Psychology

History of Psychology (Approaches)

Psychoanalysis
Understanding the inner person
Focus: emphasises the ways our unconscious thoughts processes and our emotional
response to childhood experiences affect our behaviour. For psychoanalysts our behaviour is
motivated by inner forces and conflicts which the individual has limited ability to control –
psychic determinism
Sigmund Freud: The father of psychology. Developed the theories of the unconscious mind.
Started to see patients difficulties as a result of mental problems rather than physical
problems. The work he conducted with patients diagnosed with hysteria led Freud to believe
that early childhood experiences and unconscious impulses contributed to the development
of adult personality and behaviour.
Psychological disorder: are the result of unconscious desires, unconscious conflicts
becoming extreme or unbalanced, childhood experiences. Unresolved conflicts in our
childhood will lead to ‘fixations’ later on in adult life. The conflict lies between the impulse
and the prohibition.
Goal of psychology: to understand the unconscious factors that lead to problematic feelings,
thoughts, and behaviours and learn to work through them to improve daily function.
Unconscious thoughts are believed to be impulses expressed through Freudian slips and
dreams.
Helps people: free association unlocked the unconscious. – patient is instructed to say
whatever comes to mind. Dreams were believed to hold unconscious desires or fears in
disguised form – by analysing dreams the therapist can try to understand the unconscious
meaning.
View of human nature: negative and pessimistic – nearly all of our impulses are sexual and
aggressive in nature. Because the unconscious holds thoughts which the conscious does not
accept, they are expressed through dreams, slips of tongue and jokes.
Importance: influence on ‘pop culture’ (Freudian slips, anal-retentive); first approach to
recognise childhood as a critical period for development; focused mainly on the individual;
influenced psychodynamic theory, recognised the role of the unconscious.
Limitations: does not focus on observable behaviour, negative perspective of human beings,
cannot be proven or disproven scientifically, ignores political and social exploitations of
people’s problems. Implies people have vert little free will thus is deterministic.
Behaviourism
Observing the outer person
Focus: Studies people’s visibly observable behaviours. Ignores the emphasis on the inner
workings of the mind – the mind is a black box. Emphasises the learning process and
attempts to explain how we learn and retain new forms of behaviour through experience.
Assumes that permanent change in knowledge or behaviour is the result of experience.

Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning. Learnt how dogs started to associate food
with something, such as the bowl, which was present while given food. The response was
salivation.
Watson: Father of behaviourism. First to apply principles of classical conditioning on people
(The Little Albert Experiment) where he demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby.
Supported the idea that psychology ought to be based on pure empirical studies and
experiments. Defined behaviourism as the scientific study of human behaviour. The baby
was afraid of all animals which looked like the white lab rat – generalisation; when we
perceive enough difference between the conditioned stimulus and other stimuli, we do not
generalise our response – stimulus discrimination

Operant Conditioning
Skinner: Operant Conditioning – focuses on the kind of learning in which voluntary response
is strengthened or weakened as a result of consequences (reinforcements or punishment)
received from the environment. What gets reinforced is repeated and what is not reinforced
is not repeated. Used the Skinner box on rats and pigeons where they learned to press a
lever for food.
Types of Reinforcement: Always strengthens behaviour
1. Primary Reinforcer: stimuli related to survival (e.g., food)
2. Secondary Reinforcer: stimuli that are rewarded because we have learnt to associate
them with primary reinforcers (e.g., receiving a pay rise if you perform well in your
job)
3. Positive Reinforcer: Adding something desirable (e.g., receiving sweets if I behave
well)
4. Negative Reinforcer: Taking away something undesirable (e.g., if I go well in my
exams I will stop going to private lessons).
Schedules of Reinforcement:
o Does not need to be presented constantly in order for a behaviour to be learned or
maintained.
o Schedules of reinforcement:
 Continuous Reinforcement: behaviour is reinforced every time it happens
 Partial Reinforcement: behaviour is reinforced some but not all the time
  Fixed ratio schedule – given only after a certain number of responses.
 Variable Ratio Schedule – given after a variable number of responses
 Fixed Interval Schedule – given only after a certain time period
 Variable Interval Schedule – given after a variable time of responses
Shaping – process of teaching a complex behaviour by rewarding closer and closer
approximations of the desired behaviour.
Punishment – quickest route to changing behaviour that, if allowed to continue might be
dangerous to that individual. A punisher is any consequence that decreases the frequency of
a preceding behaviour. Punishment works best when it is immediate. Does not always
guarantee long term change in behaviour. Instead of learning behaviours the child may learn
to discriminate among situations, and avoid those in which punishment might occur.
Physical punishment models aggression and control as a method of dealing with problems.
Does not offer options about what to do instead – reinforcing good behaviour may be more
productive.
- Positive Punishment: Add something unpleasant
- Negative Punishment: Take away something pleasant
Observational Learning: Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Vicarious Learning
- Involves observing people’s behaviours and learning from them.
- Theories based on animal research cannot explain human behaviour
- The human being is in active development
- Emphasis on behaviour, environment and cognition
- Albert Bandura developed most of the principles of social learning theory – Bobo doll
experiment
- Importance or reinforcement and modelling
Aversion Therapy: works by punishing unwanted behaviours by associating it with an averse
stimulus. Most successful when used in conjunction with other types of therapy. Can be less
effective when patient is not monitored. Ethical issue. Controversial.
Programmed learning: developed by Skinner. The learner uses specially prepared books or
equipment to learn without a teacher. Based his ideas on the principles of operant
conditioning – reinforcing stimulus is presented to reward a correct response. Believed that
such learning is superior as student is rewarded immediately rather than waiting for the
teacher to correct the responses.
Importance: influence on education; focus on how humans learn and how we associate
different stimuli together; understanding how to control predictable behaviour; research
oriented – can be tested; lead to development of social learning theory
Limitations: mechanistic and reductionist view of human nature; does not explain
differences in human learning/ acquisition of knowledge; deterministic in its explanation of
behaviour – behaviour is the result of the environment; does not account for altruistic/
disinterested behaviour.
Humanism
The unique qualities of human beings
Focus: Humanists believe strongly in the power of free will and self-determination.
Emphasises the role of the individual in deciding the state of their mental health, each
individual is naturally able to make decisions about their life and to control their behaviour.
The role of psychology is to help people reach self-fulfilment.
Carl Rogers: believed all people strived for perfection, some are interrupted by bad
environment. Famous for psychotherapy method. Believed people who are controlled by
other people/things in their life cannot and will not take responsibility for their behaviour so
they cannot change it.
Abraham Maslow: suggested that human beings are basically good. He proposed that
humans have needs – hierarchy of needs. For people to feel higher level needs, they have to
satisfy the basic ones. The highest, most complex need is self-actualisation.
Importance: positive view of human nature; power to change lies within the individual; It
influences many areas of human life: education, therapy, healthcare etc; it helped lesson the
sigma attached to therapy.
Limitations: it is mostly subjective and vague and therefore difficult to test via research;
concepts such as ‘self-actualisation’ are very subjective. It is difficult to tell if people reach
this state; Concepts used are also culturally sensitive.

