MODULE 2

INTRODUCTION OF POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

What is a Power Diode?

A power diode metal-semiconductor interface device is different from a normal standard pn-
junction diode, in terms of its structural features and dimensions. The power diode primarily
conducts current in one direction by blocking the current flow in the reverse direction, with
lower resistance in that direction and high resistance in the reverse direction. In power
electronics power diode is of much importance since it can be used in many applications such as
power supply and rectification purposes.

It operates on the principle of a semiconductor junction; in power diodes P-type semiconductor is

connected to an N-type semiconductor material. When a positive voltage is applied to the P-type
side and a negative voltage to the N-type side (forward bias), it allows current to flow easily
through the diode with a lower voltage drop. However, when the polarity of the applied voltage
is reversed (reverse bias), the diode blocks most of the current flow due to the creation of a
depletion layer that significantly increases resistance. This characteristic is vital in preventing
undesired reverse currents in circuits and maintaining the desired direction of current flow.
Power diodes come in various forms and are capable of handling high voltages and currents
efficiently. They play a crucial role in converting AC (alternating current) to DC (direct current)
in power supplies, protecting circuits from reverse voltage, and managing power flow in various
electronic devices and systems.

Power Diode
Symbol of the Power Diode
Symbolic representation of power diode

V-I characteristics of Power Diode

The V-I (voltage-current) characteristics of a power diode describe its behavior in terms of
voltage and current when operating in different modes.

V-I Characteristic curve of power diode

 With increase of the source voltage Vs from zero to cut- in voltage, the forward- diode current
is veritably small.
 Cut- in voltage is also known as threshold voltage or turn- on voltage.
 The current of the diode rises rapidly for the values lying beyond the cut-in voltage and the
diode starts conducting.
 For silicon diode, the cut- in voltage is around 0.7 V. When diode conducts, there's a forward
voltage drop of the order of 0.8 ~1V.
 For high power diodes, the forward current grows linearly with increase in voltage.
 For low power diodes, the forward current first increases exponentially with the voltage and
then becomes linear with respect to change in voltage.
 In the reverse biased condition, a small reverse current called leakage current, arises.
 The leakage current is nearly independent of the magnitude of reverse voltage until this
voltage reaches breakdown voltage. At this breakdown point, voltage remains nearly constant
but reverse biased current becomes relatively high-limited only by the external circuit
resistance.
 By operating the diode below the peak reverse repetitive voltage VRRM .
 Peak Inverse Voltage is the largest reverse voltage to which a diode may be subordinated
during its working. PIV is the same as VRRM

Working of Power Diodes

The working principle of power diodes is that they conduct electricity primarily in one
direction by blocking the flow of current in other direction. Given below is the Circuit diagram
of the power Diode.
Voltage Supply to the power diode

Now we will see step by step Explanation of the working of power diode
 The power diode consists of two region, P-type semiconductor region and an N-type
semiconductor region joined together to form a P-N junction interface.
 It starts operating in forward bias, when a positive voltage (anode) is connected to the P-
side and a negative voltage (cathode) is connected to the N-side, due to which the barrier
potential across the junction reduces and the current starts flowing easily across the diode.
 Due to this application of voltage the holes start to flow from p-side to n-side and the
electrons flows from n-side to p-side enabling the diode to conduct effectively and act as
closed switch for current flow.
 On applying a reverse voltage (positive to the N-type material and negative to the P-type
material) the barrier potential across the junction is increased. This blocks the flow of
current in the reverse direction, and the diode acts as an open switch, allowing only a tiny
leakage current due to minority carriers.
 The diode enters breakdown region, at a specific reverse voltage called the breakdown
voltage. This phenomenon can be interpretated as either Zener breakdown or avalanche
breakdown, which allows the diode to conduct in the reverse direction beyond this threshold
without damaging the diode.
 The recombination of charges takes place Due to dual injection of positive and negative
charge carries, hence the diode starts to conduct.
 The n+ region is responsible for the recombination. Thus, due to this recombination the
resistance in n- drift region decreases, and the diodes begins to conduct.

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

BJT is a 3-layer, 2-junction, 3-terminal npn or pnp semiconductor device. Bipolar=

2 polarities of charge carriers constitute the current flow in the device. There are 2 types,
NPN and PNP. NPN type is widely used as they are easy to manufacture and cheaper.
 Figure 1.5.1 Symbol

[Source: “Power Electronics” by [Link], Khanna Publishers Page: 11]

CONSTRUCTION

A power transistor is a vertically oriented four-layer structure of alternating p-type

and n-type. It helps in maximizing the cross-section area and results in higher current rating
of BJT, minimize the on-state resistance, and thus reduce the power losses.

 It has an extra lightly doped (n-) region called as collector drift region in
addition toNPN layers
 The n-layer increases the voltage blocking capacity of transistor which is
needed isfast switching application in efficient power control
 The characteristics of the device is determined by the doping level in each of
the layers and the thickness of the layers.
 Figure 1.5.2 Structure of BJT

[Source: “Power Electronics” by [Link], Khanna Publishers Page: 11]

The thickness of the drift region determines the breakdown voltage of the
Powertransistor. The base thickness is made as small as possible in order to have good
amplification capabilities, however if the base thickness is small the breakdown voltage
capability of the transistor is compromised.

POWER BJT – VI CHARACTERISTICS

The VI characteristics of the Power BJT is different from signal level transistor. The
major differences are Quasi saturation region & secondary breakdown region. The Quasi
saturation region is available only in Power transistor characteristic not in signal
transistors. It is because of the lightly doped collector drift region present in Power BJT.
The primary breakdown is similar to the signal transistor’s avalanche breakdown.
Operation of device at primary and secondary breakdown regions should be avoided as it
will lead to the catastrophic failure of the device.
Input characteristics

A graph between base current IB and base emitter voltage VBE is called as input
characteristics. The base emitter region is a diode and hence the input characteristics
resembles the V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode. Base current decreases as
collector emitter voltage increases for the same base emitter voltage.

