
○ Vindhya hills, Narmada River, Satpura, and Tapi river from north to south.
○ Western ghat south of Tapi to Kanyakumari (cape comorin)
○ Freshwater swamps in the Western ghats of Kerala and Karnataka are Myristica swamps
○ Western ghats are in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamilnadu.
○ Peak of Maharashtra are Kalsubai, and Mahabaleswar. Mahabaleswar is the source of the Krishna River and salher

○ Sahyadri in Karnataka.
• Baba bhudan
• Kudremukh
• Nilgiris hills (Karnataka, Tamilnadu, and Kerala).
• Between Nilgiris and Annamalai hills there is a gap called as Palghat gap.
• Ooty is located in the Nilgiri hills.
• Nilgiri hill is a location where eastern ghat meets western ghat.
• Anamudi is the highest peak in Peninsular India and Annamalai hills.
• Palani hills has kodaikanal lakes (its manmade lake)

○ Eastern ghat
• Highest peak is the Mahendragiri hills.
• Eastern ghat is wider than western ghat
• Nallamala hills aka black hills.
• Erramala hills (red hills)
• Pallakonda hills to the south of Nallamala hills.
• Javadi hills
• Shevroy hills
• Cochin to Coimbatore through Palghat

• Plateau
○ Shillong plateau (Meghalaya)
○ Between Aravallis and Vindhya is the malwa plateau.
○ Bundelkhand plateau.
○ Chotanagpur plateau.
○ Hazarai Bagh plateau on chotanagpur plateau.
○ Deccan plateau (MH, Karnataka, Ap, Telangana ).
○ Dandakarnaya is plain of Chhattisgarh
○ Karnataka plateau has two parts. the part near Western ghat is hilly and the rest part of Karnataka is maidan which is a plain
region.

[Link] -… 35/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

○ Madla Fault
• Fault is the geological feature formed due to folding at convergent plate boundary.
• Malda is a place located in WB.

○ Bhima Fault
• Regions

• Coasts
○ Eastern coast is the emerging coast
○ Western coast is submergent coast (Especially till Karnataka). From south Karnataka to Kerala its emerging coast
○ Odisha coast is called as Utkal coast (it has Mahanadi delta)
○ Lake south of Mahanadi is Chilika lake.
○ North of Mahanadi River is Baitarani River.
○ Andhra coast
○ Tamil Nadu coast
○ KG delta to Cauvery delta is called coromandel coast.
○ Kathaiawadi coast in Gujarat
○ From daman to goa is known as the Konkan coast.
○ Karnataka to Kerala is the Malabar coast which is emergent in nature.

[Link] -… 36/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• ISLANDS
○ Two major groups of Islands - Andaman and Nicobar
○ Andaman Group
• They are Volcanic Islands
• The Andaman islands are divided into 4 main islands i.e. North, Middle and South and Little Andaman.
• Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar Islands lies in the South Andaman.
• Northernmost Island- Landfall Island
• Coco Island- Belongs to Myanmar
• Saddle peak in North Andaman is the highest peak
• THE BARREN AND NARCONDAM ISLANDS, north of Port Blair, are volcanic islands. Barren Island is the only active
volcano in India.
• It is known for Evergreen Vegetation
• In Andaman - Ross Island was renamed as Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island; Neil Island as Shaheed Dweep Island; and
Havelock Island as Swaraj Island.
• The Centre has recently renamed Mount Harriet (South Andaman), a historical tourist spot in the Andaman and
Nicobar islands, as ‘Mount Manipur’.
○ Nicobar Island
• Tillangchong Island- It is an island in the Nicobar district of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.
• Among the Nicobar islands, the Great Nicobar is the largest. It is the southernmost island and is very close to Sumatra island
of Indonesia. The Car Nicobar is the northernmost.
• The southernmost point of the country is Indira Point (Nicobar Islands)

○ LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS
• Lakshadweep Islands situated in the Arabian Sea is a group of 36 islands
• The entire Lakshadweep group of islands has been declared an organic agricultural area under the Participatory
Guarantee System (PGS) of India (Which is implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare.)
• Lakshadweep is the first Union Territory to become 100% organic.
• In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of islands- Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands
• Amendivi Islands are the northernmost while the Minicoy island is the southernmost.
• Kavaratti is the administrative capital of the Lakshadweep Islands. It is also the principal town of the Union Territory.