Cognitive
Comprehending the roots of understanding.
Focus: Mental processes. Seeks to explain how we process information and how our ways of
thinking about the world influences our behaviour. Greatly influenced by the computer
revolution.
Importance: scientific research can be used to explore and examine this field; may practical
applications.
Limitations: mechanistic view of human nature: similar to computer; Gives little importance
to free will; Most studies take place in laboratories therefore, problem with ecological
validity

Biological Approach
Behaviour is the result of biological functioning
Focus: behaviour is to be considered in terms of biological functioning: genetic inheritance,
hormones & chemicals in the brain, communication between cells and in the nervous
system. Heavily influenced by theory of evolution.
Importance: biological explanations have been found in relation to various mental disorders;
An understanding of hormones and chemicals in the nervous system has led to various
successful drug treatments for a variety of psychological problems.
Limitations: deterministic view of human behaviour – behaviour is heavily dependant on
genetics; A belief that behaviours could be controlled through genetic engineering;
Medication based on chemical understanding is only helpful to treat symptoms not the
original problem.

Personality
Psychoanalysis
Freud’s psychosexual stages:
Oral stage (0-18 months) – gratification comes from the mouth. The libido is satisfied when
the baby places all sorts of things in their mouth. Fixation in the oral stage: Early weaning
could lead to overeating habits and biting nail habits, as when stress arises the person goes
back to the fixation and attempt to ease their stress by comforting themselves orally. Late
weaning could lead to ‘biting’ sarcasm.
Anal stage (18 months – 3.5 years) – the child’s ego starts to develop. They are aware of
their own individuality and thus strive to start making their own decisions. However, their
wishes may not go along with the societal (parent’s) expectations. The child’s first quarrel
with authority is when they get to let out their faeces. Potty training will determine the
child’s response to authority in their life. Harsh potty training may lead to an anal retentive
personality, they would be obsessed with being tidy, punctual and respectful to authority.
On the other hand, a liberal toilet-training regime will lead to the child becoming anal
retentive, thus is messy, careless, and does not respect authority.
Phallic stage (3.5 years-6 years) - The child becomes sensitive about their genitals, they
become aware that there are biological differences between men and women. Thus boys
develop the Oedipus complex and girls develop the Electra Complex. The stage where the
superego develops. The boy wants the mother’s attention, sees the father as competition, is
afraid the father will know and cut off his penis so he identifies with the father. The girl
wants her father, blames the mother because she is not like her father, learns that in order
to get her father she has to identify with the mother, however girls still feel a void so they
develop penis envy. The phallic stage is resolved through identification. Problems in this
stage will lead to many problems in adulthood such as with authority figures and
relationships.
Latency stage (6 years – puberty) – The child’s libido (sexual drives and impulses) is
dormant. According the Frued, in this stage children suppress their sexual energy by focusing
on school work, hobbies and making friends. In this stage children search to play and spend
their time with children of the same sex.
Genital Stage (12 years – adulthood) – begin to love others for their altruistic motives. Time
for sexual experimentation which when successful will lead to a healthy one-to-one
relationship. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure. As people start to socialise
in groups they will become socially acceptable adults.
Trait theories
Trait theories suggests that personality influences behaviour, and some of them also
consider how the environment influences behaviour. But they do not consider other
possibilities.
The Big Five Model – McCrae & Costa
Consists of 5 personality traits which are distinct from one another which are related to
one’s genetic make-up. Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness,
Neuroticism.
Openness: High – imaginative, independent, prefers variety; Low – routine, practical,
conforming
Conscientiousness: High – organised, careful, disciplined; Low – disorganised, careless,
impulsive
Extraversion: High – sociable, fun-loving, affectionate; retiring, sober, reserved
Agreeableness: High – soft-hearted, trustworthy, helpful; Low - ruthless, suspicious,
uncooperative
Neuroticism: High – anxious, self-pitying, insecure; Low – calm, secure, self-satisfied

Humanism
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s theory states that in order for a person to achieve self-actualisation, they have to
first accommodate certain needs. When one need is taken care of, it paves the way for an
advancement to be able to focus on higher needs that will lead to self-actualisation. The first
needs are the basic needs, physiological: food, breathing, sex, sleep, excretion and safety:
security of body, employment, health, morality, family. Once these needs are
accommodated for, the person moves on to satisfy psychological needs. Love/ Belonging:
family, friendship, sexual intimacy and Esteem: self-esteem, sense of belonging,
achievements, respect by others. The last step is self-actualisation which involves: creativity,
problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts.
Carl Rogers
Emphasises the importance of human being’s personal growth and development. Rogers
believed that people are basically good and healthy, saw problems only because of particular
experiences and negative influence of others. He believe that we hurt others or act in
antisocial ways when we are frustrated in our efforts to develop our potential. Anxiety often
stems from recognition that we have feelings and desires that our inconsistent with our
distorted self-concept. He claimed that human beings have two essential needs,
unconditional acceptance and self-worth. Rogers did not believe in the laissez-faires
parental method. He believed that children should be punished when their behaviour is not
respectable, but not reject them or make them feel unloved. When children are treated with
unconditional positive regard, they will grow to have high self-esteem. To grow children
need also an environment which provides them with genuineness and empathy. Failure to
do so will lead children to lack self-confidence in their adulthood. This can be seen through
people who only feel good about themselves when they are complemented or agreed with.
According to Rogers, a healthy personality is one where there is congruence between the
perceived self and the ideal self. The perceived self is the way we think about ourselves, it is
how we perceive ourselves to be. The ideal self is what we think we should be like or what
we wish to be like. The closer the two ideals are, the more congruent the person feels and
thus is more psychologically healthy.
George Kelly: Merges humanistic and social-cognitive approaches. Believes that in order to
understand someone’s personality, one needs to learn about how they understand the
world (humanism) and at the Kelly admits that understanding requires cognitive processes,
or personal constructs. These are ways or lenses through which people perceive,
understand and predict and control reality.

The Social Cognitive Theory

Alber Bandura: behaviourist – agreed that our personality is the product of our
environment, but he also placed a lot of importance to our cognitions: what goes on in our
mind. He assumed that personality, behaviour and the environment influence each other in
complex ways. The environment influences our behaviour, but our behaviour and
personality also determine the environment. – called the triadic reciprocal model.
Emphasised the importance of cognition – people’s perceptions of what they are feeling
may be more significant than the reality of the experience. Self-regulation has an impact on
our behaviour. People not only learn for first-hand experience but also by observing other
people’s behaviour and whether they are punished or rewarded for that behaviour.
The theory of self-efficacy: Bandura’s term of an individual’ sense of their abilities, of their
capacity to deal with particular sets of conditions that life puts before them. The stronger
the sense of self-efficacy, the more confident one feels to deal with a situation and
therefore, the more motivated one feels to face it. Four sources of self-efficacy:
1. Previous success in facing issues
2. Seeing other succeed when facing similar issues
3. Social persuasion
4. Reducing the reactions of stress and anxiety when facing a difficult situation
Self-efficacy has a significant impact on people’s behaviours. More related to high risk
performance on easy tasks rather than complex tasks and the strength of the association
was higher in laboratory settings than in more naturalistic ones. – naturalistic situations
require high performance and are more complex and less predictable. Other studies show
that self-efficacy may be less powerful than other elements such as previous experiences,
behaviour, in predicting performance. Although self-efficacy plays a role in predicting
performance, other identified traits such as conscientiousness and levels of intelligence
seem to be more pivotal.
Strengths: this theory focuses on various elements to explain why people are so different. It
does not only focus on internal but also external factors that could explain our behaviour.
Self-efficacy and self-regulation may explain the different levels of motivation.
Weaknesses: dismisses the role of emotional factors in explaining behaviour and motivation.
Research suggests that the levels of self-efficacy are related to one’s genetic make-up, this
theory does not take this into consideration. This theory can help explain why people
behave the way they do in certain situation, but does not explain why some behaviours are
adopted ‘generally’ in people’s lives, unlike other theories.