Figure 1.5.3 Input characteristics of BJT

[Source: “Power Electronics” by [Link], Khanna Publishers Page: 11]

Output characteristics

A graph between collector current IC and collector emitter voltage VCE is called
as output characteristics, Power BJT operates in four regions

 Cutoff region-Both BE and CE junction must be reversed biased.

 Active region-BE junction must be forward biased and CB reverse biased
 Quasi-saturation region-Both forward biased.

 Hard-saturation region-Both forward biased.

Quasi-saturation region

 Quasi saturation region is a new region in Power BJT due to lightly doped (n-)
drift region. If the BJT is to be operated in high switching frequency, they operate
in this region. It provides low resistance to voltage in on state than active region.
Since it does not get into deep saturation we can turn on and off power BJT very
quickly.

 In power handling and control purposes power BJT are generally used in cutoff for
off state and quasi-saturation for on state to act as a switch.

Cut-off Region

 When the base current (IB) is zero, the collector current (IC) is insignificant
and the transistor is driven into the cutoff region. The transistor is now in the OFF
state.

 The collector–base and base–emitter junctions are reverse biased in the

cutoff regionor OFF state, the transistor behaves as an open switch.

 In this region:IC= 0 and the collector–emitter voltage VCE is equal to the

supply voltage VCC
Saturation Region

When the base current is sufficient to drive the transistor into [Link]
saturation, both junctions are forward-biased and the transistor acts like a closed [Link]
the quasi saturation and hard saturation, the base drive is applied and transistor issaid to
be on.
In this region: I(C )=VCC/RC and VCE=0.

Active Region

In the active region, the collector–base junction is reversed-biased and the base–
emitter junction is forward-biased.
The active region of the transistor is mainly used for amplifier applications and
shouldbe avoided for switching operation.
The power BJT is never operated in the active region (i.e. as an amplifier) it is
alwaysoperated between cut-off and saturation.

Fig 1.5.4 output characteristics of BJT

SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER BJT

Switching characteristics of power BJT is shown in Fig. As the positive base

voltage is applied, base current starts to flow but there is no collector current for some
time. This time is known as the delay time (td) required to charge the junction capacitance
of the base to emitter to 0.7 V approx. (known as forward-bias voltage). For t > td,
collector current starts rising and VCE starts to drop with the magnitude of 90% of its peak
value. This time is called rise time, required to turn on the transistor. The transistor remains
on so long as the collector current is at least of this value.

Fig 1.5.5 Switching characteristics of BJT

 For turning off the BJT, polarity of the base voltage is reversed and thus the base current
polarity will also be changed as shown in Fig. The base current required during the steady-state
operation is more than that required to saturate the transistor. Thus, excess minority carrier
charges are stored in the base region which needs to be removed during the turn-off process. The
time required to nullify this charge is the storage time ts. Collector current remains at the same
value for this time. After this, collector current starts decreasing and base-to-emitter junction
charges to the negative polarity, base current also get reduced.

APPLICATIONS OF POWER BJT

• SMPS (Switch mode power supply) used in computers.

• Final audio amplifier in stereo systems.
• Power amplifiers.
• DC to AC inverters.
• Relay and display drivers.
• AC motor speed controllers.
control circuits

MOSFET
A Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-effect Transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a
field-effect transistor (FET with an insulated gate) where the voltage determines the conductivity of the
device.

It is used for switching or amplifying signals. The ability to change conductivity with the amount of
applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals.

Structure:
 It is a four-terminal device with Source (S), Drain (D), Gate (G), and body (B) terminals. The body (B)
is frequently connected to the source terminal, reducing the terminals to three. It works by varying the
width of a channel along which charge carriers flow (electrons or holes).

The charge carriers enter the channel at the source and exit via the drain. The width of the channel is
controlled by the voltage on an electrode called Gate which is located between the source and the drain.
It is insulated from the channel near an extremely thin layer of metal oxide.

A metal-insulator-semiconductor field-effect transistor or MISFET is a term almost synonymous with

MOSFET. Another synonym is IGFET for the insulated-gate field-effect transistor.

Different Types of MOSFET

MOSFET works in two modes-

1. Depletion Mode: The transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage (VGS) to switch the device “OFF”.
The depletion-mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “Normally Closed” switch.

2. Enhancement Mode: The transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage (VGS) to switch the device
“ON”. The enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “Normally Open” switch.

Now with respect to the working principle, MOSFET is classified as follows:

 P-Channel Depletion MOSFET

 P-Channel Enhancement MOSFET
 N-Channel Depletion MOSFET
 N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET

P-Channel MOSFET
 P Channel MOSFET
Depletion and Enhancement Mode

The drain and source are heavily doped p+ region and the substrate is in n-type. The current flows due to
the flow of positively charged holes, and that’s why known as p-channel MOSFET.

When we apply negative gate voltage, the electrons present beneath the oxide layer experience repulsive
force and are pushed downward into the substrate, the depletion region is populated by the bound
positive charges which are associated with the donor atoms.

The negative gate voltage also attracts holes from the P+ source and drain region into the channel
region.

N-Channel MOSFET
 N-channel
MOSFET Enhancement and Depletion Mode

The drain and source are heavily doped N+ region and the substrate is p-type. The current flows due to
the flow of negatively charged electrons and that’s why known as n-channel MOSFET.

When we apply the positive gate voltage, the holes present beneath the oxide layer experience repulsive
force, and the holes are pushed downwards into the bound negative charges which are associated with
the acceptor atoms.

The positive gate voltage also attracts electrons from the N+ source and drain region into the channel
thus an electron-rich channel is formed.

MOSFET Working Operation

 The working principle of a MOSFET depends upon the MOS capacitor. The MOS capacitor is the main
part of MOS-FET. The semiconductor surface at the below oxide layer is located between the source
and drain terminals. It can be inverted from p-type to n-type by applying positive or negative gate
voltages.

When we apply positive gate voltage, the holes present under the oxide layer experience a repulsive
force, and holes are pushed downward with the substrate.