○ Other islands
• New Moore Island:
• Although the island was uninhabited and there were no permanent settlements or stations located on it, both India and
Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it because of speculation over the existence of oil and natural gas in the
region
• Majuli Island: Mājuli is a large river island in the Brahmaputra river, in Assam.
• APJ Abdul Kalam Island: Dr Abdul Kalam Island, formerly known as Wheeler Island, is an island off the coast of Odisha. It is
India’s most advanced missile testing site.
• Sriharikota Island:
• Sriharikota is a barrier island off the coast of Andhra Pradesh(Pulicat lake).
• It houses India’s only satellite launch centre in the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (also known as SHAR) and is used by
the Indian Space Research Organization to launch satellites
• Pamban Island:
• It is located between India and Sri Lanka in the Gulf of Mannar and in the Ramanathapuram district of the state of Tamil
Nadu.
• It is also known as Rameswaram Island.
• Adam's Bridge also known as Rama's Bridge or Rama Setu is a chain of limestone shoals, between Pamban Island,
also known as Rameswaram Island, off the southeastern coast of Tamil Nadu, India, and Mannar Island, off the
northwestern coast of Sri Lanka. Geological evidence suggests that this bridge is a former land connection between
India and Sri Lanka.
• St. Mary Island: Coast of Karnataka. They are known for their distinctive geological formation of columnar rhyolitic lava
• Willingdon Island is the largest artificial island in India, which forms part of the city of Kochi, in the state of Kerala.
• Diu Island: It is located off the south coast of Kathiawar. Diu is an offshore island on the western coast, off the Gulf of
Cambay, bordering the Junagarh district. It is separated from the Gujarat Coast by a tidal creek.

○ The Great Channel is located six degrees north of the equator and is popularly referred to as the 'Six Degree Channel'
○ The Great Andaman group of islands in the north is separated by the Ten Degree Channel from the Nicobar group in the south.
○ The Coco Strait is between the North Andaman islands and the Coco Islands of Myanmar.
○ Duncan's passage separates Little Andaman from Great Andaman.
○ 9 Degree Channel separates the island of Minicoy from the main Lakshadweep archipelago.
○ 8 Degree Channel separates the islands of Minicoy and Maldives.
○ St. George's Channel is located between Little Nicobar and Great Nicobar.

• Other islands in Indian ocean

[Link] -… 37/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

RIVERS

[Link] -… 38/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

○ INDUS RIVER:
• It originates at Bokhar chu glacier in Kailash Mountain range and flows in a narrow valley north-westward through Tibet,
where it is known as Singi Khamban or Lion’s Mouth. It follows a long, nearly straight course between the Ladakh and
Zaskar ranges in Ladakh.
• The river flows northwest and enters in Ladakh region in India from a place called Demchok, after entering India Indus river
flows in between the Karakoram and Ladakh ranges but closer to the Ladakh range.
• It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh.
• Left-bank tributaries - Zaskar river, Suru river, Soan river, Jhelum River, Chenab River, Ravi River, Beas river, Satluj river,
and Panjnad rivers.
• Right-bank tributaries -Shyok River, Gilgit river, Hunza river, Swat river, Kunnar river, Kurram river, Gomal River, and Kabul
river.
• Nubra River - It is the main tributary of the Shyok River (Rising from the Karakoram Range)

• The Kabul River empties into the Indus River near Attock, Pakistan. It is the main river in eastern Afghanistan and the
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.

○ Chenab:
• The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the Zaskar Range.
• Two small streams on opposite sides of the pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga, form its headwaters. The united stream at
keylong in Himachal, then called Chandrabhaga which flows in the northwest direction through the Pangi valley.
• It flows through the Jammu region of J&K into the plains of Punjab in Pakistan. The river is crossed in J&K by the world’s
highest railway bridge named Chenab Bridge.
• Recently, the Power Minister inaugurated the diversion of the Marusudar River of the Pakal Dul Hydroelectric
Project. River Marusudar, a tributary of Chenab in district Kishtwar of UT of J & K.
• A holy pilgrimage to Vaishno Devi- in the Ban Ganga river

• Jhelum - It is a tributary of the Chenab River. The river Jhelum rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir
Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir in India. It flows northwards into Wular Lake. It flows Inside J and
K.
• क्रांति कारी फीचर - Forms entrenched meanders in youthful stage.
• Joins chenab near Jhang in Pakistan
• Ravi River: The Ravi River originates Dhauladhar range of the Himalayas in the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh. Ravi
has its source in the Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
• It joins chenab at sarai sidhu.
○ Satluj:
• The Satluj rises from the Manasarovar - Rakas Lakes in western Tibet.
• It is known as langchen khambab.
• Like the Indus, it takes a north-westerly course up to the Shipki La on the Tibet-Himachal Pradesh boundary.
• Feeds the Bhakra Nagal Dam

• Beas River: originates from Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass on the southern end of the Pir Panjal Range, close to the
source of the Ravi. It meets the Satluj river at Harike in Punjab. The Pong Dam is situated on the Beas River.
• It forms george Kati and Largi in Dhauladhar ranges.