Communication
Communication just like food and water is an important means for survival. We can obtain
entertainment, information, knowledge, political updates from media, books and other
people. We exchange information through words, gestures symbols, tones, music etc.
Characteristics: inevitable process, crucial – lowers anxiety and can aid our survival (support
lines), collective – it involves more than one person to occur, irreversible- you cannot take
back what you said, non-static – keeps on changing. Learn more about yourself and discover
who you are, about others, about the world, share the world and help others, persuade or
influence others or to test and resist influence on you, communicate to have fun.
Key elements:
- Two-way process (sender and receiver)
- There has to be a message
- Commonness of understanding
- Modifying the behaviour of other people
- Method of giving information
Components of communication:
- Information source – creates the message
- Transmitter/ sender – encodes the message into signals
- Channel – medium through which the signals are transmitted
- Reception – decodes the message from the signal
- Destination/ receiver – reception and reconstructing the message from the signal
- Noise – any disturbance that interferes with the message travelling across the
channel. Can be physical, physiological, sematic
- Message – information sent from sender to receiver
- Feedback – loop of two-way communication
- Context – background and the environment

Communication models
Linear Model
- Communication moves from sender to receiver
- One way act
 - Emphasis on sender, message and receiver
- Medium is neglected
- Interaction between sender and receiver is disregarded
- Receiver is too passive
Sender =>transmitter => channel => receiver => destination
Interaction model
- Interaction occurs between sender and receiver
- Two way process
- Receiver reacts to sender’s message
- Person is both a creator and a receiver of messages
- Receiver and sender are perceived as sharing the same environment
- Shows the beginning and end of communication
- Communicate in a ping-pong fashion
Lawell’s model
- Addition to previous models
- Emphasis on both the channel and the effect of the message
- Depicts communication act occurring in the present moment
Who? Says what? In what channel? To whom? With what effect?
Transactional Model
- Sender and receiver take turns to send or receive messages.
- Both sender and receiver are known as communicators and their role reverses each
time
- Bears in mind past and future communication exchanges
- Everyday talk, more efficient for communicators with the same background and
individual aspects.
Factors affecting transactional communication
- The social context: society shapes the way a person communicates
- The cultural context: the lifestyle and identity of a person
- Cultural identities: made by communication, changes the communication pattern of a
person, marginalisation of cultural groups oppresses their communication with other
parts of the society.
Evaluation
- Assumes people engage in a transaction/ exchange of communication.
- Recognises each player is a sender and receiver and effects all parties involved.
- Assumes communicators are independent and act any way they want
- Gives space for a lot of noise because the communication is simultaneous
- The past is an important aspect as it influences future transactions
Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication refers to the communication between one an other that does
not involve language. Sign language and writing are not considered non-verbal
communication but the tone one uses to talk is. This is because non-verbal communication
does not need words to communicate but it is rather aspects which contribute with
communication to further give insight of the person’s meanings.
o Proxemics (distance): different types of societies have different levels of acceptable
distance when communicating. As children grow they require more space from their
parents. Men tend to take up more space then women. Increase in proxemics
intensifies eye contact.
o Haptics (touch): The human touch can express hundreds of emotions. However, this
must be done in an acceptable and appropriate manner. This may vary according to
gender, age, sex and cultural background
o Chronemics (time): a person’s commitment and attitude towards time can indicate a
lot about a person.
o Kinetics: Facial expressions – The face expresses emotions such as joy, sadness,
anger. The facial features such as the mouth, nose and eyebrows can indicate a lot of
what a person is feeling. Eye contact – asserts confidence, most people are more
likely to oblige if eye contact is maintained. Body language – a person’s posture
indicates what they are feeling, including arm and leg folding. However, body
language doesn’t necessarily indicate the feelings. Gestures - such as nodding your
head, using your arms while talking can help a person seem more interesting and
interested in the conversation. Gestures help increase understanding what is being
said. Physical appearance - more attractive people are judged to be happier, more
intelligent, friendlier, stronger, and kinder and are thought to have better
personalities, better jobs, and greater marital competence
o Artifacts: material objects are an extension of oneself, clothing has the power to
influence.
o Vocalics: Use of voice to communicate includes elements such as pitch, rhythm, rate,
pauses, volume, tone of voice, loudness, inflection silences, laughs, screams, sighs,
etc. Studies have found that people who talk louder, faster, and more fluently are
more persuasive. Deep voices are often viewed as more credible. Powerless style of
communication (pauses, umhs, uhs, tag questions). lowers perceptions of credibility.
o Environment: The environment one surrounds themselves what says a lot about
their personality.
Functions of Nonverbal Communication
o Repeating – to say what you are saying in words
o Substituting – say things rather than words, often answer questions nonverbally
o Complementing – strengthen what is being said in words
o Accenting – the way certain words are emphasised in order to clarify what they mean
 o Regulating – control the flow of conversation, indicates when its your turn to speak
etc
o Contradicting – nonverbal behaviour does not match the words being said
o Body language – mirroring: helps us built rapport with others by mimicking their
nonverbal cues. Reflective listening: we give our full attention to someone else.
SOLER model
S: sit facing other person squarely
O: maintaining open posture
L: leaning gently towards the speaker allowing them to lower their voice if they wish to
E: maintain Eye contact so as to show interest without staring uncomfortably
R: relaxed body, letting people talk in their own space

Gendre
Gendre vs Sex
Sex refers to the biological differences between a man and a woman, including anatomical,
chromosomal, and hormonal characteristics. It is typically assigned at birth based on
observable physical traits such as genitalia. While sex is often categorized as male or female,
there are also intersex individuals who possess variations in their biological sex
characteristics.
Gender, on the other hand, is a multifaceted social construct that encompasses the roles,
behaviours, identities, and expectations that society associates with being male, female, or
non-binary. Unlike sex, which is primarily based on biological attributes, gender is influenced
by societal norms, cultural beliefs, and individual experiences. Gender identity refers to an
individual's deeply-felt sense of being male, female, both, neither, or somewhere along the
gender spectrum, and may or may not align with their biological sex. Gender expression
encompasses the outward manifestations of one's gender identity, such as appearance,
clothing, mannerisms, and speech patterns.
While individuals are typically assigned a gender at birth based on their perceived sex, it is
important to recognize that gender identity is not solely determined by biological factors.
Some individuals may identify with a gender that differs from the one assigned to them at
birth, leading to a discrepancy between their gender identity and their assigned sex. This
disconnect highlights the distinction between sex and gender, emphasizing that gender is a
complex and multifaceted aspect of identity that goes beyond biological categorizations.

