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MODULE 3
Networking and the Internet: Network Fundamentals, The Internet, The World Wide Web,
Internet Protocols, Security.
Cybersecurity: Overview, What is Cybersecurity?, Brief History of Cybersecurity Events, The
Basic Information Security Model, Cyber Hygiene, Teams in Cybersecurity.
Ethical Issues in Information Technology: Overview, Ownership Rules, Ethics and Online
Content.
NETWORKING AND THE INTERNET
A network is a collection of interconnected computers that communicate with each other to
exchange data and share [Link] these networks, computer users can exchange messages and
share resources—such as printing capabilities, software packages, and data storage facilities—that
are scattered throughout the system.
The supporting software has evolved from simple utilities to advanced network software
that provides a comprehensive infrastructure, gradually functioning like a network-wide
operating system.
NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS
Network Classifications: A computer network can be classified based on size as:
 Personal area network (PAN),
 Local area network (LAN),
 Metropolitan area network (MAN),
 Wide area network (WAN).
A PAN is normally used for short range communications: typically less than a few meters,
such as between a wireless headset and a smartphone or between a wireless mouse and its PC. In
contrast, a LAN normally consists of a collection of computers in a single building or building
complex. For example, the computers on a university campus or those in a manufacturing plant
might be connected by a LAN.
A MAN is a network of intermediate size, such as one spanning a local community. Finally,
a WAN links machines over a greater distance, perhaps in neighboring cities or on opposite sides
of the world.
Networks can also be classified based on whether their design is publicly available or owned
and controlled by an individual or organization as:
 Open Networks
 Closed Networks (proprietary).

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Open networks use publicly available designs and standards, allowing free use and widespread
adoption. Closed networks are owned and controlled by individuals or companies, often requiring
licenses or fees. The Internet is an open network that uses the TCP/IP protocol suite, while
proprietary systems are controlled by organizations for commercial use.
Another way of classifying networks is based on the topology of the network, which refers to
the pattern in which the machines are connected. Two of the more popular topologies are:
 Bus topology
 Star topology
In a bus topology, all devices share a common communication line (bus). In a star topology,
all devices connect to a central machine. (Figure 4.1)
The bus topology is popularized by Ethernet & bus networks use a shared communication
line. Even if physically arranged like a star (using a hub), they function as a bus because signals
are broadcast to all devices. The star topology is originated from centralized systems & star
networks use a central device (like an access point) to manage communication. This topology is
common in modern wireless networks.
The physical layout may differ from actual operation. A network may look like a star but
function as a bus if a hub simply relays signals to all connected devices.

Protocols
For a network to function reliably, it is important to establish rules by which activities are
conducted. Such rules are called protocols. Standard protocols ensure compatibility between
devices from different vendors and are essential for networking technologies.
Protocols coordinate message transmission among computers. Without them, multiple
machines may transmit at the same time or fail to cooperate when required, leading to
communication failure.

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In bus networks using Ethernet, communication is controlled by Carrier Sense Multiple

Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). Each message is broadcast to all machines, but
only the intended receiver processes it (figure 4.2). A machine transmits only when the channel
is idle and continues to monitor it. If another machine transmits simultaneously, a collision
occurs, both machines stop, wait for a random time, and retry.

CSMA/CD is not suitable for wireless star networks because a machine may not detect
collisions due to its own signal overpowering others or due to obstacles/distance, causing the
hidden terminal problem (Figure 4.3).

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The result is that wireless networks adopt the policy of trying to avoid collisions rather
than trying to detect them. Such policies are classified as Carrier Sense, Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA), commonly used in Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11). Instead of
detecting collisions, it tries to avoid them, though collisions may still occur and require
retransmission.
When a machine wants to transmit, it first waits for a short idle period instead of
transmitting immediately. If the channel becomes busy, it waits for a random time before retrying.
Machines that have already been waiting are given priority over new ones, reducing collisions.
To handle the hidden terminal problem, some networks require a machine to send a
request message to the access point (AP) and wait for acknowledgment before transmitting. If
the AP is busy, it ignores the request, and the machine waits. All machines can hear AP
acknowledgments, helping them determine whether the channel is busy.
Combining Networks
Existing networks can be interconnected to form larger communication systems. When similar
networks are connected, the result is a single large network that operates using the same protocols.
This is achieved using devices such as repeaters, bridges, and switches.
Repeater: A repeater is the simplest device used to connect two network segments. It merely
receives signals, amplifies them, and forwards them to the other side without checking their
content or destination. Since it forwards all signals, it does not reduce traffic and is less efficient,
but it helps extend the physical length of a network (Figure 4.4a).

Bridge: A bridge is more intelligent than a repeater. It connects two network segments but
examines the destination address of each message. It forwards a message only if it is meant for a
device on the other side. This reduces unnecessary traffic and allows communication within one
segment without affecting the other, thereby improving efficiency (Figure 4.4a).

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Router: A router is used to connect different networks in an internet. Figure 4.5 depicts two Wi-
Fi star networks and an Ethernet bus network connected by routers. When a machine in one of
the Wi-Fi networks wants to send a message to a machine in the Ethernet network, it first sends
the message to the AP in its network. From there, the AP sends the message to its associated
router, and this router forwards the message to the router at the Ethernet.
Routers forwards messages based on destination addresses. A machine wanting to send a
message to a machine in a distant network attaches the internet address of the destination to the
message and directs the message to its local router. From there it is forwarded in the proper
direction. For this forwarding purpose, each router maintains a forwarding table that contains
the router’s knowledge about the direction in which messages should be sent depending on their
destination addresses.
Access Point (AP): In wireless networks, an access point (AP) acts as a central communication
point. Devices first send messages to the AP, which then forwards them to the router or other
networks. It enables wireless devices to connect & communicate within and outside the network.
Gateway: The point where a network connects to an internet is called a gateway. It acts as an
entry and exit point for communication with external networks. In many cases, a gateway consists
of a router or a combination of router and access point, especially in home or Wi-Fi networks.