○ Construction of Ujh multipurpose project: This project will create storage of water on river Ujh, a tributary of Ravi for irrigation
and power generation in India.
○ Indus Water Treaty 1960 - The Indus system comprises of main Indus River, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. The
basin is mainly shared by India and Pakistan with a small share for China and Afghanistan.
• Under the treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, all the waters of three rivers, namely Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas (
Eastern Rivers) were allocated to India for exclusive use.
• While, the waters of Western rivers – Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab were allocated to Pakistan except for specified domestic,
non-consumptive, and agricultural use permitted to India as provided in the Treaty.

○ Dulhasti - It is a run-of-the-river hydroelectric power station on the Chenab River, Kishtwar district of the Indian Union Territory
of Jammu and Kashmir.
○ Kishanganga - It originates at Drass in the Kargil district of J&K. The Neelam River enters Pakistan from India near the Line of
Control and then runs west till it meets the Jhelum River

[Link] -… 39/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• GANGA
○ The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Kashi District of Uttarakhand
○ Alaknanda River joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag. From Devapryag the river is called as Ganga.
○ The five confluences of Ganga river are : (VNKRD)
• Vishnuprayag – Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda;
• Nandprayag – River Nandakini joins
• Karnaprayag – River Pindar joins
• Rudraprayag – River Mandakini joins
• Devprayag – Bhagirathi river and Alaknanda river form Ganga river

○ Alaknanda:
• It rises at the confluence and feet of the Satopanth and Bhagirath glaciers in Uttarakhand.
• It meets the Bhagirathi River at Devprayag after which it is called the Ganga.
• Its main tributaries are the Mandakini, Nandakini, and Pindar rivers.
• The Hindu pilgrimage centre of Badrinath lies on the banks of Alaknanda.
○ Dhauliganga:
• It originates from Vasudhara Tal, perhaps the largest glacial lake in Uttarakhand.
• Dhauliganga is one of the important tributaries of Alaknanda. Dhauliganga is joined by the Rishiganga river at Raini. It merges
with the Alaknanda at Vishnuprayag.
• Tapovan Vishnugad Hydropower Project is being constructed on the Dhauliganga.
○ The Ganga river mainly passes through the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal.
○ Left Tributaries of Ganga
• Ramganga; Gomti River; Ghaghra River; Kali River; Gandak River; Burhi Gandak;Kosi River, Mahananda
○ Right Bank Tributaries:
• Yamuna River: Chambal River; Banas River; Sind River; Betwa River, Ken River;
• Son River, Damodar
○ Ramganga
• A tributary of the Ganga river, it drains south-western Kumaun. Ramganga River originates in the southern slopes
of Dudhatoli Hill in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand.
• It also flows through the dun valley of Corbett National Park. It finally meets the Ganga near Kannauj. Bareilly city is situated
on its banks
○ Gomati:
• This river originates from Gomat Taal near Pilibhit in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The Markandey Mahadeo temple is at the
confluence of th Gomti and the Ganges. This river meanders through Lucknow city.
○ Ghaghara
• The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo. Alternatively known as Karnali.
• Rapti, Chhoti Gandak, Sharda, and Sarju are the major tributaries of this river
○ Gandak
• Rises in Nepal Himalayas between Dhaulagiri and Mt. Everest
• Comprises of two streams - Kaligandak, Trishulganga.
○ Kosi
• It is also known as Saptakoshi for its seven upper tributaries. It originates in Triveni in Nepal north of Mt. Everest. It carries
heavy silt during the rainy season and causes extreme floods. So this river is also known as the” Sorrow of Bihar “ It joins
with the Ganges in the state of Bihar.
○ Yamuna
• It is the largest tributary. It originates from the Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak. Its main affluent in the upper
reaches is the Tons which also rises from the Bandarpunch glacier. Tons, Pabar and Giri are important tributaries.<
• It joins ganga at Prayag(Allahabad)
• Right Bank - Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken, Tons, Giri, Baghain.
• Left Bank - Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc.

○ Chambal:
• The Chambal rises near Mhow in the highlands of Janapao Hills in the Vindhyan Range. It flows through the Malwa
Plateau. The Chambal River flows in Kota. It forms the boundary between Rajasthan & MP.
• Bandland topography called chambal ravines. (deep & steep georges)
○ The Betwa rises in the Bhopal district (Vindhyan Range) and joins the Yamuna near the Ken river rising from the Barner Range of
Madhya Pradesh joins the Yamuna near Chila.
○ Son : The Son River rises in the Amarkantak Plateau. Its source is close to the origin of the Narmada. It passes along the Kaimur
Range. The Indrapuri Barrage and Bansagar Dam are built along this river. Koilwar Bridge is located across this river.
• Join ganga at Arrah, west of Patna.
○ The Damodar river rises in the hills of the Chotanagpur plateau and flows through a rift valley. Meets Hoogli at Falta
○ Hooghly River: It is the distributary of the Ganga river. The Ganga river splits into the Padma and the Hooghly river near Guria in
Murshidabad. The Padma flows eastward through Bangladesh whereas Hooghly flows through West Bengal.