Stereotyping
Gendre stereotyping is the belief that men and women possess different distinct behavioural
and psychological traits. It is the belief that there are certain things a man should while a
woman should not and vice versa. These may include emotions, the work place and physical
attributes. For instance, women are stereotyped as people who cannot handle their
emotions, are predicted to cry in every stressful situation and when they do it is acceptable.
But when a man cries, he is judged and called ‘unmanly’ because men should be able to
handle their emotions. Certain jobs are stereotyped according to genders, and it is
considered ‘weird’ when these stereotypes in the workplace are not followed. For instance,
in the workplace the men are expected to have the more superior role such as the male is
expected to be the doctor and the female a nurse. Male nurses especially are frowned upon
and are treated as though they are doing a ‘women’s’ job. In childhood, boys are
complimented of being strong and smart while girls are called pretty. Boys are encouraged
to stimulate their brains and physical abilities while girls are encouraged to pay attention to
their appearance.

The Congruence Model

People whose gender identification aligns with their sex are more likely to feel secure in
their gender than those who identify with a different gender then their sex. Individuals who
develop characteristics associated with the other sex are likely to develop an insecure and
confused gender identity. Congruence of sex and gender are considered more healthy and
more socially desirable.

Androgyny
A person’s ability to contain both male and female characteristics in their personality. That it
is possible for someone to possess the main masculine and the main feminine
characteristics. She believed that it is healthy for a males and females to adopt a mix of both
gender’s characteristics in their personality. According to her someone who is androgynous
has a healthy well being

Masculinity Model
Male attributes are much more socially desired than female attributes. The model
underlines that individuals who contain male attributes will experience better psychological
well being. However, now that we live in a less male dominated society, the androgyny
model is more accepted.

Aggression
o Reactive aggression: an angry response to a perceived provocation
o Proactive aggression: is an act planned deliberately beforehand to achieve a
particular goal
o Overt aggression: intended to harm others with physical actions or verbal threats
o Relational aggression: goal of harming other’s relationship and/ or reputation
o Direct aggression: use of physical force
o Indirect aggression: verbal/ emotional
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
Freud believed that aggression was innate, and in order to release it one must engage in
activities which decrease it. That way one feels a weight lifted from their shoulders. The
aggression is a cathartic release from the frustration. If an individual is stopped from
reaching their goal, it will lead to frustration build up, which will lead to aggression.
Aggression cannot always be targeted towards its source as this may be abstract such as lack
of money or too powerful such as one’s boss. Psychodynamic theory suggests that our ego
has two defence mechanisms to protect ourselves. These are sublimation, transferring the
aggression onto useful activities such as sports. Or else, displacement which is directing our
aggression onto someone or something else. Example a boy kicks the family dog after being
yelled at by his parents. Berkowitz proposed a revised version of the psychodynamic theory,
he stated that frustration does not necessarily lead to aggression. But it could only occur in
the presence of certain cues, such as being frustrated and seeing a knife on the table.
Aggression can occur as a result of many different combinations of factors.

Social Learning Theory

The bandura experiment determines that observed aggressive behaviour, and its
consequence, can influence how the observer releases their frustration. For instance in the
experiment, when the participants observed the aggressor hitting the doll violently and was
then rewarded, they copied her behaviour. However, when the aggressor was punished, the
violent actions were not repeated. Thus, when people observe aggressive behaviour being
rewarded, they will more likely act in the same way. If it is not rewarded, then they will
refrain from imitating it. In another experiment, when children were presented with a video
of either direct or in-direct aggression, in both cases aggressive behaviour was repeated.

Biological Approach
States that some aggressive behaviours are inherited, making some individuals more engage
in aggressive behaviours than others. For instance, since males have a higher level of
testosterone it is more likely that they are aggressive than females. More men engage in
overt aggression while more women engage in relational aggression. A partial explanation of
these findings is probably that women are more concerned than men that overt aggression
on their part might lead to physical retaliation. Men typically behave more aggressively than
women in neutral or ambiguous situations. However, sex differences in aggression were
much smaller when people were frustrated, threatened, or insulted. The role of the sex
hormone testosterone in explaining gender differences in physical aggression was
investigated by. They studied transsexuals undergoing hormone treatment in order to
change sex. Female-to-male transsexuals were given high dosages of testosterone, whereas
male-to-female transsexuals were given female hormones and deprived of male hormones.
As predicted by the biological approach, female-to-male transsexuals showed increased
aggression during hormone treatment. In contrast, male-to-female transsexuals showed
lowered levels of aggression. Testosterone led to reduced activity in brain areas associated
with impulse control and self-regulation. Thus, testosterone reduces the tendency to inhibit
aggressive behaviour when angry.
Development
Psychological Development
Erikson’s 8 stages of development
1. Trust vs Mistrust – Infancy (0-18 months)
o Conflict – Can I trust the people around me
o Infant develops a basic trust in the world – to resolve these feelings, the
infant looks towards the primary care giver for care
o Success: Hope
Infant develops a sense of trust, infant believes that there are people who
could take care of him
o Failure: Fear
Infant ill not have confidence in the people around him

2. Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt (18 months – 3 years)

o Conflict – Can I act on my own?
o Toddler starts becoming more independent – walking, picking up toys
o Success: Will
Toddler is given the opportunity to discover himself and his skills. He will not
be afraid to take tasks independently in adulthood.
o Failure: Inadequate
Toddler may become dependant on others since he lacks self-esteem and
doubts his own abilities.

3. Initiative vs Guilt (3 years – 5 years)

o Conflict: Can I carry out my plans successfully?
o Child starts interacting with other children in kindergarten – they start playing
games while initiating with others
o Success: purpose
Playing provides pre-school children the opportunity to explore their
interpersonal skills, feeling able to make decisions on their own.
o Failure: Slow interaction
If criticised, the child starts to lack self-esteem and refrains from making his
own decisions, thus, developing a follower personality.

4. Industry vs Inferiority (5 years – 12 years)

o Conflict: Am I competent compared to others?
o Child searches the need of approval by showing what he knows – read and
write
o Succes: Competence
 If child’s values are encouraged, he develops a sense of pride in his
accomplishments while also becoming confident.
o Failure: Inferiority
If parents or teachers do not encourage child’s values, he starts to feeling
society too demanding, thus he might not reach his own potential

5. Identity vs Role-confusion (12 years – 18 years)

o Conflict: who am I? How do I fit in?
o Child becomes more independent while looking at the future – he wants to
belong and fit in a society
o A major stage in development, especially in terms of sexual & occupational
identities.
o Strengths: Fidelity
Child commits his own self to others even by accepting certain different
ideologies, while forming his own identity.
o Failure: Identity Crisis
Not knowing what you want to become once you grow up leads to a role of
confusion, while your place in society also becomes unsure

6. Intimacy vs Isolation (18 years – 40 years)

o Conflict: Who are the most important people in my life?
o Individual shares himself intimately with others, while looking at long-term
commitments and relationships.
o Success: Love
A mixture of comfortable relationships, a sense of safety and care
o Failure: Isolation
Fearing of these intimate commitments leads to loneliness, sometimes
depression.