The depletion region is populated by the bound negative charges that are associated with the acceptor
atoms. The electrons reach, and the channel is formed. The positive voltage also attracts electrons from
the n+ source and drain regions into the channel.

Now, if a voltage is applied between the drain and source, the current flows freely between the source
and drain and the gate voltage controls the electrons in the channel. If we apply negative voltage, a hole
channel will be formed under the oxide layer.

Applications

 Amplifiers
 Regulation for DC Motors
 Constructions of Chopper Amplifiers
 Switching and Amplifying Signals

INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT)

• IGBT is a voltage controlled device.

• It has high input impedance like a MOSFET and low on-state

conduction losses like aBJT.

• IGBT has three terminals gate (G), collector (C) and emitter (E).

• With collector and gate voltage positive with respect to emitter the device

is in forwardblocking mode.
• When gate to emitter voltage becomes greater than the threshold voltage of
 IGBT, an- channel is formed in the P-region. Now device is in forward
conducting state.

CONSTRUCTION OF IGBT

Figure 1.7.1 Structure of IGBT

[Source: “Power Electronics” by [Link], Khanna Publishers Page: 24]

 The structure of IGBT is very much similar to that of Power MOSFET, except one

layer known as injection layer which is p+ unlike n+ substrate in PMOSFET. This p+

injectionlayer is the key to the superior characteristics of [Link] injects holes into n- layer.

Thickness of n- layer decides the voltage blocking capability. Other layers are called the

drift and the body region. The two junctions are labelled J1 and J2.

OPERATION OF IGBT

N-channel IGBT turns ON when the collector is at a positive potential with respect to

emitter and gate also at sufficient positive potential (>VGET) with respect to emitter. This

condition leads to the formation of an inversion layer just below the gate, leading to a

channel formation and a current begins to flow from collector to emitter. This n- channel

short circuits the n+ with n- emitter regions. Electrons from emitter n+ region flows to n-

drift region through n-channel.

The collector current Ic in IGBT constitutes of two components- Ie and Ih. Ie is the

current due to injected electrons flowing from collector to emitter through injection layer,

drift layer and finally the channel formed. Ih is the hole current flowing from collector to

emitter through Q1 and body resistance Rb.

Characteristics of IGBT

There are two characteristics

1. An output characteristic is a plot of collector current Ic versus collector to emitter
voltage VCE for given values of gate to emitter voltage VGE

2. A plot of collector current Ic versus gate-emitter voltage VGE for a given

value of VCE gives the transfer characteristic.

Controlling parameter is the gate-emitter voltage VGE in IGBT. If VGE is less

than the threshold voltage VT then IGBT is in OFF state. If VGE is greater than the
threshold voltage VT then the IGBT is in ON state.

The graph is similar to that of a BJT except that the parameter which is kept
constant for a plot is VGE because IGBT is a voltage controlled device unlike BJT
which is a current controlled device. When the device is in OFF mode (VCE is
positiveand VGE < VGET) the reverse voltage is blocked by J2 and when it is
reverse biased,i.e. VCE is negative, J1 blocks the voltage.

Transfer Characteristics of IGBT

Figure below shows the transfer characteristic of IGBT, which is exactly same as
PMOSFET. The IGBT is in ON-state only after VGE is greater than threshold value
VGET.
 Figure 1.7.2 Characteristics of IGBT

[Source: “Power Electronics” by [Link], Khanna Publishers Page: 25]

SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF IGBT

After turn-on collector-emitter voltage VCE will be very small during the steady
state conduction of the device.
• The turn off time toff consists of three components, delay time (tdf), initial fall time

(tf1) and final fall time (tf2). Delay time is defined as time when collector current falls
from IC to 0.9 IC and VGE falls to threshold voltage VGET and VCE begins to rise.
Initialfall time is the time during which collector current falls from 0.9 IC to 0.2 IC and
collector emitter voltage rises
0.1 VCE. The final fall time is defined as time during which collector current falls from
0.2 IC to 0.1 IC. During the turn-off time interval collector- emitter voltage rises to its
final value VCE.

Figure 1.7.3 Switching Characteristics of IGBT

[Source: “Power Electronics” by [Link], Khanna Publishers Page: 26]

The gate drive circuit of an IGBT should ensure fast and reliable switching of the
device. In particular, it should.
• Apply maximum permissible VgE during ON period.

• Apply a negative voltage during off period.

• Control dic/dt during turn ON and turn off to avoid excessive

Electro magneticinterference (EMI).
• Control dvce dt during switching to avoid IGBT latch up.

• Minimize switching loss.

• Provide protection against short circuit fault.

IGBT APPLICATIONS

IGBT finds its use in Medium power applications like

1. DC and AC motor drives,
2. medium power supplies,
3. solid state relays and contractors,
4. general purpose inverters,
5. UPS,
6. welder equipments,
7. servo controls,
8. robotics,
9. cutting tools

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

K G

thickest very
, lightly thin,
n+ n+ heavily
p+ doped
doped

n-

P1 N1 P2 N2
p+ A K
p+ n-
p+ n+
A G

A K
G
 Construction

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is basically a four layered, three junction and three
terminal device. The four layer are PNPN, the three Junction are namely J1 , J2 and
J3 and the three terminals are anode(A), cathode(K) and the gate (G)
A SCR is built with the four layers that comprise of the P-type and the N-type
semiconductor material. These are layered so that it will in general frame three
intersections that are J1, J2, and J3. The three terminals that are appended to it are known
as anode, cathode, and gate. The anode is the essential terminal through which the
ongoing streams or enters the gadget. Where the cathode is the terminal through which
the entered current leaves the device.
The ongoing entering terminal is of positive extremity and the terminal through which the
current is leaving is of negative extremity. In the middle of between the progression of
current among the terminals, there should be a terminal that can give the control. This can
be given by the terminal door. This terminal is at times additionally alluded to as the
terminal of control.
Allow us to consider a SCR is of P-N-P-N type. For this situation, as the anode is
associated at the over that is to P-type and the cathode is associated toward the end that is
for N-type. Where the terminal gate is likewise associated with the p-type however it will
be the subsequent P-type in the succession. Thus the gate terminal is situated so that it is
closer to the terminal cathode.
In this, the intersection J1 is in the middle of between the main P-type and the N-type.
The second intersection J2 will in the middle of between the N-type and the subsequent
P-type layers. The third intersection will in the middle of between the last P-type and the
N-type layers. In view of the prerequisite or the need of the applications these layers of
the Thyristor are doped. The silicon liked here for its development is of characteristic
sort.