[Link] -… 40/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• BRAHMAPUTRA
○ Source - Chemayungdung glacier (Kailash Range). Its source is very close to the sources of Indus and Satluj.
○ In Tibet, known as TSANGPO; In China, known as YARLUNG ZANBO; In Assam: Dihang or Siong; Bangladesh: Jamuna; In
Bangladesh known as Padma River when Combined Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra; Called Meghana - From the confluence
of Padma and Meghna
○ It Turns southward near Namcha – Barwa. Enters Arunachal Pradesh as Dihang or Siang River at Sadiya, emerging from the
mountains. Joined by the Dibang river from the north & Lohit river from the south Known as the Brahmaputra. It turns at Dhubri to
enter into Bangladesh. After joining Teesta, known as Jamuna in Bangladesh. Joins Ganga & Megna then Merges to the Bay of
Bengal.
○ Left bank tributaries - viz., Dibang and Lohit, Burhi Dihang and Dhansari, Nyang, Meghna (Barack in Assam)
○ Right bank tributaries - Subansiri(O-Tibet), Kameng, Manas and Sankosh, Tista, Kameng, Raidak
○ The Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and the Kaziranga National Park are located near the Kameng River.
○ Manas : The river valley has two major reserve forest areas, namely the Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan and the
contiguous Manas Wildlife Sanctuary.
○ The Mishmi hills are found along the upper course of the Dibang River.
○ The Brahmaputra River is bounded by: North – Himalayas; East – Patkai Hill Ranges; South – Assam hills; West – Bangladesh
Plain
○ Majuli, an island, also a district of Assam, is known as the oldest and largest inhabited riverine island of the world, recognised by
UNESCO.
○ The Brahmaputra Mainly covers Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Sikkim.

• MAHANADI
○ The Mahanadi basin extends over the states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively smaller portions of Jharkhand,
Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
○ It has its source in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya in the Raipur District of Chhattisgarh
○ Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath, the Hasdeo, the Mand, and the Ib.
○ Right bank Tributaries: The Ong, the Tel, and the Jonk.

[Link] -… 41/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• GODAVARI
○ The Godavari river is the largest river system in Peninsular India, it is also called ‘Dakshin Ganga’.
○ The River rises in the Sahyadris, near Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district of Maharashtra. Godavari river originates from the
Bramhagiri mountains at Trimbakeshwar.
○ Left Bank Tributaries: Dharna, Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita, Pench, Kanhan, Sabari, Indravati etc.
○ Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula, Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner etc.
○ Pranahita river is a confluence of various other smaller tributaries like Wardha, Penganga and Wainganga Rivers
○ Kaleshwaram Project: The project starts at the confluence point of the Pranahita River and the Godavari River
○ It forms gorge south of Polavaram.
○ After rajmundri it splits into several branches forming large delta.

• Krishna River
○ Krishna river is the second largest river in peninsular India,1st being Godavari river.
○ River Krishna originates in the Western ghats at the Jor village, Sahaydri Konya of Maharashtra near Mahabaleshwar
○ Krishna river starts from Maharashtra and then flows through Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh it merges into the Bay
of Bengal.
○ Left Bank Tributaries: Bhima; Musi
• Bhima: Bhima river is also known as the Chandra Bhaga river. Originates from the Western Ghats at Bhima Shankar near
Karjat village in Maharashtra is a tributary of the Krishna River.
○ Right Tributaries: Ghatprabha; Malprabha; Tungabhadra
• Tungabhadra is the largest tributary of the river Krishna.
• It is formed by the confluence of river Tunga and river Bhadra.
• The famous Hampi site (UNESCO WHS) lies on the bank of the river Tungabhadra.
• The famous Virupaksha temple also is on the banks of river Tungabhadra.
• Left bank tributaries of Tungabhadra : Tunga, Varada.
• right bank tributaries of Tungabhadra: Bhadra, Vedavati, Handri.
• Finally, Tungabhadra merges into river Krishna in Andhra Pradesh.

