PROJECT FILE
Topic: Immunity in Humans (Class 12 Biology – Human
Health and Disease)
Introduction
Immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against harmful microorganisms such as bacteria,
viruses, fungi and parasites. It is an important defence mechanism which protects us from
infections and helps maintain good health.
Importance of Immunity
• Protects the body from pathogens (disease causing organisms).
• Prevents the spread of infection by stopping microbes from multiplying.
• Provides long term protection due to immune memory.
• Helps in recovery by repairing damaged tissues.
• Forms the basis of vaccination and immunization.
• Prevents serious diseases like measles, tuberculosis and influenza.
Diagram: Basic Immune System Components
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Innate Immunity (Inborn, Non-specific)
Acquired Immunity (Adaptive, Specific)
Cells involved: WBCs, Lymphocytes, Macrophages, NK cells
Cells of Immune System
The immune system consists of different immune cells present in blood and lymph. The main
immune cells are White Blood Cells (Leucocytes) which are produced in bone marrow.
Types of White Blood Cells
• Phagocytes: destroy pathogens by engulfing and digesting them (phagocytosis).
• Lymphocytes: provide specific (acquired) immunity.
A) Phagocytes
• Neutrophils: most abundant WBCs, first to reach infection site, kill bacteria by phagocytosis.
• Monocytes: largest WBCs, convert into macrophages in tissues.
• Macrophages: strong phagocytic cells, eat bacteria/viruses/dead cells and activate lymphocytes.
B) Lymphocytes
• B-Lymphocytes (B-cells): formed in bone marrow, produce antibodies, responsible for humoral
immunity.
• T-Lymphocytes (T-cells): mature in thymus, responsible for cell mediated immunity.
• Types of T-cells: Helper T-cells, Cytotoxic (Killer) T-cells and Suppressor T-cells.
Other Immune Cells
• Natural Killer (NK) cells: kill virus infected cells and tumour cells directly.
• Mast cells: release histamine and cause allergic reactions.
• Basophils: release histamine and heparin, involved in inflammation.
• Eosinophils: fight parasitic infections and increase during allergies.
Types of Immunity
1. Innate Immunity
Innate immunity is the inborn immunity present since birth. It is non-specific and does not have
memory. It protects the body through different barriers.
• Physical barriers: skin, mucus lining etc.
• Physiological barriers: HCl in stomach, saliva, tears etc.
• Cellular barriers: PMNLs, neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages.
• Cytokine barriers: interferons protect against viral infection.
Diagram: Innate Immunity Barriers
Innate Immunity
Physical Barrier → Skin, Mucus
Physiological Barrier → HCl, Tears, Saliva
Cellular Barrier → Neutrophils, Macrophages, NK cells
Cytokine Barrier → Interferons
2. Acquired Immunity
Acquired immunity is adaptive immunity developed during lifetime. It is specific and has memory. It
is also called the third line of defence.
Primary Response vs Secondary Response
Feature Primary Response Secondary (Anamnestic) Response
Encounter First encounter with pathogen Second encounter with same pathogen
Speed Slow Fast
Intensity Low High (strong response)
Reason No memory cells initially Memory cells already present
Antigen and Antibody
Antigen: “The substance that triggers the immune response is called antigen.”
Antigens are mostly proteins or polysaccharides found on the surface of microbes. When an
antigen enters the body, immune cells recognize it and stimulate the production of antibodies.
Key Points
• Antigens are recognized as non-self substances.
• Each antigen produces a specific antibody (lock and key mechanism).
• Antibodies are proteins produced in response to antigens.
• Vaccination introduces antigen to develop memory cells.
Types of Antigens
• Pathogenic antigens: from bacteria, viruses etc. Example: Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Allergens: cause allergy. Example: pollen, dust, mites.
• Self antigens: cause autoimmune diseases. Example: rheumatoid arthritis.
Vaccination and Immunization
Vaccination is the introduction of weakened or killed pathogens or their antigenic components into
the body so that the immune system produces antibodies and memory cells without causing the
disease. Vaccination results in immunization.
Edward Jenner: First vaccine developed against smallpox.
Generations of Vaccines
• 1st Generation: heat killed vaccine (example: polio vaccine), live attenuated vaccines.
• 2nd Generation: recombinant vaccine (example: Hepatitis-B), toxoid vaccine.
• 3rd Generation: DNA/RNA vaccines (still under research).
Immune System Disorders
1. Allergy
Allergy is an exaggerated immune response of the body towards certain substances called
allergens. Common allergens include pollen grains, dust, mites, animal dander, foods and drugs.
Symptoms:
• Runny nose
• Sneezing
• Watery eyes
• Itching
• Redness
Allergy Mechanism (Flowchart)
Allergen (dust/pollen)
↓
IgE Antibodies
↓
Mast Cells / Basophils
↓
Histamine Release
↓
Allergic Symptoms
Treatment: Anti-histamines, steroids (cortisol), adrenaline (epinephrine).
2. Autoimmune Disorders
In autoimmune disorders, the immune system fails to recognize self cells and starts attacking the
body’s own tissues. “In some cases, the immune system fails to recognise self and starts destroying
the body’s own cells.” Examples: Rheumatoid arthritis, Myasthenia gravis, Graves disease,
psoriasis, vitiligo.
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
AIDS is a fatal viral disease caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). HIV is a retrovirus
(RNA virus) that attacks immune cells, especially T-helper cells (CD4 cells), making the body highly
vulnerable to infections.
Key Points
• HIV spreads only through body fluids.
• It does not spread by touch or casual contact.
• Macrophages and T-cells have CD4 receptors.
• During AIDS, T-cells decrease drastically.
Mode of Transmission
• From infected mother to foetus.
• Using infected needles/syringes.
• Infected blood transfusion.
• Unprotected sexual intercourse.
Diagnosis
• ELISA test
• PCR test
• Western blotting
• Antigen-antibody test
Treatment and Prevention
AIDS can only be prevented, not completely cured. Anti-retroviral drugs can increase longevity.
Prevention includes safe sex practices, use of disposable syringes, safe blood banks and
awareness programs by organizations like NACO and WHO.
Ways to Boost Immunity
• Eat balanced diet rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals.
• Get proper sleep (7–8 hours daily).
• Exercise regularly (walking, yoga, cycling).
• Maintain hygiene (wash hands, keep surroundings clean).
• Drink enough water to stay hydrated.
• Avoid smoking, alcohol, drugs and junk food.
• Get vaccinated.
• Reduce stress through meditation and relaxation.
• Take sunlight exposure for Vitamin D.
Conclusion
Immunity is a vital defence system that protects the human body from infections and harmful
pathogens. Innate immunity provides immediate non-specific protection, while acquired immunity
develops during life and provides long-term memory-based defence. Immune cells like phagocytes,
lymphocytes and NK cells play a major role in fighting diseases. Vaccination is one of the most
effective ways to strengthen immunity and prevent serious infections. However, immune system
disorders such as allergy, autoimmune diseases and AIDS can weaken body defence. Therefore,
maintaining a healthy lifestyle, proper diet, exercise and hygiene is essential to boost immunity and
stay healthy.