working

SCR has 3 modes of operation i) forward blocking mode; 2) forward conduction mode
and 3) reverse blocking mode
a) Forward blocking mode
When anode is positive with respect to cathode, junctions J1 and J3 are forward
biased and junction J2 is reverse biased. A very small leakage current flows from
anode to cathode.
b) Forward conduction
mode With zero gate
current: -
 If anode to cathode voltage is increased to sufficiently large value, the reverse
biased junction J2 will breakdown and the corresponding voltage is known as
forward breakover voltage VBO. Since other junctions J1 and J3 are already
forward biased, there will be free movement of charge carriers across the three
junctions, resulting in a large forward anode current. The SCR will then be in
conducting state (ON state). The ON state voltage is around 1.5V and the anode
current is limited by the load resistance.
Once a thyristor conducts, it behaves like a conducting diode and there is no
control over the device. The device continues to conduct because there is no
depletion layer on the junction J2 due to free movement of carriers.
If the forward anode current is reduced below holding current I H a depletion
layer develops around junction J2 and the thyristor will be in blocking state.

With positive gate current:-

When the thyristor is in forward blocking state and if a positive voltage is

applied between gate and cathode, charges are injected into the inner P layer and the
voltage at which the forward breakover occurs is reduced. The forward voltage at
which the device switches to ON state depends upon the magnitude of gate current.
Higher the gate current, lower is the forward breakover voltage.
Once the thyristor is in the on state, the gate cannot be used to turn the device
off. The only way to turn off a thyristor is to force the current through the device to
be less than the holding current.
Latching current IL is the minimum anode current required to maintain the
thyristor in the ON state immediately after it has been turned on and the gate signal
has been removed.
Holding current is less than latching current.

a) Reverse blocking mode

When cathode is made positive with respect to anode, the SCR is said to be
 reverse biased. J1 and J3 are reverse biased, whereas J2 is forward biased. SCR
behaves as if two reverse biased diodes are connected in series. A small leakage
current flows in the SCR. If this reverse voltage is increased, then at a critical
breakdown level, called reverse breakdown voltage VBD avalanche breakdown
occurs at J1 and J3 and reverse current increases rapidly.
Large current at large voltage VBR leads to increased junction temperature and
the device gets damaged.
Static I-V characteristics are shown above.
Note: Generally, the thyristor is designed so that the forward breakover voltage
VBO will be about the same as the reverse breakdown voltage VBD.

TWO TRANSISTOR ANALOGY

A SCR can be considered as two complementary transistors, one PNP transistor Q1
and another NPN transistor Q2.

For Q2, IC 2 = α2 IK + ICBO 2

For a transistor, IC = αI E
+ ICBO

For Q1, IC1 = α1IA +

ICBO1
 I A = IC1 + IB1 = IC1 + IC 2 = α1IA + ICBO1 + α2 IK + ICBO 2

But IK = I A + IG

I = α2 IG + …………………….. (1)
IACBO1 + + ICBO
2
1– (α1 + α2
)

Current gain α varies with emitter current IE as

shown in figure. α1 increases with IA and α2
increases with IK=IA+IG.
If IG is increased, IA increases (equation 1) and IK (=IA+IG) increases. α1 and α2
increase; 1-( α1+ α2) decreases; IA is further increased; there is a regenerative or
positive feedback effect. If ( α1+ α2) approaches unity, IA becomes very large,
thyristor is turned ON.

TURN-ON METHODS OF THYRISTOR

1) Forward voltage triggering
When anode to cathode forward voltage is increased with gate circuit open and
when this voltage reaches forward breakover voltage (VBO), thyristor starts
conducting. The forward current is limited by the load impedance. This method is
rarely used as the large VBO may destroy the device.
Once the thyristor is conducting, J2 loses its reverse blocking capability. Hence, if
the anode voltage is reduced below VBO, SCR will continue conduction of the
current. Now, the SCR can be turned off only by reducing the anode current below
holding current.
2) Gate triggering
When the thyristor is in forward blocking state and if a positive voltage is applied
between gate and cathode, charges are injected into the inner P layer and the voltage
at which the forward breakover occurs is reduced. The forward voltage at which the
device switches to ON state depends upon the magnitude of gate current. Higher the
gate current, lower is the forward breakover voltage.
3) dv/dt triggering
During forward blocking mode, J1 and J3 are forward biased and J2 is reverse
biased. The reverse biased junction J2 has the characteristics of a capacitor due to
charges existing across the junction.
 10

If a forward voltage is applied suddenly, a charging current will flow tending to turn
ON the device.
If the rate of rise of voltage across the device is large, the device may turn-ON even
though the voltage appearing across the device is small.

SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS
(TURN ON AND TURN OFF
CHARACTERISTICS) TURN ON CHARACTERISTICS

When the gate pulse ig is applied, the anode current IA builds up and the
voltage across the device (VA) falls. But there is a transition time from forward
OFF state to forward ON state. This transition time called turn on time t on is
defined as the time during which it changes from forward blocking state to final ON
state. When the device is fully turned ON, the voltage across it is quite small
(typically 1 to 2.5V).
Turn on time ton = delay time td + rise time tr + spread time tp
Delay time td – The delay time td is measured from the instant at which gate
current reaches 0.9Ig to the instant at which anode current reaches 0.1IA. (Ig and
IA are final gate and anode currents). Delay time is also defined as the timeduring
which anode voltage falls from VA to 0.9VA.
Rise time tr – Rise time tr is the time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.1IA to
0.9IA. Rise time is also defined as the time during which the anode voltage falls
from 0.9VA to 0.1VA.
Spread time tp – Spread time is the time taken by the anode current to rise from
0.9IA to IA. It is also defined as the time during which the anode voltage falls from
 10

0.1VA to ON state voltage drop (1 to 2.5V).