• CAUVERY
○ The Cauvery basin extends over the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and the Union Territory of Puducherry
○ The Cauvery River rises at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range near Cherangala village of Kodagu (Coorg) district of Karnataka.
○ The river descends from the South Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu Plains through the Sivasamudram waterfalls.
○ The falls at this point are utilized for power generation by the power station at Shivanasamudram.
○ At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes a Southerly direction and enters the Mettur Reservoir.
○ Mekedatu project is located in Muguru and Mekedatu villages, Kanakapura and Kollegal taluks of Ramanagara and
Chamarajanagar Districts of Karnataka.
○ The dam site is located about 3.0 Km downstream of the confluence of Arkavathy with the Cauvery river called ‘Sangama’.
○ Two more tributaries Noyil and Amaravathi join on the right bank and flows as ‘Akhanda Cauvery’.
○ Immediately after crossing the Tiruchirapalli district, the river divides into two parts, the Northern branch being called ‘The
Coleron’ and the Southern branch remaining as Cauvery and from here the Cauvery Delta begins.
○ After flowing for about 16 Kms, the two branches join again to form ‘Srirangam Island’.
○ Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha, and the Arkavati.
○ Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, the Kabini, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the Noyil, and the Amaravati joins from the right

[Link] -… 42/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

• Vaigai
○ The Vaigai river rises on the Eastern slopes of the Varushanadu hills near Kottaimalai in the Madurai district
○ The Vaigai basin lies entirely in the state of Tamilnadu

• NARMADA
○ Narmada is the largest west flowing river in peninsular India.
○ Narmada flows westwards through a rift valley between the Vindhyan Range on the north and the Satpura Range on the south.
○ It rises from the Maikal range near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh, at an elevation of about 1057 m.
○ Narmada basin extends over the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh
○ It forms gorge in marble rocks at DhuanDhar Falls near Jabalpur
○ The major Hydro Power projects in the basin are Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar, Omkareshwar, Bargi & Maheshwar.
○ Right bank tributaries are the Barna, Hiran River, Tendoni River, Choral River, Kolar River, Man River, Uri River, Hatni
River, Orsang River
○ Left bank tributaries – Burhner River, Banjar River, Sher River, Shakkar River, Dudhi River, Tawa River, Ganjal River, Chhota
Tawa River, Kaveri River, Kundi River, Goi River, Karjan River

• Tapi River
○ The Tapti/Tapi River is located in Madhya Pradesh.
○ It originates from the Multai reserve forest in Betul district.
○ The river is flowing through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat

• Mandovi River
○ It is known as Mandovi in Goa and Mahadayi river in Karnataka
○ Dudhsagar falls is located on this river

• PERIYAR RIVER
○ The Periyar River is the longest river in the state of Kerala with a length of 244 km.
○ It is also known as the ‘Lifeline of Kerala’ as it is one of the few perennial rivers in the state.
○ Periyar River originates from the Sivagiri hills of Western Ghats and flows through the Periyar National Park.
○ The main tributaries of Periyar are Muthirapuzha, Mullayar, Cheruthoni, Perinjankutti.
○ The Mullaperiyar dam is located on the confluence of the Mullayar and Periyar rivers in Kerala’s Idukki district.
• It is operated and maintained by Tamil Nadu for meeting the drinking water and irrigation requirements of five of its southern
districts.
• Chalakudy River
○ Chalakudy River or Chalakudy Puzha is one of the longest rivers in Kerala. The river flows through Palakkad, Thrissur and
Ernakulam District of Kerala and then the river makes its way to Tamil Nadu.
○ Chalakudy River is mainly known for its marine diversity.
○ The famous Athirappally Waterfalls are located on the Chalakudy River.

[Link] -… 43/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

Lakes and Wetlands:

• Ramsar Sites in India:

