Ecosystems
BIOLOGY
4.1
The Sonoran Desert
Key words
Cacti — plural of cactus; plants adapted to live in deserts.
Adaptations — special features that help plants and animals survive.
Ecology — study of how living things and their environment work together.
Ecosystem — community of living things and their surroundings working together.
Why is a desert a difficult place to live?
It is very hot during the day and cold at night.
There is very little water.
How are cacti adapted to live in a desert?
They store water in their thick stems.
They have spines instead of leaves to save water and protect themselves.
A Desert in Arizona
The Sonoran Desert is in Arizona, USA.
Deserts are hard places for animals and plants to live.
Deserts get very little rain.
Animals and plants have adaptations (special features) to survive with little water.
Saguaro Cacti
The tall plants in the photo are called saguaro cacti.
They grow very slowly.
Some are more than 100 years old!
The roots spread out wide just under the soil.
The roots absorb the rain quickly as soon as it falls.
Animals Living Near Cacti
Many animals live among the cacti and other desert plants.
Gila woodpeckers make holes in the cacti to build their nests.
Other birds also visit these holes.
Cactus wrens build nests in a cactus called the teddy bear cholla.
Teddy bear chollas are very spiky.
Most animals stay away because of the spikes.
This keeps the cactus wren’s eggs and young ones safe from predators (animals that hunt other animals).
During Hot Days and Cool Nights
Lizards, tortoises, and other animals rest in the shade of plants during hot days.
Some burrow (dig) into the soil to stay cool.
At night, when it is cooler, kangaroo rats come out to eat.
They watch out for predators (animals that hunt them) like rattlesnakes and coyotes.
Rain and Desert Changes
In the Sonoran Desert, it usually rains heavily at least once a year.
When the rain comes, the desert changes.
Many plants quickly grow flowers.
Insects and Pollination
Insects eat nectar and pollen from flowers.
This helps plants reproduce by pollinating (moving pollen to make seeds).
At night, bats eat nectar from agave flowers.
Seeds and New Plants
Seeds fall to the ground.
Ants collect seeds and take them to their nests as food.
Some seeds that ants don’t eat may germinate (start to grow) after many months or years.
Interactions in the Sonoran Desert
All the animals and plants depend on each other.
They interact (help or affect each other).
What one living thing does can change another.
Non-Living Things in the Desert
The desert has many
non-living things that affect
plants and animals too.
Temperature
Days are very hot in the desert.
Nights are much cooler.
Some animals are nocturnal (active at night).
They stay cool and don’t dry out this way.
Some animals, like tarantulas, dig burrows (holes) in the soil to hide during the day.
Light
Bright sunlight helps plants make food by photosynthesis (using light to make food).
Soil
Rocks and soil give minerals that help plants grow.
Soil is also used by ground-nesting birds to build their homes.
Water
All living things need water to keep their cells alive.
When it rains, plants and animals become more active and can reproduce (make babies).
Air
The air gives plants carbon dioxide to make food with photosynthesis.
Animals breathe oxygen to live, using it for respiration (getting energy from food).
Organisms Affect Their Environment
Kangaroo rats’ droppings help make soil healthy.
The gases animals breathe in and out change the air around them.
The Desert Ecosystem
Everything in the desert interacts with everything else.
All these interactions make the desert ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a network of living things and non-living things working together.
Food Webs in the Desert
Plants are the producers in the food web.
They use sunlight to make food.
Animals eat plants and other animals.
Energy moves through the desert food web this way.
Other Interactions
Plants give animals places to build nests.
Plant roots hold the soil so it does not wash away when it rains.
Animals help plants by pollinating (moving pollen to help make seeds) flowers.
Animals also spread seeds to help new plants grow.
Ecology — The Study of Ecosystems
Ecosystems are very complicated.
The study of ecosystems is called ecology.
No ecologist knows all the interactions in an ecosystem.
There is always something new to learn, even in places
studied for a long time.
Questions and Answers
1️⃣ Name two producers in the food web of the Sonoran Desert.
Producers are plants. Two examples are cacti and agave plants.
2️⃣ Why can the food web not exist without producers?
Producers make food using sunlight. Without them, animals would have no food to eat.
3️⃣ What do the arrows in the food web show?
Arrows show who eats whom and how energy moves from one living thing to another.
4️⃣ Give two examples of interactions between organisms in the desert that are not about feeding.
Animals help plants by pollinating (moving pollen) flowers.
Plants give animals places to build nests or homes.
Habitats in a Desert Ecosystem
What is a Habitat?
The place where an organism naturally lives.
Many different habitats exist in a desert.