7. Generativity vs Stagnation (40 years – 65 years)

o Conflict: How will I contribute to the younger generation?
o One establishes career, settles down in a relationship and begins raising a
family
o Succes: Care
Giving back what you were thought, being productive at work
o Failure: Unproductive
One shows disinterest in fulfilling these objectives.

8. Ego integrity vs Despair (65+ years)

o Conflict: Did I lead a meaningful life?
 o Individual slows down productivity and contemplates on his accomplishments
o Success: Wisdom
One looks back on his life with a sense of closure and completeness
o Failure: Dissatisfaction
An unproductive life leads to despair, developing hopelessness and
depression

Psychological Disorders
The classification and diagnosis is an important concern for both mental health providers
and mental health clients.
Abnormality: statistical infrequency – anything that is different form the average, deviation
of social norms – any behaviour that does not conform, failure to function adequately –
individual’s ability to go about their daily life without being distressed, deviation from ideal
mental health – can’t live independently, doesn’t grow psychologically or reach their
potential, does not have a good self-esteem or solid sense of identity, doesn’t function well
in their environment, does not cope with difficult situations or ingrate them in their psyche.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a book used by
psychologists to determine whether a set of symptoms or behaviours meets the criteria for
diagnosis as a psychological disorder. It is used to understand the patient better.
The Medical Model: behaviour is like a disease, it needs to be diagnosed on the basis of its
symptoms in order to be treated during therapy. They also try to predict the development of
the abnormal behaviour in the future.

Schizophrenia
Loss of contact from reality. Symptoms typically appear at the end of adolescence and in
early adulthood, later for women than men. The course of schizophrenia can be
acute/reactive (develops in reaction through stress – positive symptoms – hallucinations) or
chronic/process (develops slowly – negative affects – social withdrawal – leads to poverty
and social problems.
Symptoms:
- Positive – presence of problematic disorders – hallucinations, delusions, disorganised
thought and nonsensical speech, bizarre behaviours.
- Negative – flat affect (no emotion in face), reduced social interaction, anhedonia (no
feeling of enjoyment), avolition (lack of motivation, initiative and ability to focus on
tasks), alogia (speaking less), Catatonia (moving less)
Signs of disorganised thinking – thinking is bizarre and present with false beliefs (delusions).
Delusions can be paranoid or grandeur in nature. Such thoughts occur due to breakdown of
selective attention. Words are incomprehensible with jumbled ideas – word salad.
Disturbed perceptions – hallucinations, the personal may feel, see, touch, taste, hear (most
common) or smell things which are not there. They experience sensory experiences without
the presence of sensory stimulation coming from the environment. – can be terrifying.
Inappropriate emotions and behaviours – showing that person is not in touch with reality.
Ex: laughing during sad moments, emotionless, motor behaviour (rocking and rubbing an
arm or be motionless).
Where does it come from?
Biological perspective:
- Disease of the brain exhibited by symptoms of the mind
- Too many D4 receptors help to explain paranoia and hallucinations
- Poor coordination of neural firing in the fontal lobes impairs judgement and self-
control
- General shrinking of many brain area and connections between them.
- Brain scans show abnormal activity in the frontal cortex (reasoning, abstract thinking
and motor processing); Thalamus (involved in wakefulness and sleep), and amygdala
(involved in anger and aggression) of schizophrenic patients.
- Patients with schizophrenia may exhibit morphological changes in the brain like
enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles.
- While genetics do have a play in developing schizophrenia, it is believed that
environmental factors such as viral infections, nutrition deprivation and maternal
stress can ‘turn on’ the genes that predispose schizophrenia.
- Treatment:
o The effectiveness of treatment will depend on the type of symptoms present.
o When schizophrenia is slow developing (chronic) recovery is doubtful.
o Those with chronic/process schizophrenia exhibit negative symptoms such as
withdrawal.
o Acute/reactive schizophrenia is more likely for recovery – hallucinations
o Drug treatment has been found to be most effective with persons who have
positive symptoms.

Anxiety Disorders
Presence of fear that it is out of proportion to the context of the life situation. Characterised
by an emotional state by chronic edginess, worrisome thoughts and vigilance for sign of
threat. Can range from mild to severe. Typically involve autonomic arousal associated with
the flight or fight response. Engages in self-defeating behaviour aimed at resisting the
feeling of anxiety.

Generalised Anxiety Disorders

Pattern of frequent, persistent worry and anxiety which is out of proportion to the impact of
the event or circumstance that is the focus of the worry. They must be bothered about their
degree of worry. This pattern must occur more days than not for at least 6 months. Must
find it difficult to control his worry and must report six physical or cognitive symptoms,
including feelings of restlessness, fatigue, muscle, tension or insomnia. More common
amongst women. Complains of an inability to identify or avoid the cause of certain feeling.

Panic Disorder
Panick attacks: Occurs suddenly and is accompanies by a number of physical symptoms
(palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness) and cognitive symptoms (fear of going crazy or
having a heart attack). Often trigger a feeling of impending catastrophe, such as total loss of
control or death
Panic Disorder: anxiety is related to the fear of having a panic attack and their
consequences. Can lead to agoraphobia – a fear of leaving the safety of home

Phobias
Excessive fear of a specific object, circumstance, or situation
o Agoraphobia – fear of open spaces, develops panic like symptoms
o Specific phobia – becomes immediately frightened when presented with the feared
stimulus objects or situation. Diagnosed when there is an uncontrollable, irrational,
intense desire to avoid the same object or situation.
o Social phobia – fear of social situations, fear of embarrassing themselves in public.

Behaviourist Approach
Develop when the conditioned or phobic stimulus is associated with a painful or aversive
stimulus causing fear. Let to exposure therapy – re-associate the feared stimulus. Research
studies do not always support the behaviourist account of how phobias develop.
The Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud suggest anxiety disorders emerge from the unconscious conflicts between id impulses,
super ego criticisms and ego actions. Conscious anxiety is experiences due to these conflicts
or keeps anxiety at bay through rigid defence mechanisms. Thus the fact that we repress
painful and intolerable ideas, feelings and thoughts results in anxiety.
o Reality/ objective anxiety – real, objective sources of danger in the environment
o Neurotic anxiety – fear the Id impulses will overwhelm the ego and cause the person
to do something that will be punished
o Moral anxiety – fear that the person will do something contrary to the desires of the
super ego
Neuroscientific perspective
Genetic and biochemical links to anxiety. Brain chemistry and neurotransmitters influence
some forms of anxiety. Role of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. Some
anxiety disorders especially panic disorder appear to have a genetic component – natural
selection has led our ancestors to learn to fear snakes, spider and other species – fear
preserves the species. Twin studies suggest that our genes may be partly responsible for
developing fears and anxiety. Anxiety disorders are linked with brain circuits like the anterior
cingulate cortex – regulates blood pressure and heart rate; rational cognitive functions;
reward anticipation, decision making; empathy, impulse control and emotion.