○ 1st Chilka and Keoladeo
○ Sambhar salt lake (Rajashtan) = is the largest inland saline water body in India. It is known for Felmingos
○ Keoladeo = Bharatpur Bird sanctuary (included in the Montreux Record)
○ Loktak lake = aka Kaibul Lemjao NP, known for Phumdis, aka floating national park, dancing deer (Sangai deer) in Manipur also
under the Montreux Record. Manmade barrage Ithai barrage is destructing the ecology
○ Wular lake = On the Jhelum river in Kashmir valley, the largest freshwater lake in India other lakes are Tso Morori
○ Harike and Beas = Punjab
○ Pong Dam = Himachal Pradesh
○ Vembanad = aka Kayals (backwaters) in Kerala, it is the longest lake in India (95km)
○ Point Calimere wetland in TN
○ Kolleru = Atapaka Bird Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh
○ Orissa = Bhitarkanika, Chilika lake, Mangaljodi wetlands (part of Chilika lake),
○ Sunderbans = WB = Largest ramsar site of India
○ East Kolkata wetland = best example of wastewater treatment (best method of managing urban sewage water)
○ 1st Ramsar site of Maharashtra = Nandur Madhemeshwar on the banks of Godavari river, it is known for Deolali Minnow (CE fish)
○ Nangal Reservoir = Punjab (Panchsheel agreement between China and India was signed here)
○ Karnataka, Goa, Chattishgarh, Jharkhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Tripura (states which do not
have any Ramsar site)
○ Lonar Lake = Maharashtra = located inside Melghat tiger reserve, it is also part of a national heritage site, saline water body
○ Gujarat = Thol Lake Wildlife Sanctuary (near Ahmedabad, part of central Asian Flyway), Wadhvana Wetland (near Vadodra, part of
central Asian Flyway), Khijadia Wildlife Sanctuary (near Gulf of Kutch),
○ Kanwar Lake or Kabar Taal = Bihar, flood plains of Ganga, also part of Central Asian Flyway
○ Uttar Pradesh = Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary (near Gorakhpur, natural freshwater marsh, 10th Ramsar site of UP), Sur Sarovar
(Agra, manmade Lake aka Keetham lake, Bear conservation centre), Haiderpur Wetland (near Hastinapura on the banks of River
Ganga, known for Gharial (CE), Hog deer, Golden Masheer, Swamp Deer)
○ Haryana = Sultanpur National Park (near Gurugram), Bhindawas (manmade freshwater lake, largest lake of Haryana)
○ Asan Barrage = 1st Ramsar site of Uttarakhand, a tributary of Yamuna, declared as a conservation reserve, Red-Headed Vulture
(CE) and White Rumped Vulture (CE)
○ Tso-Kar = Ladakh located at above 4500 m, made up of two lakes = Tso-Kar (hypersaline lake) and Starsapek (freshwater), Black
Naked Crane

• Important sites of Mangroves in India:

○ Sundarbans = largest Mangrove site in India
○ Coringa mangroves = 2nd Largest Mangrove site in India, Andhra Pradesh, Hope Islands, olive Ridley turtle
○ Bhitarkanika = Orissa
○ Tamil Nadu = Pichavaram and Muthupet
○ Karnataka
○ Maharashtra = Along Ratnagiri,
○ Gujarat = near Gulf of Kutch
○ Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep

• Coral Reefs in India:

○ Andaman Nicobar, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch
○ Malwan along the Maharashtra coast, Angria Bank coral reefs (a recent discovery)
○ Netrani Island = old naval base near Udupi along Karnataka coast

Biosphere Reserves:
• There are 18 Biosphere reserves in India
• UNESCO MAB (Man and Biosphere Reserve) = gives recognition to biosphere reserves
• India's 12 Biosphere reserves have UNESCO-MAB recognition:

• 1. Great Nicobar = Important NP found here = Campbell Bay NP, Galathea NP, this entire region is actually part of Sundaland
Biodiversity Hotspot, saltwater crocodile, giant leatherback turtle, Nicobarese and Shompen tribes are found here
• 2. Gulf of Mannar = Pamban island, From Rameshwaram to Kanyakumari, part of both Srilanka (Talai manner) and India, corals,
mangroves, Dugongs (Sea cow)
• 3. Agastyamalai = Neyyar, Peppara, Shendurni Wildlife Sanctuaries, Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve,
• 4. Nilgiri = trijunction of Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, associated with Kaveri and its tributaries, Waynad, Bandipur, Nagarhole,
BR Hills Tiger Reserve, Satyamangalam Tiger Reserve, Mukhurti NP, Silent Valley NP, Species = Tiger, Elephant, Balck Leopard
(Kabini river)
• 5. Panna = latest UNESCO recognized associated with Ken river, Species = Tiger, Sambhar, Sloth Bear, Swamp Deer, region is known
for Gonds tribe
• 6. Achanakmar Amarkantak = Narmada and Son river, Part of Maikal hills, species = 4-horned antelope, White Rumped Vulture (CE),
• 7. Panchamrhi Biosphere Reserve = associated with the Tapi river, Satpura NP, and Bori NP, Species = Giant Squirrel, and Flying
Squirrel
• 8. Simlipal = Orissa, it is known for Semal Trees (red silk cotton tree), the Black tiger was found here,
• 9. Nanda Devi = Uttarakhand, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear, Valley of flowers NP,
• 10. Kanchandjunga = Sikkim, Snow Leopard, Red Panda,
• 11. Nokrek = Meghalaya, Garo hills, receives very high precipitation, Red Panda
• 12. Sundarbans = Largest Delta, Tiger, only tiger capable of swimming and hunting, fishing cat (E),
• 13. Manas = In Assam, On Manas River tributary of Brahmaputra, Red Panda, Golden Langur, Pygmy Hog,
• 14. Dibru-Saikhowa = Brahmaputra and Lohit and Dibru River, Tiger, water bufallo, Capped Langur,
• 15. Dihan-Dibang = Musk Deer
[Link] -… 44/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
• 16. Sheshachalam = Part of Tirupati, Red Sanders, Slender Loris,
• 17. Rann of Kutch = largest BR of India, Indian wild Ass, wild ass sanctuary, Felmingos, Banni Grasslands, known for night time fire
(chirbatti)
• 18. Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve = Pin Valley NP, Chandra Tal, Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, snow leopard,