Examples of Desert Habitats
Saguaro Cactus
Open desert
Gila Woodpecker
Lives in saguaro cactus (nest)
Flies in air & walks on ground to find food
Desert Ant Kangaroo Rat
Under rocks & soil In burrows
On soil surface Comes out at night for food
Termites Sap Beetles
At the base of saguaro stems Inside saguaro flowers
Difference between
an Ecosystem & a Habitat
Ecosystem – The whole neighbourhood! Habitat – The home of a plant or animal.
It includes
all living things (plants , animals , insects ) It’s the specific place they live in and get what
+ non-living things (sun , sand , water ) they need to survive.
and how they work together.
Example: The desert ecosystem has cactus, coyotes, Example: A kangaroo rat lives in a
snakes, soil, and sunshine all interacting. burrow under the sand and comes out at night.
4.2
Different ecosystems
Ecosystem or just a place?
Marcus says: "An ecosystem is a place."
Sofia says: "An ecosystem is more than just a place!"
Who’s correct?
An ecosystem is not only the place , but also the living things and non-living
things that work together.
Sofia is more correct — an ecosystem is a whole living system, not just a spot on the map.
More About Ecosystems
The Arizona Desert is one type of ecosystem.
Other examples:
1. Mangrove forests,
2. Sea ice in the Arctic Ocean,
3. Rice paddies.
Mangrove Forest
Mangroves are trees with roots in sea water.
They grow along the coasts of tropical countries .
Young fish hide in mangrove roots to stay safe from bigger fish.
Mudskippers climb on mud when the water is low to find food.
Mangrove leaves fall on mud → bacteria decompose (break down) them.
Prawns and crabs eat the partly decomposed (broken down) leaves.
Crab-eating macaques (monkeys) climb trees and catch crabs on the roots and mud.
Sea Ice in the Arctic Ocean
In winter, some sea water freezes into ice.
Seals hunt fish but must come up to breathe air.
Polar bears patrol (walk around) the ice, hunt seals, and swim between ice floes
(Ice floes - flat floating ice sheets).
Arctic foxes look for food on the ice.
Sunlight passes through the ice → tiny algae (plants) grow under the ice floes.
Shrimp-like organisms eat the algae → fish eat the shrimp.
Rice Paddy
Not all ecosystems are natural — some are made by people.
In Malaysia, rice paddies are farmed by people.
At some times of year, the paddy fields are flooded with water.
Algae (tiny plants) grow in the shallow (not deep) water and on the mud.
Fish swim into the paddies from irrigation canals (man-made water paths for farming).
Frogs and dragonflies breed (lay eggs and grow) in the water.
Because the water is shallow, it heats up quickly in the day and cools quickly at night.
Farmers add fertiliser to help rice and algae grow faster.
Many birds feed in and around the paddy fields.
4.3
Intruders in an
ecosystem
Intruders in an Ecosystem
Sometimes, new or invasive species (plants or animals from another place) enter an ecosystem.
These species can change how the ecosystem works.
Key Words
Eradicate = remove completely
Extinct = no longer living anywhere
Native species = plants or animals that belong to that place
How invasive species cause problems
They may grow and reproduce (have babies) faster than native species.
They might use up food, water, and space that native species need.
They can cause some native species to become endangered or extinct.
New Species in an Ecosystem
In an ecosystem, all living things (organisms) interact with each other and their environment .
A new species can change these interactions .
We ask:
1. How does the new species fit into the food web?
2. How does it affect the species already there?
Introduced Species in New Zealand
New Zealand is a country in the Pacific Ocean .
It became separated from other land about 66 million years ago .
Because of this, the species in New Zealand are different from other places on Earth .
Before humans came, there were no predatory mammals (no meat-eating animals like cats or dogs) .
Many native birds nested on the ground.
Their eggs and chicks were safe from predators.
Even the adults of several species of native bird — like the kiwi — cannot fly.
Humans Arrive in New Zealand
Nobody knows exactly when humans first came to New Zealand, but it was probably about
700 years ago .
Humans brought animals that did not belong there .
Rats hid on their boats and spread across most of the country.
Rats eat birds’ eggs and defenceless young birds .
More Introduced Species
Farmers brought sheep for wool and meat.
Rabbits were brought on sailing ships for food.
The rabbits escaped and ate grass in the sheep pastures .
To control the rabbits, people brought stoats (meat-eating animals) from Europe .
Stoats in New Zealand
Stoats have spread all over New Zealand .
They are fierce hunters and breed rapidly (have many babies fast) .
They can kill and eat bigger birds .
Stoats made some native birds extinct, like the laughing owl & New Zealand thrush .
They eat almost 60% of kiwi chicks .
Trying to Control Stoats
People try to eradicate (remove) stoats .
This is very hard .
The best is to control their numbers .
Native Bird Extinctions
Scientists say 53 native bird species went extinct since humans arrived .
