1.
VIRUS
1. Definition
A virus is a tiny infectious particle that can reproduce only inside
the living cells of a host.
2. Living Characters of Viruses
• Can reproduce inside host cells
• Have genetic material (DNA or RNA)
• Can mutate and evolve
3. Non-living Characters of Viruses
• Do not have cells
• Cannot grow on their own
• No metabolism outside host
• Can remain inactive outside host
• Can be crystallized like chemicals
4. Structure of a Virus
• A virus mainly has:
• Genetic material – DNA or RNA
• Protein coat (capsid) – protects genetic
material
Some viruses also have:
• Outer envelope and spike proteins
5. Shapes of Viruses
• Spherical – Coronavirus
• Rod-shaped – Tobacco mosaic virus
• Brick-shaped – Pox virus
• Complex – Bacteriophage
6. Nutrition
• Viruses do not have their own nutrition system.
• They depend completely on the host cell for food and energy.
• So, they are called obligate parasites.
• A virus can infect other organisms including plants, animals,
human, bacteria , virus(only if there are inside host)
7. Reproduction
• Viruses enter the host cell.
• Inject or release their genetic material.
• Use host cell machinery to make new viruses.
• New viruses are released and infect other cells.
8. Harmful Effects of Viruses
• Viruses can cause diseases in:
Humans:
• Common cold
• Flu
• Chickenpox
• COVID-19
Animals:
• Rabies
Plants:
• Tobacco mosaic disease
9. Beneficial Uses of Viruses
• Used in making vaccines
• Used in gene therapy
• Some viruses kill harmful bacteria (bacteriophages)
10. Examples
• COVID-19 virus
• Tobacco mosaic virus
• Rabies virus
• Bacteriophage
Conclusion:
Viruses are unique because they show both living and non-living characters. They can be harmful, but
they are also useful in science and medicine.
2. FUNGI
Fungi are living organisms that do not make their own food and
depend on other sources for nutrition.
Characters:
• Eukaryotic organisms (have true nucleus)
• Mostly multicellular, some are unicellular
• Non-green (no chlorophyll)
• Grow in moist and warm places
• Some are useful, some are harmful
Structure:
• Body made of thread-like structures called hyphae
• Group of hyphae forms mycelium
• Cell wall made of chitin
• Have nucleus, cytoplasm and vacuoles
• No roots, stems or leaves
Shapes:
• Thread-like (moulds)
• Rounded (yeast)
• Umbrella-shaped (mushrooms)
Nutrition:
• Saprophytic: feed on dead and decaying matter
• Parasitic: live on living organisms
• Symbiotic: live together with other organisms
Reproduction:
• By spores
• By budding (in yeast)
• By fragmentation
Examples:
• Yeast
• Mushroom
• Bread mould (Rhizopus)
• Penicillium
Useful effects:
• Used in baking(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and
fermentation
• Used in making antibiotics
• Help in decomposition
• Some mushrooms are edible
Harmful effects:
• Cause diseases in plants and animals
• Spoil food
• Some mushrooms are poisonous
3. PROTOZOANS
Protozoans are microscopic single-celled organisms that show animal-like characteristics.
Characters:
• Unicellular and eukaryotic
• Have a true nucleus
• Mostly found in water and moist places
• Some are free-living, some are parasitic
• Can move from place to place
Structure
• Cell membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Nucleus
• Food vacuoles
• Contractile vacuoles (in some)
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• No cell wall
Shapes:
• Irregular shape – Amoeba
• Slipper-shaped – Paramecium
• Oval or elongated – Euglena
Nutrition:
• Holozoic: engulf food particles
• Saprophytic: absorb dissolved food
• Parasitic: depend on host
Reproduction:
• Mainly by binary fission
• Some by multiple fission
Examples:
• Amoeba
• Paramecium
• Euglena
• Plasmodium
Useful effects:
• Help in food chain in aquatic habitats
• Some help in decomposition
Harmful effects:
• Cause diseases like malaria, amoebic dysentery and sleeping sickness
4. ALGAE
Algae are simple plant-like organisms that make their own food by photosynthesis.
Characters:
• Mostly aquatic organisms
• Have chlorophyll
• Can be unicellular or multicellular
• Eukaryotic organisms
• Found in fresh water, sea water and moist places
Structure:
• Simple body called thallus
• No true roots, stems or leaves
• Cell wall present
• Have chloroplast and nucleus
Shapes:
• Unicellular – Chlamydomonas
• Colonial – Volvox
• Filamentous – Spirogyra
• Large seaweeds – kelp
Nutrition:
• Autotrophic: make food by photosynthesis
Reproduction:
• By fragmentation
• By spores
• By sexual reproduction in some
Examples:
• Chlamydomonas
• Spirogyra
• Volvox
• Ulva
Useful effects:
• Produce oxygen
• Used as food and fertilizer
• Provide habitat for aquatic animals
• Used in medicines and industries
Harmful effects:
• Algal bloom reduces oxygen in water
• Some algae release harmful toxins
5. BACTERIA
Bacteria are microscopic single-celled living organisms found everywhere—in air, water, soil, and
inside living things.
Characters:
• Very small and seen only under microscope
• Unicellular and prokaryotic
• No true nucleus
• Found in all kinds of habitats
• Some are useful, some are harmful
Structure:
• Cell wall
• Cell membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Nucleoid (DNA)
• Flagella in some bacteria
• No membrane-bound organelles
• Ribosome- non membrane bound
Shape
Nutrition:
• Autotrophic – make own food( Cyanobacteria)
• Heterotrophic – depend on others
• Saprophytic – feed on dead matter
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• Parasitic – live on host
Reproduction:
• Mainly by binary fission
• Spore formation in unfavorable conditions
Examples:
• Lactobacillus
• Rhizobium
• E. coli
• Vibrio cholerae
Useful effects:
• Curd making(Lactobacillus)
• Nitrogen fixation( Rhizobium (in legumes) and cyanobacteria
such(Anabaena and Nostoc)
• Decomposition
• Medicine production
Harmful effects:
• Cause diseases like cholera, typhoid
• Spoil food
• Cause plant diseases