The Profession of Psychology

Clinical Psychology: Offers therapy to people who have disorders. More Freudian.
- Conduct formal assessments to understand the mental state and personality of the
client, using clinical interviews and/or other assessment tools such as standardised
psychometric tests and observations.
- They understand and use therapeutic techniques and apply them when working with
people in distress. They implement psychological therapy and interventions that are
appropriate, whilst bearing in mind the psychological and social circumstances of the
client.
- Draws expertise from developmental notions and neuropsychological processes, so
as to offer psychological and other clinical interventions on psychological work ethics
- Can provide supervision and support to other professionals working with clients in
distress.
Where do they work?
- Public health domains
- Schools
- Corporate institutions
- Forensic settings
- Young people’s services
- Private practice
- Research units
Counselling Psychology: For everyone. More Rogerian.
Focuses on the healthy elements and resources that clients have and the ones they can
develop. Give importance to the individuality of the clients as well as their relationships with
others and their behaviours in various contexts. They work with different people of different
ages to provide psychological therapy in view of different issues and problems that clients
may present. Focuses on typical life stresses as well as more severe issues with which people
may struggle as individuals and as part of families, groups and organisations. Provide
assessment, diagnosis, consultation and psychological treatment.
Where do they work?
- Public health domain
- Schools
- Corporate institutions
- Forensic settings
- Young people’s services
- Private practice
 - Research units
Educational Psychology: Derived from the need to know how to help people get a better
education.
Tackle such challenges such as learning difficulties, social and emotional problems, issues
around disability as well as more complex developmental disorders. They work in a variety of
ways including observations, interviews and assessments and offer consultation, advice and
support to teachers, parents the wider community as well as the young people concerned.
The research innovative ways of helping vulnerable young people and often train teachers,
leaning support assistants and others working with children. Their work can be either be
directly with a child or indirectly (though parents, teachers etc). Tackle challenges such as
learning difficulties, social and emotional problems, issues around disability as well as
complex and developmental disorders. They conduct observations, interviews and
assessments and offer consultation, advice and support to teachers, parents, the wider
community as well as the young concerned. They research innovative ways of helping
vulnerable people to learn and how to be thought.
Organisation psychology: Does not provide therapy
Employed by industries to improve efficiency and well being of employees as well as the
overall success of the business. Use psychological knowledge and theories to balance out
the rights of employees with those of organisations. They mainly work in: government and
public services, in management training centres and private organisations.
Health Psychology: use various procedures including assessment, diagnosis, consultation as
well as different psychotherapeutic approaches and techniques in the context of physical
illness and health promotion. They have knowledge of how learning, memory, perception,
cognition and motivation influence behaviours and impact physical illness. They use
psychological principles to promote changes in people’s attitudes, behaviour and thinking
about health and illness, prevent damaging behaviours and help people to cope with illness,
unpleasant medical treatments and promote healthier behaviours. Use psychological
theories and interventions to address changes in health-related behaviour in the community
and the workplace. They mainly work in hospitals, academic health research units, health
authorities and university departments.
Social Psychology: conducts research on how society impacts our behaviour
Focus on the study of attitudes and human behaviour and how these are influenced by
social situations but also mental states. They study how social influence, social perception
and social influence individual and group behaviour. They examine cognitive factors which
cause behaviour changes but also influence feelings, thoughts, beliefs and intentions. Some
focus on conducting research on human behaviour and some focus on the practical
application of social psychology. Some choose to work in educational environments such as
universities where they conduct research, teach students and run social psychology
laboratories. Others work for government offices, nonprofit organizations, hospitals, social
service agencies and private corporations. Range is so varied that it may include research,
marketing and politics.
Research Psychology: Same things that apply to social psychology
Use scientific methods to examine questions and test hypotheses with the aim of
understanding human thought and behaviour. Are expected to make their findings available
to the public and the help in the advancement of public policy. They do this by publishing
articles about their work in academic journals. Also act as reviewers of other academics’
work and research endeavours. They are employed in universities where they conduct
research and teach students about their areas of expertise. They may also be employed in
private or statutory research units.

Prosocial Behaviour
The Social Approach
Prosocial Behaviour: any behaviour of benefit to someone else; it includes actions that are
cooperative, affectionate and helpful to others. Such behaviour may or may not be costly to
the person engaging in such behaviour. It is often beneficial to the person being assisted.
Altruism: is an especially important type of prosocial behaviour. Helping behaviour which is
costly to the altruistic individual. Based on a desire to help someone else rather than on
possible rewards for the person doing the rewarding. It is often assumed that altruism
depends on empathy – the ability to share another’s emotions and understand their point of
view.
Children: antisocial behaviour rather than prosocial behaviour. Children between 13 to 20
months showed empathic concern on 10% of occasions on which someone else’s distress
was not caused by the child. This more than doubled among children 23-35 months old.
Young children engaged in prosocial behaviour in response to another person’s distress,
increases with age.
Types of Prosocial behaviour:
1. Instrumental helping – assisting another person to achieve an action-based goal
2. Empathic helping – showing concern about another person
3. Altruistic helping – giving up an object owned by the child
Children mostly engage in instrumental helping. Much ‘helping’ behaviour in young children
is not based on cooperation and altruism. Instead it indicates an interest in participating in
the activity of others.
The mother’s warmth and the father’s warmth were both associated with increased
prosocial behaviour by their offspring. Genetic factors and level of empathy play a role in
prosocial behaviour.
Stages in the development of empathy proposed by Hoffman
 1. Global Empathy (1st year) – infant matches someone else’s emotion
2. Egocentric Empathy (12-18 months) – child may attempt to console someone else by
offering what they would find comforting
3. Empathy for feelings (2-3 years onwards) – noting feelings, matching them and
responding in non-egocentric ways
4. Empathy for life conditions (late childhood) – responding to the immediate & general
life situation

What lies behind altruistic behaviour

1. An Evolutionary Perspective
Studies show that animals demonstrate altruistic behaviour when they protect their
young. However, this could be a selfish act because in protecting their young instead
of themselves, they are preserving more of their genes. Altruistic behaviour may
have been developed by our ancestors as they discovered the benefits of mutualistic
collaboration. Much studies show the importance of genetic relatedness or kinship
especially in life-and-death situations. When questioned people would sacrifice
greater for biological kin than friends when the effects of emotional closeness were
removed. Altruism is more likely if a reputation for altruism is given.

2. The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis & Negative-Sate Relief Model

Reciprocal altruism – altruistic behaviour towards non-relatives (I’ll scratch your back
if you scratch mine). Occurs when the costs of helping are fairly low and the benefits
are high and when people who will not return the help received are identified.
However some people still engage in altruistic behaviour even if it will not be
reciprocated, this is because it allows them to gain a reputation for behaving
altruistically and it will increase the chances of being assisted by others in the future.

The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson): states that feelings of empathy for

another person produce an altruistic motivation to increase that person's welfare.
Observe someone in need of help => do you feel empathy for this person? If the
answer is no then you will help only if it is in your self-interest to do so. If the answer
is yes then you will help regardless whether it is in your self-interest to do so.

The Negative state relief Model (Cialdini): Pro-social behaviour results from egoism
rather than altruism. We help others in order to relive the stress we feel when
encountering a bad situation. This model also explains why people walk away.
Walking away also alleviates distress.
Person observes emergency (e.g., accident) => negative affect induced (e.g., sadness)
=> elicit helping behaviours or other mood-elevating behaviours to reduce own
negative affect and make helper feel better.