Biogeographic Regions in India:

• NTCA (National Tiger Conservation Authority) is the statutory body under Wild Life Protection Act
• There are 106 NP in India, MP has the highest NP (11),
• Hemis NP of Ladakh is the largest NP in the area in India
• South Button Island of Andaman and Nicobar is the smallest NP in India
• Jim Corbett is the oldest NP, established in 1936 as Haily's NP
• Total Wildlife Sanctuaries are 564 in India (3.73% of total India's land area)
• There are a total of 53 Tiger Reserves, the latest one is Guru Ghasidas in Chattisgarh
• Biogeographic Regions = a region with common characteristics of Geography and Biodiversity

• In India, there are 10 Biogeographic Regions:

○ 1. Trans Himalayas and 2. Himalaya= low temperature, snow-covered, low precipitation, grass, Important NPs = Hemis NP
(Ladakh), Pin Valley NP (HP), Dachigam NP (Shriagar, Kashmiri Stag(CE)), Valley of Flowers NP (UK), Nanda Devi NP (UK),
Gangotri NP, Rajaji NP, Fauna = Kashmiri Stag, Himalayan Tahr, Snow Leopard, Balck Naked crane, Tibetan Antelope (Chiru),
○ 3. Desert and 4. Semi-Arid = Gujarat, Rajasthan, and MP, Fauna = Lion, Camel, Tiger, Leopard, Black Buck,
Flamingos, Important NPs, and WLS = Keoladeo NP (Bharatpur, Rajasthan), Sariska TR (Rajasthan), Ranthambore (Rajasthan.
located between two rivers Banas and Chambal).
○ Ramgarh Vishdhari TR (Rajashtan, 52nd TR of India), Wild Ass Sanctuary (Little Rann, Gujarat), Gir NP (Gujarat), Velavadar NP
(Black Buck NP), Kuno Palpur NP (MP, Cheetah is to be re-introduced in here from Namibia), Desert NP (Jaisalmer, Rajasthan,
famous for Great Indian Bustard, and Dinosaures fossils).
○ 5. The Western Ghats = Kudremukh NP (Karnataka, dense wet evergreen forest), Periyar NP (also a tiger reserve, part of
cardamom hills, lion-tailed macaque, Kerala), Parmabikulam TR (Kerala, it won Earth's Guardian Award), Bhagwan Mahavir WLS
and Mollem NP (Goa)
○ 6. Deccan Plateau = Bandhavgarh TR (MP), Palamau TR (Jharkhand), Gurughasidas TR (Chattishgarh, in between Chotanagpur
and Bhagelkhand, the last known wild habitat of cheetah was found here in the 1950s),
○ Nauradehi WLS (was also considered for the reintroduction of Cheetah), Panna, (MP), Pench (border of MP and Maharashtra),
Tadoba Andhari (Maharashtra), Papikonda NP (Andhra Pradesh), Amrabad TR (Telangana, 2nd largest TR it is a part of Nallamala
Hills), Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary (Karnataka), Bannerghatta NP (Bangaluru)
○ 7. Gangetic Plains = UP. Bihar, and W.B, fertile land, agricultural region, less forest, Important NPs and WLS = Jim Corbett NP
(Ramganga river is flowing through it, the highest density of tigers), Pilibhit NP and Tiger Reserve (UP),
○ Dudhwa NP (UP), Valmiki Tiger Reserve (Bihar, ner to Gandak river), Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (Bihar, India's 1st
Dolphin observatory), Sunderban NP, Fauna = Gharial, Hog Deer, Swamp Deer, Gangetic Dolphin,
○ 8. North-East = Fauna = One-horned Rhino, Tiger, Elephant, Hoolock Gibbon, Golden Langur, Capped Langur, Pygmy Hog,
Bengal Florican.
○ Important NPs, and WLS = Gorumara NP (WB), Buxa NP (WB), Raimona NP (Assam), Manas (Assam), Pobitora WLS (Assam),
Orang NP (Assam), Kaziranga NP (Assam), Pakhui or Pakke TR (Arunachal Pradesh), Nameri (Assam).
○ Talle WLS (Arunachal), Mouling NP (Arunachal Pradesh), Dibru-Saikhowa (Assam), Dehing-Patkai NP (7th NP of Assam),
Namdhapa (Arunachal Pradesh), Keibul Lamjhao (Manipur), Dampa NP (Mizoram)
○ 9. Coasts and 10. Islands = Guindy NP (Chennai, TN, crocodile breeding centre)
○ Last Tiger Census Best managed TR = Pench (MP), Periyar TR (Kerala), Satyamangalam (TN)