People hunted and killed many birds .
But mostly, invasive species (harmful animals brought from other places) caused extinctions
.
What is a native species?
A native species is a plant or animal that naturally lives in a place and has been there for a long time.
Name some native species in your country.
Some native species in India are the Bengal tiger, Indian peacock, and neem tree.
Why is it hard to eradicate an introduced species?
It is hard to get rid of an introduced species because they grow and have babies quickly, spread fast, and
don’t have natural enemies in the new place.
Buffelgrass is native to Africa, Asia and the Middle East. It was planted in Arizona in
the 1930s, as food for cattle. Now, it is spreading rapidly through the Sonoran Desert.
What is the name for a plant, such as buffelgrass, that is growing in an ecosystem
where it does not belong?
It is called an introduced species or invasive species.
2. Buffelgrass grows in dense patches. It takes water and nutrients from the soil.
Look at the picture that you made in Topic 4.1, showing interactions in the Sonoran
Desert. Suggest how buffelgrass could affect some of the native species in the desert
Buffelgrass grows thick and takes water and food from the soil.
This makes it hard for native plants to grow.
When native plants grow less, animals have less food and places to live.
So, buffelgrass can harm the desert’s plants and animals.
4.4
Bioaccumulation
What is a decomposer?
A decomposer is a living thing, like bacteria or fungi, that breaks down dead plants, animals, & waste.
What kinds of substances can decomposers break down?
Decomposers can break down natural substances like dead leaves, dead animals, and animal waste.
What kinds of substances are decomposers unable to break down?
Decomposers cannot break down man-made chemicals and pollutants like plastics, pesticides, and
some toxic chemicals.
What is DDT?
DDT is an insecticide (a chemical that kills insects).
It was first made in the 1940s.
It was used to kill insects that spread diseases.
It was good at killing mosquitoes that spread malaria and fleas that spread typhus .
DDT also killed insects that ate crops .
Use and problems
People sprayed DDT on a beach to kill mosquitoes.
People on the beach were sprayed too.
DDT kills insects well.
But over time, people saw it harmed animals they didn’t want to kill .
Rachel Carson and Silent Spring
In 1962, Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring.
She showed how DDT killed birds and other animals, not just mosquitoes.
Her book helped people see DDT and some insecticides harm the environment.
Scientists now understand how DDT damages ecosystems.
DDT in Food Chains
DDT is a persistent (stays for a long time) chemical.
It does not break down in the environment.
Decomposers cannot break it down.
When sprayed, some DDT rises high into the air.
It can travel very far from where it was used.
DDT is Toxic
When DDT enters an animal’s body, it stays for life.
It never breaks down inside the animal.
DDT is poisonous to many animals.
It makes bird eggshells thin and easy to break .
An ibis bird’s eggs did not hatch because the mother had DDT in her body .
DDT in the Food Chain
DDT is sprayed on water .
Tiny algae take in some DDT .
Shrimps eat the algae .
Fish eat the shrimps .
Cormorants (birds that eat fish) eat the fish .
Bioaccumulation
All the DDT in the algae a shrimp eats builds up in its body.
The longer the shrimp lives and the more DDT it eats, the more stays in its body.
This is called bioaccumulation (DDT builds up inside one animal).
Biomagnification
All the DDT in the shrimps a fish eats builds up in the fish.
Then, all the DDT in the fish a cormorant eats builds up in the bird.
Increasing DDT in the Food Chain
The concentration of DDT in an animal’s body increases as you go up the food chain.
This is called biomagnification (DDT gets stronger in animals higher in the food chain).
Measuring DDT Concentration
The diagram shows how DDT builds up in the food chain.
DDT amount is measured in parts per million (ppm) — grams of DDT in one million
grams of an animal.
Water — 0.00005 ppm
Protoctists (tiny single-celled algae) — 0.04 ppm
Shrimps (eat many protoctists) — 0.16 ppm
Minnows — 0.50 ppm
Cormorants (eat minnows) — 26.40 ppm
1. How many times greater is the concentration of DDT in a cormorant's body
than in a minnow's body?
DDT in cormorant = 26.40 ppm
DDT in minnow = 0.50 ppm
To find how many times greater:
Divide 26.40 by 0.50
26.40 ÷ 0.50 = 52 times greater
Answer:
The concentration of DDT in the cormorant’s body is 52 times greater than in the minnow’s body.
2. Explain, in your own words, why the concentration in the cormorant is greater than in a
minnow.
Cormorants eat many minnows.
Each minnow has some DDT in its body.
When the cormorant eats many minnows, all their DDT adds up in the cormorant.
This causes the DDT concentration to be much higher in the cormorant than in a single minnow.
Answer:
The cormorant has more DDT because it eats many minnows, so the DDT from all those minnows
builds up in the cormorant’s body.