3. Societal Norms
Most societies have norms that involve treating others fairly. Example the
distribution norm – goods should be distributed equally. Collectivistic countries
 demonstrate higher levels of altruism compared to individualistic countries. This is
because individualistic countries emphasise personal success and collectivistic
countries prioritise the group’s needs. However, both cultures are similar in that
individuals anticipate giving only a little more help than they expect to receive.
Factors influencing prosocial behaviour and altruism
o Television – research shows that watching prosocial television is associated with
increased prosocial behaviour. However it is unclear whether children who watch
prosocial television is because they are already displaying prosocial behaviour.
Secondly studies only cover the short-term effects of prosocial television on prosocial
behaviour. Long-term effects are often rather weak or even non-existent.
o Video Games – playing prosocial video games increased prosocial emotions,
cognitions and behaviour and also reduced aggressive behaviour. Most of the effects
were reasonably consistent although relatively small in size. However the same
limitations apply to those who watch television.
In the Real World: Parental Influence
o Provisions of clear and explicit guidelines
o Emotional convictions
o Parental modelling
o Empathic and warm parenting

In the Real World: Genetic Importance

Twin studies show that genetic factors had an influence in social behaviour. Children’s
prosocial behaviour was negatively associated with parental negativity. This association was
due to genetic factors. Children genetically predisposed to be low in prosocial may increase
the likelihood of their parents responding negatively to them. Children’s prosocial behaviour
was positively associated with parental positivity but this association did not depend on
genetic factors.
Bystander effect: A person is less likely to receive help if there are a lot of people, because
people will rely on others and would not take responsibility. – diffusion or responsibility.
Darley and Latané obtained results in which participants in an experiment helped the victim
100% of the time when they were alone and 62% helped the victim when they were not
alone in the room. However, those who did not help do not agree that they did so because
of the bystander effect thus, they were not fully aware of the factors determining their
behaviour. Participants who failed to report the emergency were not uncaring and they were
found more emotionally aroused than those who reported the incident. If the bystanders
know each other, they are more likely to help the victim.
Factors influencing bystander’s behaviour: bystanders are more likely to help victims which
are perceived similar to themselves. – belonging to the same ingroup. Bystanders are more
likely to help ‘deserving’ victims. Bystanders are reluctant to intervene in strangers’ personal
lives. Bystander are more likely to intervene in a fight between a man and a woman if they
are perceived as strangers rather than a married couple. Bystanders’ willingness to help
depends on what they were doing before the incident. Bystanders with relevant skills or
expertise are especially likely to provide assistance.
The Decision Model:
Emergency:
1. Notice Event
2. Interpret the event as an emergency
3. Assume responsibility
4. Know appropriate form of resistance
Provide help.
Rewards and costs associated with helping or not helping:
- Cost of helping => physical harm, delay in carrying out other activities
- Costs of not helping => guilt, criticism
- Rewards of helping => praise from victim, satisfaction
- Rewards of not helping => able to continue with other normal activities

The Social Approach

Attachment: a strong emotional and reciprocal tie that develops over time between an
infant and its primary caregiver(s) and results in a desire to maintain proximity.
Attachment deprivation: to experience bond disruption as a consequence of separation
from an attachment figure for a periods of time
Psychoanalytic Approach
The attachment bond, according to Freud, commences in the oral stage. The baby forms an
attachment with the mother since she satisfies all their needs without delay. Freud was the
first to look into attachment as a relational process and explained why babies seem to be
more attached to mothers. However, recent studies show that an important factor for
attachment is the quality of interaction NOT responsiveness to biological needs.
Behaviourist explanation – learning theory
The child becomes attached to the mother because she feeds him and thus the mother is
associated with food. Attachment enhances the infant’s chance of survival. Infants look for
contact comfort.
Harlow’s study – monkeys spent more time with the mother made of cloth rather than the
mother made of wire, regardless of the fact that they both fed them.
John Bowlby’s Theory – deprivation from the mother early in life will have affects on
intellectual, emotional and social development
Deprivation – an attachment forms but is then discontinued
Privation – no opportunity is given for attachments to form
Privation does not make a difference as much as what happens after the period of privation
is over.
The children who were adopted from Romanian orphanages before the age of 6 months,
only showed a few long-term negative effects. Those who were adopted after the age of 6
months never seemed to fully recover and were still experiencing difficulties in social
situations and exhibited problematic behaviours. Researchers believed it was a consequence
of deprivation.
Mary Ainsworth – patterns of attachment.
The baby and mother go into an unknown environment. The parent is seated while the baby
is playing (the parent is the secure base). A stranger enters the room and talks to parent
(baby reacts to unfamiliar adult). Parent leaves room and stranger offers comfort (separation
anxiety). The mother returns and offers baby support while the stranger leaves (reaction to
reunion). The parent leaves room (separation anxiety). Stranger enters and offers support
(ability to be soothed by the stranger). Parent returns, greets baby and offers support
(reaction to reunion).
o Secure attachment: baby cries when mother leaves, greets her happily when she
returns, uses her as a secure base.
o Avoidant attachment: rarely cry when mother leaves, avoid mother when she returns
o Resistant attachment: anxious even before mother leaves, is hard to comfort when
she returns.
The Czech Twins – reversibility of privation

The Social Influence

The process by which group members influence one another’s opinions and behaviour. It
involves the power of a person or a group to change attitudes or behaviours in a particular
direction.
Conformity: refers to people’s tendency to change their behaviour, thoughts or attitudes as
a result of real or imagined influence on others. It involves yielding to group pressure. An
example of how a reference group has an impact on the individual. Based on social norms –
group-determined standards that refer both to the behaviours that are considered normal as
well as to those considered acceptable.
Ash’s Conformity Experiment: concluded that group pressure indicated by the expressed
opinion of other people can lead to modification and distortion effectively making you see
almost anything. The MORE people there are the more likely people are willing to conform.
Later studies disproved this theory suggesting that either the question asked was not
important enough, the change in social norms.
Normative Influence: conform to be liked by others – no change in private opinion. Driven
by the need of being accepted, fear of being disliked, more likely to happen if they feel like
they are being watched by the groups, tend to conform in public bur not internalise the
views of the majority.
Informational Influence: conform because others are experts – change in private opinion.
Driven by the need to feel confident that one’s perceptions and beliefs are correct, value
other’s opinions – they see other’s knowledge as evidence of reality, generally useful source
of information, adaptive advantage, more likely to happen when situation is ambiguous or
when others are perceived as experts. Changes in public and private attitudes.
Collectivistic countries are more likely to conform.
Minorities: can influence a majority by being consistent, committed to the cause and
offering a persuasive argument. Conversion is the process of how a minority can influence a
majority. More time consuming. Important characteristics for conversion: consistency,
autonomy, flexibility, commitment.
Compliance: people are just obeying, usually happens when majority influences the
minority.
Conversion: really believing in what they are doing or saying. The minority convincing the
majority that they are right.
Public influence – individual’s behaviour in front of group changes
Direct private influence – individual’s private opinions change
Indirect private influence – individual’s private opinions about related issues change