Transportation:
• Roadways:
○ National Highways (NHs) = earlier there was no specific method of numbering the NHs now they are named with some logic
○ Rules = All the NHs are classified as North to South and East to West Highways, N-S Highways will be even-numbered and E-W
Highways will be odd-numbered, the Even numbered highways increases from East to West similarly from odd-numbered
highways increase from North to South

○ Important NHs = Longest NH = 44 from Srinagar to Kanyakumari

○ 2nd Longest NH = NH27 from Porbandar to Silchar

[Link] -… 45/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
○ Golden Quadrilateral = Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata (Delhi to Mumbai to Chennai = NH48, Delhi to Kolkata = NH19, Chennai
to Kolkata = NH16) 48-19-16

• Railways:
○ There are a total of 18 Railway Zones in India ((18th zone Southern coast railway)
○ 17th = Kolkata Metro
○ Industrial Corridors, Dedicated Freight corridors (DFCs):
• Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor= Ludhiana to Dankuni (funded by WB)
• Western Dedicated Freight Corridor = Dadri to JNPT (Funded by Japan)
• Diamond Quadrilateral = Railways connectivity of Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata

• Waterways:
○ Till 2015 we have 5 Inland waterways
○ NW-1 = From Allahabad to Haldia (Ganga River)
○ NW-2 = Sadia to Dhubri (Brahmaputra river)
○ NW-3 = Kerala backwaters (Kollam to Kottapuram)
○ NW-4 = backwaters and canals between Puducherry to KG Delta
○ NW-5 = Northern part of Mahanadi Delta from Talcher to Dharma, Orissa
○ NW-6 = Barak river was proposed
○ Now there are 111 NW (5 + 106 new)

• Ports:
○ Major ports = handled by the central govt, and minor ports are handled by the state govt.
○ There are 12 major ports and 2 are under construction
○ There are 9 coastal states in India
○ Major ports = Kandla (Gujarat), JNPT (Maharashtra), Marmagao (Goa), New Mangalore port (Karnataka), Kochi port (Kerala),
Chennai, Ennore, Tuticorin (TN), Vishakhapatnam (Andhrapradesh) Paradweep (Orissa), Haldia (WB)
○ Newly announced ports = Enayam (Kanyakumari, TN), Wadhavan port (Maharashtra)

Important Tribes of India:

• Andaman and Nicobar= there are 6 tribes and Nicobarese are not considered as PVTGs, Andamanese, Onge, Jarwa, Senteneles,
Shompen
• North East - Garo, Khasi, Jaintiya, Dafla, etc.
• Northern India, Central India, Western Ghats, etc, to be referred from the PPT

Few Other Important Locations which are in news in the last year:
• Lemru Elephant Reserve = Chattishgarh
• Majuli Island, Loktak Lake, Mawmluch caves (Meghalayas), Sohra (Cherapunji)
• Kendrapara (Orissa), the only dist. where all the three species of crocodile are found
• Surat, Gujarat = India's first steel slag road was made
• Deucha Panchami = India's largest coal block and the world's 2nd largest coal block in WB
• Raigarh Fort = Maharashtra, captured by Chatrapati Shivaji
• Blue Flag Certification = last year 8 beeches of India got these two new beeches are also added = Kovalam (TN), and Eden beech in
TN.
• Mahendragiri = Orissa, proposed it to be the 2nd biosphere reserve by Orissa govt.
• Pochampalli = Telangana = UN World Tourism Organization gave the best tourism village Award

• Pilgrimage Sites = Amarnath (Great Himalaya), Vaishno Devi, Dharamshala (Dhauladhar), Rishikesh (Shiwaliks), Haridwar (Bhabhar),
Amritsar (Bari doab), Anandpur Sahib (Shiwaliks), Mount Abu (Aravalis), Ajmer (Aravalis), Dwarka and Somnath (Kathiawar Plains). Khajurao
(Bundelkhand).

• Sanchi (towards Vindhyas), Ujjain (Malwa), Shreeshailam (Nallamala hills), Tirupati (Palkonda Range), Karnul (Rayalseema), Hampi
(Tungabhadra River), Shabrimala (Pampa hills, Cardamom Hills), Nalanda (in plains), Konark and Puri (Mahanadi Delta), Kamakhya
Temple (Brahmaputra river)

Refugee Material

•
[Link] -… 46/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote
•

[Link] -… 47/48
5/7/25, 3:48 PM OneNote

[Link] -… 48/48