4.1 Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem
Tropical rainforests are very complex ecosystems. Many different species live in a tropical rainforest
Bromeliads are plants that grow in a tropical rainforest. They often grow on tall forest trees.
Bromeliads have spiky leaves arranged in circles. They trap rainwater in their centres. Small
animals often live in the little ponds in a bromeliad plant.
a. Describe two habitats in the tropical rainforest ecosystem using the photographs.
Bromeliads growing on tall forest trees.
Small ponds of rainwater trapped inside bromeliad plants.
b. Suggest advantages for bromeliads growing in their habitat.
They get more sunlight by growing high on trees.
They can collect rainwater in their leaves for water supply.
c. Suggest advantages for frogs living in their habitat (inside bromeliads).
They have a safe place to live and hide from predators.
They can find water easily in the ponds inside bromeliads.
d. Explain the difference between an ecosystem and a habitat.
Ecosystem: A community of living things and their environment interacting together.
Habitat: The natural home or place where an organism lives.
4.2 Coral Reef Ecosystem
Coral reefs are formed by tiny animals called coral polyps.
Their hard skeletons provide many different habitats where other species can live.
One of these species is a single-celled alga that makes a toxic substance called ciguatoxin.
Herbivorous fish eat the alga. Carnivorous fish eat the herbivorous fish.
Humans often eat the carnivorous fish
a. Why can so many species live on coral reefs?
Coral polyps create hard skeletons
that provide many different habitats for other species.
b. What is meant by a toxic substance?
A toxic substance is a poison that can harm or kill living things.
c. Construct a food chain from the information:
Alga (makes toxic substance) → Herbivorous fish → Carnivorous fish → Humans
d. Name the process where ciguatoxin builds up inside fish organs.
Options: bioaccumulation, ecosystem, poisoning
The correct answer is bioaccumulation.
Because ciguatoxin builds up and stays inside the fish’s body parts (head, liver, skin) over time.
e. Why is eating a carnivorous fish more likely to make you ill than eating a herbivorous fish?
Carnivorous fish eat many herbivorous fish that have ciguatoxin.
The toxin builds up more in carnivorous fish because they eat many smaller fish with the toxin.
So, carnivorous fish have higher toxin levels, which makes people more likely to get sick when they
eat them.
4.3 Winged Loosestrife and Purple Loosestrife Experiment
Winged loosestrife is a plant with purple flowers. It grows in North America.
Purple loosestrife also has purple flowers. It normally lives in Europe and Asia. It is an introduced species in North
America Both species of loosestrife are pollinated by insects. After pollination, the flowers produce seeds.
Scientists noticed that numbers of winged loosestrife plants were decreasing in places where purple loosestrife had been
introduced. They did an experiment to test this hypothesis:
They grew plants of winged loosestrife in pots. They also grew plants of purple loosestrife in pots.
When all the plants had flowers, the scientists arranged the pots in a field. They used two different patterns.
The scientists counted how many insects visited the flowers on each plant, over a 15 minute period
They left the plants in their pots until they produced seeds. Then they counted how many seeds each plant produced.
Summary of the question
Winged loosestrife has purple flowers and grows in North America.
Purple loosestrife also has purple flowers and is native to Europe and Asia.
Purple loosestrife is an introduced species in North America.
Both are pollinated by insects and produce seeds after pollination.
Scientists noticed winged loosestrife numbers went down where purple loosestrife was introduced.
They grew both plants in pots and arranged them in a field in two patterns to test their hypothesis.
Mean number of insect visits Mean number of
Arrangement of plants
per plant in 15 minutes seeds per plant
Winged loosestrife alone 35 80
Winged loosestrife and purple loosestrife 26 58
a) What is meant by an introduced species?
An introduced species is a plant or animal that has been brought by people
into a new place where it did not live naturally before.
b) Why did the scientists use two different patterns when planting the pots?
They used two patterns to see how the plants affect each other when grown alone and when they
grow together.
This helps them understand if purple loosestrife affects winged loosestrife.
c) How did purple loosestrife affect the number of insect visits to winged loosestrife?
When purple loosestrife was present, winged loosestrife had fewer insect visits (26 visits)
compared to when it was alone (35 visits).
d) Do the results support the scientists’ hypothesis? Explain.
Yes, the results support the hypothesis because fewer insects visited winged loosestrife
when purple loosestrife was nearby.
So the winged loosestrife produced fewer seeds
(58 seeds with purple loosestrife vs 80 seeds alone).
e) Suggest two ways to improve the experiment and explain:
1. Increase the number of plants tested:
Having more plants would give more reliable results and reduce the effect of random chance.
2. Repeat the experiment in different locations:
Testing in different areas would show if the results are the same in other environments.