During this time, conduction spreads over the entire cross section of the cathode of
SCR.
The device switches on very quickly, the turn-on time ton typically being 1 to
3μS. (Typically, the width of the gate pulse is in the range 10 to 50μS and its
amplitude in the range 20 to 200mA)

TURN OFF CHARACTERISTICS

Once the thyristor is in ON state, the gate has no control on the device. The
thyristor will turn off if the anode current becomes zero (natural commutation), or is
forced to become zero (forced commutation).
 11

However, if a forward voltage is applied immediately after the anode current

is reduced to zero, the thyristor will not block the forward voltage and will start
conducting again although it is not triggered by a gate pulse. It is therefore necessary
to keep the device reverse biased for a finite period before a forward anode voltage
can be applied. This period is known as the turn-off time, tq, of the thyristor.
If the current through the thyristor is required to be switched off at a desired
instant, it is momentarily reverse biased by making the cathode positive with
respect to anode (i.e., VAK is negative).For this forced commutation, a
commutation circuit is required. In most commutation circuits, a precharged
capacitor is momentarily connected across the conducting thyristor to reverse bias
it.
At t1, anode current becomes zero. After t1, anode currents builds up in the
reverse direction and reaches a maximum value at t 2. At t2 reverse recovery current
is maximum (=Irr). At t3, reverse recovery current removes all excess carriers from
junction J1 and J3. Junction J2 requires a time known as recombination time trc to
recombine the excess carriers.
The turn-off time tq is the sum of reverse recovery time trr and recombination
time trc.
At the end of turn-off, a depletion layer develops across junction J2 and the
thyristor recovers its ability to withstand forward voltage.

di/dt protection

When a thyristor is turned on, conduction starts at a place near the gate. This small
area of conduction spreads to the whole area of junction. If the rate of rise of anode
current (di/dt) is large as compared to the spreading velocity of carriers across the
cathode junction, local hot spots will be formed near the gate connection on account
of high current density. This causes the junction temperature to rise above the safe
limit and as a consequence, SCR may be damaged permanently. To limit the rate of
rise of anode current, an inductance is connected in series with the device (Note :-
Current through an inductance cannot change instantaneously).

dv/dt protection

During forward blocking state, junction J2 is reverse biased. Charges across J2

develop a capacitance
Cj. When forward voltage is suddenly applied, a charging current i = C dV begins to
flow and it may
c j dt

turn on the SCR even without any gate signal. In order to limit the rate of rise of
anode voltage, a series combination of R and C (RC snubber circuit) is connected in
parallel with the SCR. (Note : - Voltage across a capacitance cannot change
instantaneously).
Snubber circuit is connected to protect the thyristor from unncecessary turn on due
 12

to high dv/dt. It also reduces transient overvoltage during reverse recovery period
and provides dynamic equalization in a string of thyristors.
A thyristor with di/dt and dv/dt protection are shown below.

SPECIFICATIONS OF SCR
(R-reverse; R-repetitive; M-peak; S-surge; D-forward blocking with gate open,
W-working, F- Forward; T-trigger)
i) VDWM – Peak working forward blocking voltage (Maximum forward
blocking voltage that a thyristor can withstand during its working)
ii) VDRM – Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage (peak transient voltage
that a thyristor can withstand repeatedly or periodically in its forward
blocking mode) (800V for TIC106N)
 13

iii) VDSM – Peak surge (non-repetitive) forward blocking voltage (Peak value of the
forward surge voltage that does not repeat)
iv) VRWM – Peak working reverse voltage (Maximum reverse voltage that a
thyristor can withstand)
v) VRRM – Peak repetitive reverse voltage (Peak reverse transient voltage that
may occur repeatedly in the reverse direction) (800V for TIC106N)
vi) VRSM – Peak surge reverse voltage (Peak value of the reverse surge voltage
that does not repeat)
vii) VT – Peak On state voltage (1.7V for TIC106N)
viii) dv/dt (Maximum rate of rise of anode voltage that will not turn ON the device
without any gate signal) (10V/μS for TIC106N)
ix) IT(AV) – Average ON state current (power loss in a thyristor during ON state
depends on ITAV) (3.2A for TIC106N)
x) IT(RMS) – heating on metallic elements (joints, leads etc) of thyristor depends on
IT(RMS). (5A for TIC106N)
xi) ITSM – Surge ON-state current (30A for TIC106N)
xii) IGT – Gate trigger current (200μA for TIC106N)
xiii) VGT – Gate trigger voltage (1V for TIC106N)
xiv) IH - Holding current (5mA for TIC106N)
xv) I t rating (choice of fuse or protective equipment for SCR) (4100A2S)
2

di/dt rating (Maximum rate of rise of anode current without any harm to the device) –
(200A/μS)

Firing Circuits of Thyristor or SCR – R, RC & UJT Triggering

There are many ways to turn ON a thyristor, like forward-voltage firing, dv/dt triggering,
temperature triggering, light triggering, and gate triggering. But other than these methods, the
most commonly employed method to turn-ON a thyristor is by controlling the gate pulse.

The circuit used for turning ON the thyristor by giving gate pulses is called the Firing or
Triggering Circuit of SCR. But in order to employ the firing circuit method for turning ON
thyristor, the circuit must fulfill some conditions,

Conditions for Triggering or Firing Circuits of Thyristors :

Certain conditions are to be met for firing the thyristors are,

 Gate current should be of sufficient amplitude and should flow in the circuit for the required
duration.
 14

 Voltage pulses should be fed to the driver circuit first and then to the gate-cathode circuit.
 For a circuit with more than one thyristor, the gate current for each thyristor must be
provided at the desired instant of time.

Triggering or Firing Circuits of Thyristor or SCR :

The most commonly used firing or firing circuits for thyristor or SCR are,

 Resistance Firing Circuit (R-Firing),

 Resistance-Capacitance Firing(RC-Firing),
 UJT-Firing Circuit.