Obedience to Authority
Direct form of social influence. Resembles conformity but differs in 3 ways: no fee will
(participants are ordered), participants have a low rank compared to authority figure,
behaviour is determined by social power (there is no need to fit in).
Milgram’s experiment: objective was to check how people respond to authority. Subjects
were told that they were participating in a study on the effect of punishment on memory.
The ‘learner’ was an accomplice in the experiment and the ‘teacher’ was the true subject.
The ‘teacher’ was told to shock the ‘learner’ when given an incorrect response. The
‘teacher’ was told to increase the level of shock each time the ‘learner’ gives an incorrect
response. The responses were scripted. The experimenter supervised the ‘teacher’. When
the ‘learner’ started to cry out in pain, the ‘teacher’ started to object in continuing the
experiment, then the experimenter would answer from a script instructing the ‘teacher’ to
continue with the experiment. Even though the ‘teacher’ was aware of the dangerous of
going beyond 450V, 65% of the participants obeyed the experimenter and shocked the
‘learner’. No difference was shown between men and women.
Two main ways to reduce obedience to authority
 1. Increase ‘learner’s’ proximity to the ‘teacher’
2. Reduce the authority of the experimenter.
Why do we obey orders even when they go against our personal ethical or moral code?
Authority is trustworthy. Obedience is also more likely to occur when we perceive the
person giving orders to have legitimate power. People feel they are in an agentic state –
become puppets of an authority figure.

The social influence of Groups

Group Polarisation: refers to the tendency for members of a group discussing an issue to
move toward a more extreme version of the positions they held before the discussion
began. As a result, the group as a whole tends to respond in more extreme ways than one
would expect given the sentiments of the individual members prior to discussion.
Why does it occur?
The tendency for Social Comparison – individuals want to be positively evaluated by other
group members.
Information/ persuasive arguments – information discussed within the group will favour the
position already held by most of its members.
A need for in-group/ out-group distinction – members of an in-group want to distinguish
their group from other groups.
Groupthink: group members seek internal group agreement to the detriment of more logical
and realistic decision-making. Ignore alternatives and tend to take irrational actions that
dehumanise other groups.
Social role: set of attitudes and characteristic behaviours expected of an individual who
occupies a specific position or performs a particular function in a social context. Is the abuse
of social power due to personality or conformity? To test this the Stanford Prison Experiment
was conducted. In this study both the prisoners and the wardens conformed to their social
role. Shoed that situational factors were important in shaping behaviour. Means we are all
capable of acting out of character when placed in certain situations. In this study the
wardens were encouraged to display aggressive behaviour.
Crowd behaviour: more likely to behave in an aggressive manner when part of a large
anonymous group – a collective mindset. Individuals feel less identifiable in a group thus
normal constraints may be lost. Shared responsibility reduces individual guilt.
Deindividuation – loss of sense of personal identity. Leads to conformity and obedience.
Masks and uniforms increase the tendency to conform to the social norm.

Groups
A group is composed of two or more individuals. These individuals interact with each other.
They are connected and form social relationships.
Primary group: is made up of people who are emotionally close, know one another well and
seek one another’s company. These are groups characterised by relationships that are
intimate, personal, caring and fulfilling. Example: nuclear families, best friends etc
Secondary group: is usually set up with a purpose or goal. Relationships are built more
superficially and involve only one or a few aspects of a person’s life or personality. Example:
students in class, sport teams, workplace.
Primary groups can be present in secondary settings. Example when attending JC, you
become a part of a secondary group. But the friendships made within JC are primary groups.
In-group: gives members a sense of identity, encourages a sense of loyalty towards its main
values and towards its members.
Out-group: makes people feel as though they do not belong to the in-group. This usually
inspires a sense of opposition or competition towards and from the in-group.
In-groups and out-groups can exist only in relation to each other, one is the flipside of the
other.
Why do we join groups? – Social Identity Theory
We acquire knowledge and meaning about ourselves through our group memberships, our
social identity. It is based on the assumption that human beings have an underlying need to
perceive themselves positively. Therefore, they have a tendency to look more favourably at
groups they feel they belong to (in-group) and more unfavourably to those they feel they are
not part of (out-group). As consequence intergroup difference is pronounced. This can lead
to intergroup discrimination and abuse. On te other hand, it also offers a protective element
for members within the group: it protects them from the effects of discrimination and
boosts their self-esteem.
Reference Groups: serves as a point or reference in our evaluations and decisions; it’s like a
generalised version of our role models. Apart from influencing our behaviour a reference
group influences out self-esteem. Formal membership is not required in a reference group.
Having a reference group would suggest that you would judge and appraise yourself
according to the group’s standards and endorse its values and norms.
Roles in a Group
Leadership: thought of as inspiring and thus leads others. Involves a reciprocal relationship
between the one who leads and the followers. Enables change and transformation in the
group. Often works when its legitimate and cooperative. Leadership is goal-oriented.
Leadership styles:
o Autocratic – leader takes all the decisions, no consultation with other members,
never informed them of what would happen next, no delegation of responsibility,
distance in terms of power between the leader and members, group tasks take
priority over relations.
 o Democratic – members were allowed to take part in the decision making process,
leader explained direction of the group, leader strives to be part of the group,
criticism to members perceived as deserved, delegates responsibility, creates
conditions for people to meet their goals and those of the group, interested in
developing good interpersonal relations with members.
o Laissez-faire – leader never guided the member, never participated in the group
work, said to offer guidance when needed but never did so spontaneously,
reluctance to take decisions, often avoids responsibility, usually characterised by
generalised lack of structure and guidance, difficulty to take decisions and being
assertive, priority given to member-relations to the detriment of group task.
Different styles of leadership may be appropriate at different stages in a group’s
development. One’s personality will effect the different leadership style adopted.
Leadership style may be changed.
Different leadership behaviours
Task Oriented: focuses on being successful in reaching the group’s ideal goal; clarify
goals; monitor group behaviour; oversee communication. Behaviours include –
coordination of group behaviour and performance; being critical of poor performance;
delegating tasks to different members; ensuring that the group is working to full
capacity.
Relationship Oriented: focus on fostering positive interpersonal relationships withing the
group; show trust towards other members; exhibit openness; communicate to explain
decisions. Behaviour – listening to other members in the group; treating others with
respect and equality; demonstrating an easy and approachable disposition; boosting
members’ moral
Leadership effectiveness
- Some believe a truly effective leader id the one born with the right characteristics or
traits.
- Some say it depends on the circumstances one finds themselves in
- Nowadays an affective leader is considered to have a combination of factors: the
leader’s traits, the group members’ qualities and also the circumstances they find
themselves in. these theories are considered interactional
- Contingency Model
Theory of Group Roles
To understand how a group functions, needs not to focus on the leader only but also he
roles of the individual members of the group. Individuals may fulfil different roles during the
life of a project or at different stages of group development.
o Task roles: initiator, information seeker, information giver, opinion seeker, opinion
giver, clarifier, elaborator, summariser,
 o Maintenance roles: encourager, feeling expresser, harmoniser, compromiser,
gatekeeper, standard setter, consensus tester, follower
o Dysfunctional roles: blocker, aggressor, deserter, dominator, recognition seeker,
playboy

Stress
The internal process that occurs in people who try to adjust to events and/ or situations,
which are perceived as being their coping abilities.