Resistance Firing Circuit (R-Firing) :

The below shows the circuit configuration and waveforms of the resistance firing circuit. This
firing circuit is the simplest method of controlling the firing angle of SCR. In this firing circuit,
the firing angle can vary over a limited range of 0° to 90°. Instead of giving gate pulses to the
thyristor, an ac supply is given to the gate terminal for firing.

Working of Resistance Firing Circuit (R-Firing) :

 15

The working of the resistance firing circuit is as follows,

 During the positive half-cycle of the voltage source VS, thyristor, T is forward-biased, but it
doesn’t conduct because of insufficient gate current. Hence, load voltage VL is zero.
 As voltage source VS increases, thyristor and diode both are forward-biased, and gate
current IG flows in the circuit. When gate current IG reaches to value equal to IG(min), the
thyristor is turned-ON and load voltage follows source voltage, and the voltage drop across
the thyristor is equal to the on-state drop.
 During the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, the thyristor is reverse-biased, and
hence it is turned OFF. Thus load voltage VL becomes zero and voltage across the thyristor
VT will be equal to source voltage VS.

The diode in the gate circuit prevents the reverse voltage of the thyristor during the negative half-
cycle from exceeding peak reverse voltage. The limiting resistance RL placed between anode and
gate of thyristor limits the gate current not to exceed peak gate current I G(max).

From the waveforms above, the firing angle and the output voltage can be controlled by varying
the variable resistance RV. If RV is large, then the current will be small, and hence firing angle
(α) increases and vice versa.

Advantages of Resistance Firing Circuit :

 The firing circuit is very easy and simple to operate.

 The firing angle can be varied from 0° to 90°.
 By using a capacitor and a diode, the limited firing angle issue is resolved.
Disadvantages of Resistance Firing Circuit :

 Limited firing angle i.e., up to 90° only.

 The firing angle is totally dependent on the minimum gate current of thyristors.
 The value of minimum gate current changes between the thyristors.
 It is a temperature-dependent circuit.

Resistance-Capacitance Firing Circuit (RC-Firing) :

The limitations of the resistance firing circuit can be overcome by using a resistance-capacitance
firing circuit. Using an RC-firing circuit the firing angle can be controlled from 0 to 180
electrical degrees. There are two types of RC-firing circuits,

 RC half-wave firing circuit, and

 RC full-wave firing circuit.
 16

The above figure illustrates the RC half-wave firing circuit. The capacitor charges to the negative
peak of the ac voltage in every negative half-cycle through the diode D2. During the positive
half-cycle, it begins to charge through the resistance RV. When the voltage across the capacitor
reaches the required positive value, the thyristor is fired and the capacitor voltage remains almost
constant.

The diode D1 prevents the breakdown of the gate-cathode junction during the negative half-
cycle. For power frequencies, the value of R V C for zero output voltage is empirically given by,
 17

If the value of RV is high, then the capacitor takes more time to charge. Hence the firing angle is
more but the average output is low and vice-versa. In order to have more output, the value of
RV should be less.

RC Full-Wave Firing Circuit :

The advantages of a full-wave firing circuit over a half-wave firing circuit are,

 Power can be delivered to load both during positive and negative half-cycles because of the
full-wave bridge diode.
 The firing angle can be controlled from 0° to 180°.
 The power delivered to the load is doubled.
 The output voltage is present even in the negative half cycle.
The below figures illustrates the RC full-wave firing circuit.
 18

Initially, the capacitor starts charging from zero voltage, and this low voltage is achieved by the
clamping action of the SCR gate. When VC reaches Vgt, SCR is turned-ON and ac line voltage
which is rectified into dc by a full-wave diode bridge appears across the load. In this circuit, RVC
and RV are given by,

Advantages of RC Firing Circuit :

 The firing angle limitation in the R-firing circuit is overcome by the RC-firing circuit.
 The firing angle range is between 0 and 180°.
 The circuit is cheap, simple, and also acts as a snubber circuit.
Disadvantages of RC Firing Circuit :

 The values of RV and C changes with respect to temperature.

 The firing angle depends upon the RC time constant.
 Supply fluctuations have effects on firing angle.
 19

 It is only applicable in power circuits where only one thyristor is used.

 It can be used only in open-loop control systems.

LINE SYCHRONISED TRIGGERNG

UJT (Unijunction Transistor) Triggering Circuit

UJT is a three-layer, two-terminal device that generates a trigger pulse when biased properly. It
is commonly used for triggering SCRs. When the UJT fires, it provides a pulse to the gate of the
thyristor, turning it on.
The capacitor C1 begins charging through R1 as soon as the circuit is energized by DC. The UJT
turns ON when the voltage across the capacitor reaches peak point voltage.
The SCR is turned on after the UJT is turned on because the SCR’s gate receives the pulse sent
by the RG. Through the SCR, the load current passes. R2 and B2 of the UJT discharge the
capacitor C1 during this process.

The UJT switches off and the capacitor begins to charge once more when the voltage across the
capacitor reaches 2.0 V. As R1’s resistance rises, the capacitor’s rate of charging drops.

As a result, the firing angle will increase and the load current will decrease. Because the UJT is
supplied by a DC supply while the SCR is energized by an AC supply, there is no synchronism,
and the firing angle changes in value during each positive half cycle
 110

he UJT receives DC power from the same sources during the positive half cycle in order to
maintain the same firing angle. Supply to the load only occurs during half of the cycle.

Commutation of Thyristor
SCR operates as a switch because it swings between on-state and off-state. It is the basic
principle of thyristor operation that it gets on only when there is a triggering pulse at the gate
cathode terminal of the circuit. During the turn-on condition of the thyristor, the thyristor
exhibits forward conduction whereas at this time the turn-off characteristic of the device is
ceased. Once conduction has started then even after the removal of the triggering pulse, the
device continues to conduct. Hence, a thyristor cannot get turned off by itself. So, the question
arises –

How the device can be commutated?

Commutating a thyristor is the process of turning the thyristor off. Using the principle of
commutation, thyristor gets its use in controlling operations. It either acts in open circuit
condition i.e., off state, or closed circuit condition i.e., on state. A thyristor on its own fails to
handle the amount of voltage or current flowing through it. Thus, the only way by which voltage
and current can be controlled when switching between on state and off state is done is in
accordance with proper commutation.

Thyristor Commutation Techniques

The classification of thyristor commutation is based on the circuit configuration and the way
anode current is reduced to zero. In general, commutation is broadly classified into two
categories:

 Natural Commutation
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 Forced Commutation
Let us now understand each type.

1. Natural Commutation: This type of commutation does not need external circuitry for the
purpose of commutation rather the supply ac input acts as a source of commutation voltage. Its
basic principle of operation is that here alternating current of reverse nature is considered to
affect the flow of current through the SCR.

To understand this, consider the circuit shown below:

We are aware of the fact that the alternating current exhibits the nature of crossing zero points
after every half cycle. So, once the positive half cycle when current reaches the natural zero-
crossing after which voltage of opposite polarity will appear as input. This voltage is utilized to
turn the device off. It is also known as line commutation.

Here during the positive half input, in the presence of gate signal, the drop across the thyristor is
equivalent to zero due to forward biased condition. Hence the overall applied input will appear at
the output. At the end of the positive half ac signal, the anode current naturally becomes 0.
Furthermore, at this instant when the negative half of ac input is provided then the drop across
the SCR will not be zero and so it comes in a blocking state, and the device gets turned off.

The waveform representation of input and load voltage is represented below:

 112

As here, after each half cycle when the current becomes 0, so this property of ac input signal is
utilized and is regarded as natural commutation.

2. Forced Commutation: This type of commutation requires an external circuit to commutate

the thyristor. The external circuit that commutates the device helps in reducing the forward
current to zero up to a sufficient time duration so that the complete charged carriers must be
removed. This technique is applied in dc circuits is due to the absence of ac input natural
commutation does not take place because of unchanged polarity.

The components involved in the commutating circuit are regarded as commutating

components.

The basic principle of operation adopted in this type of commutating technique is that by the use
of an external circuit, a reverse voltage is produced across the device.

There is a classification of forced commutation given as:

1. Class A or Load Commutation

2. Class B or Resonant Pulse Commutation
3. Class C or Complementary Commutation
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4. Class D or Impulse Commutation

5. Class E or External Pulse Commutation
The basis of this classification is the arrangement of commutating components in the circuit and
the way in which the current is made zero.

PROTECTION OF SCR

Protection of a device is an important aspect for its reliable and efficient operation. Silicon
Controlled Rectifier (SCR) are a very delicate semiconductor device. So we have to use it in its
specified ratings to get desired output. SCR may face different types of threats during its
operation due to over voltages, over currents etc. There are different types of thyristor
protection schemes available for satisfactory operation of the device like
1. Over voltage protection.
2. Over current protection.
3. High dv/dt protection.
4. High di/dt protection.
5. Thermal protection.

Over Voltage Protection

Over voltage protection is crucial since thyristors are highly sensitive to excessive voltages,
which are the most common cause of thyristor failures.
A thyristor may be subjected to internal or external over-voltages.
Internal Over-Voltages : After commutation of a thyristor reverse recovery current decays
abruptly with high di/dt which causes a high reverse voltage [as, V = L(di/dt) so if di/dt is high
then V will be large] that can exceed the rated break-over voltage and the device may be
damaged.
External Over-Voltages : These are caused due to various reasons in the supply line like
lightning, surge conditions (abnormal voltage spike) etc. External over voltage may cause
different types of problem in thyristor operation like increase in leakage current, permanent
breakdown of junctions, unwanted turn-on of devices etc. So, we have to suppress the over-
voltages.

Protective Measure: The effect of over-voltages can be minimized by using non-linear resistors
called voltage clamping devices like metal oxide varistors. At the time of normal operation, it
offers high impedance and acts as it is not present in the circuit. But when the voltage exceeds
the rated voltage then it serves as a low impedance path to protect SCR.
Over Current Protection
Overcurrent mainly occurs due to different types of faults in the circuit. Due to overcurrent i2R
loss will increase and high generation of heat may take place that can exceed the permissible
limit and burn the device.
Protective Measure: To shield SCRs from overcurrent, Circuit Breaker (CBs) manage long-
duration surges, while fast-acting current limiting fuses (FACLF) handle short, high surge
currents effectively.
 114

High dv/dt Protection

When a thyristor is in forward blocking state then only J2 junction is reverse biased which acts as
a capacitor having constant capacitance value Cj (junction capacitance). As we know that current
through capacitor follows the relation

Increased dva/dt i.e. or the rate of voltage change, can cause unwanted leakage current through
the J2 junction, potentially turning on the SCR unintentionally. This issue, known as dv/dt
triggering, is prevented using a Snubber circuit alongside the device.
Protective Measure :
Snubber Circuit: It consists of a capacitor connected in series with a resistor which is applied
parallel with the thyristor, when S is closed then voltage V s is applied across the device as well
as Cs suddenly. At first Snubber circuit behaves like a short circuit. Therefore voltage across the
device is zero. Gradually voltage across Cs builds up at a slow rate. So dv/dt across the thyristor
will stay in allowable range.
Before turning on of thyristor Cs is fully charged and after turning on of thyristor it discharges
through the SCR. This discharging current can be limited with the help of a resistance (R s)
connected in series with the capacitor (Cs) to keep the value of current and rate of change of
current in a safe limit.

High di/dt Protection

When a thyristor is turned on by gate pulse then charge carriers spread through its junction
rapidly. But if rate of rise of anode current, i.e. di/dt is greater than the spreading of charge
carriers then localized heat generation will take place which is known as local hot spots. This
may damage the thyristor.
Protective Measure: To avoid local hot spots we use an inductor in series with the device as it
prevents high rate of change of current through it.
High Temperature Protection
Elevated junction temperatures can lead to insulation failure, making it essential to implement
measures that limit temperature increases.
Protective Measure: We can achieve this by mounting the thyristor on heat sink which is mainly
made by high thermal conductivity metals like aluminum (Al), Copper (Cu) etc. Mainly
aluminum (Al) is used due to its low cost. There are several types of mounting techniques for
SCR such as – Lead-mounting, stud-mounting, Bolt-down mounting, press-fit mounting, press-
pack mounting etc.
Gate Protection of Thyristor
The gate circuit, similar to the thyristor, requires protection against overvoltages and
overcurrents to prevent false triggering and reduce the risk of overheating.
Protective Measure: Overvoltages thyristor protection is achieved by using a zener diode and a
resistor can be used to protect the gate circuit from overcurrent. Noise in gate circuit can also
cause false triggering which can be avoided by using a resistor and a capacitor in parallel. A
diode (D) may be connected in series or in parallel with the gate to protect it from high reverse
voltage.

Overall Protection of a Thyristor

 115

vs
Lead mounting: In such mounting technique Vm housing of SCR itself is used as heat radiator.
Hence no need of additional heat zink arrangement. Hence, π this 2π
technique of thyristor Protection
is generally used for low current application, normally less than one ampere. xt
Stud mounting: The anode of the thyristor vo is in the form of threaded stud which is screwed to a
metalling heat sink block.
Bolt-down mounting: Here the device is connected to the heat sink with the help of nut-bolt
mechanism. It is mainly used in small and Vm medium
α rating circuit. x
Press fit mounting: This kind of mounting io is obtained by inserting the whole SCR into the
metallic block. It is used in high ratingV circuit.
m/R
Press-Pack mounting: This kind of mounting for thyristor protection is obtainedx by
sandwiching the thyristor between to heat sink with the help of clamps. It is used for very high
rating circuit.

Requirements of thyristor gate drive circuits:

A gate trigger circuit for thyristors in phase controlled rectifiers should possess the
following :
(i) A circuit for the detection of zero crossing of the input voltage
(ii) Generation of trigger pulses of required waveshape
(iii) DC power supply for pulse amplifier
(iv) Gate trigger circuit isolation from the line potential by means of pulse
transformers or optocouplers
 116

A general block diagram for gate trigger circuit for single-phase controlled rectifier is
shown in figure. The gating circuit consists of synchronizing transformer, diode rectifier,
zero crossing detector (ZCD), firing angle delay block, pulse amplifier, gate-pulse
isolation transformer and power circuit for the converter.

Synchronising transformer steps down the supply voltage suitable for zero crossing
detector and for delivering dc supply VCC to gate trigger circuit.
 117

ZCD converts ac synchronizing input voltage into ramp voltage and synchronizes this
ramp voltage with the zero crossing of the ac supply voltage. In the firing angle delay
block, the constant amplitude ramp voltage is compared with control voltage EC. When
rising ramp voltage equals control voltage EC, a pulse signal of controlled duration is
generated. These signals are indicated as vi for thyristors 1 and 2 and vj for thyristors 3
and 4 for the power circuit. If EC is lowered, firing angle is decreased and if EC is raised
firing angle is increased. This shows that firing delay angle is directly proportional to the
control signal voltage.
The pulse output from the firing delay angle block is fed to a pulse amplifier circuit. The
amplified pulses are then used for triggering thyristors 1,2,3 and 4 through gate-pulse
isolation transformers.

Necessity of isolation:

Driver circuits operate at very low power levels. Normally, the signals levels are 3 to 12
volts. The gate drives are connected to power devices which operate at high power

levels. Figure shows this situation.

Observe that the collector of BJT can have voltages of 200V. But base is connected to
trigger circuit that have voltages of 5V. If BJT is damaged and collector-base gets shorted,
then high voltage will get connected to trigger circuit. This will damage the trigger circuit
 118

also. This means, the trigger circuit is damaged due to device damage. Therefore, there
must be some electrical isolation between control and power circuit. There is one more
reason for isolation. Consider that the trigger ciruit is deriving the two devices as shown
in figure below.

Here, T1 is given the drive between a-b and T2 is given the drive between c-d. The
trigger circuit must isolate the two drives. If there is no electric isolation, the points b and
d may be shorted due to common ground of the trigger circuit. Isolation can be obtained
with the help of pulse transformers and optocouplers.
Isolation using pulse transformer : Pulse transformer has one primary and one or more
secondary windings. It is normally used for pulsed mode of triggering. Figure shows the
isolation using pulse transformer.

In the above circuit, the triggering circuit is electrically isolated from BJT. Hence, if
there is any damage to BJT, there will be no effect on triggering circuit. Advantages of
pulse transformers are i) it does not need external power for its operation ii) it is very
simple to use. Disadvantages of pulse transformers are i) pulse transformers saturates at
low frequencies hence it can be used only for high frequencies ii) due to magnetic
coupling, the signal is distorted.
 119

Isolation using optocouplers : Optocoupler consists of a pair of infrared LED and

phototransistor.
When the signal is applied to the infrared LED, it turns on. It’s light falls on
phototransistor. Therefore phototransistor also start conducting. There is no electric
connection between LED and phototransistor. Figure shows a triggering circuit that uses
optocoupler.

In this circuit, the triggering pulses are given to the input (LED) of optocoupler. When Vg
is positive, LED turns-on. Its light falls on phototransistor. Hence it turns-on. Therefore,
base of T1 is connected to zero volts through phtotransistor. Due to this, T1 turns-on.
Therefore, the voltage VCC is applied to gate of the MOSFET. Hence MOSFET turns-
on. When Vg is zero, the LED turns-off, therefore phtotransistor also turns-off. Therefore
base drive of T1 goes to VCC and it turn-off. When T1 turns- off, MOSFET gate voltage
becomes zero. Therefore MOSFET turns-off. Thus gate drive circuit using optocoupler
works.
Advantages of optoisolators are i) Very good response at low frequencies and ii)
Compact and cheaper optocoupler devices are available. Disadvantages of optocouplers
 120

are i) it need external biasing voltage for its operation and ii) high frequency response is
poor.