Interprocess Communication
The various activities (or processes) executing on the different computers within a network must
often communicate with each other to coordinate their actions and to perform their designated
tasks. Such communication between processes is called interprocess communication.

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Client/Server Model: A popular interprocess communication model is the client/ server model.
This model defines the basic roles played by the processes either as a client, which makes requests
of other processes, or as a server, which satisfies the requests made by clients.
Early examples include a print server, where multiple computers send print requests to a
shared printer, and a file server, where one machine stores data and others request access. This
model is still widely used in modern network applications.
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model: In the peer-to-peer model, processes both provide and receive
services from each other, unlike the centralized client/server model (Figure 4.6). Processes are
usually temporary and used in applications like instant messaging, online games, and file
sharing. File distribution uses a swarm approach, where peers share files among themselves
instead of relying on a central server.
One reason that the P2P model is replacing the client/server model for file sharing is that
it distributes the service task over many peers rather than concentrating it at one server. This lack
of a centralized base of operation leads to a more efficient system. This improves efficiency but
can raise legal concerns in cases of copyright violations.
The term peer-to-peer refers to a system by which two processes communicate over a
network (or internet). It is not a property of the network (or internet). A process might use the
peer-to-peer model to communicate with another process and later use the client/server model to
communicate with another process over the same network.

Distributed Systems
Modern systems are often designed as distributed systems, where software runs as processes on
multiple computers. These systems share a common infrastructure including communication and
security mechanisms, allowing easier development using prefabricated components.

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Cluster Computing: A type of distributed system where multiple computers work closely
together as a single system. It provides high availability (system continues even if some nodes
fail) and load balancing (work is distributed among machines), often at lower cost than
supercomputers.
Grid Computing: A loosely connected distributed system where many computers collaborate to
solve large problems. Systems like Condor system, or Berkeley’s Open Infrastructure for Network
Computing (BOINC) use idle computing power from various machines, enabling large-scale
problem solving.
Cloud Computing: A modern distributed approach where large pools of shared computers
provide services over the network. Users can rent computing resources on demand without
knowing the physical location. Services like virtual computing and online collaboration offer
scalability and reliability, but also raise concerns about security and privacy.
THE INTERNET
Internet Architecture: The Internet is a collection of interconnected networks constructed and
maintained by Internet Service Providers (ISPs), and connecting to an ISP means accessing its
network. These networks are organized in a hierarchical structure according to the role they play
in the overall Internet structure (Figure 4.7).

At the top are tier-1 ISPs, which are high-speed, high-capacity international WANs. These
networks are thought of as the backbone of the Internet. They are typically operated by large
companies that are in the communications business.
Below them are tier-2 ISPs, which are regional networks with comparatively lower
capacity. Tier-1 and tier-2 ISPs are essentially networks of routers that collectively provide the

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Internet’s communication infrastructure & form the core of internet. Access to this core is
provided by tier-3 ISPs or access ISPs. An access ISP is an independent internet, called an
intranet, operated by a single authority that is in the business of supplying Internet access to
individual homes and businesses.
The devices that individual users connect to the access ISPs are known as end systems or
hosts. These can be PCs, laptops, phones, and other smart devices.
These systems connect through various technologies, most notably WiFi, where an
Access Point (AP) connects to an ISP and provides connectivity within a hot spot. Similar
concepts exist in cellular networks as cells, enabling continuous connectivity during movement.
End systems connect to access ISPs using wireless (WiFi) or wired methods such as
telephone lines, cable, and satellite systems. Often, a router/AP combination is used in homes to
create a local network and provide Internet access to multiple devices.
Although modern networks use high-speed digital communication (e.g., fiber optics),
many connections to homes still rely on older analog infrastructure, leading to the last mile
problem. This refers to slower data transmission over legacy systems like copper telephone lines.
To overcome this, technologies such as DSL modems, cable modems, satellite links, and fiber
connections are used to deliver broadband access.
Internet Addressing: An internet requires an internet-wide addressing system, known as IP
(Internet Protocol) addressing. Originally, IP addresses were 32-bit patterns, but due to the
growing number of devices, they are being expanded to 128-bit addresses (IPv6). ICANN
(Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) allocates blocks of IP addresses to
ISPs, which then assign them to machines, ensuring unique identification across the Internet.
IP addresses are commonly written in dotted decimal notation, where each byte is
expressed as a decimal number separated by periods (e.g., [Link]). This format
represents the underlying binary bit patterns in a more human-readable form.
Since IP addresses are not user-friendly, an alternative system using mnemonic domain
names is used. A domain represents a region of the Internet managed by an organization.
Domains are registered with ICANN through registrars, and each domain is assigned a unique
domain name.
Domain names include suffixes called Top-Level Domains (TLDs), that indicate
classification, such as .edu, .com, .gov, .org, .net, and country-code TLDs like .au, .in, .ca.
Organizations can further extend domain names to identify specific hosts and create subdomains
(e.g., [Link]).

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Although humans use domain names, communication occurs using IP addresses. The
conversion from domain names to IP addresses is performed by name servers through the
Domain Name System (DNS). This process is called a DNS lookup, and DNS acts as an Internet-
wide directory system.
Large organizations may maintain their own name servers for handling domain name
translations. However, smaller organizations can register domain names and rely on ISPs’ name
servers to manage DNS services. In such cases, multiple domains can reside within a single ISP’s
infrastructure, sharing resources while maintaining unique identities.
Internet Applications
Electronic Mail (Email): Email is one of the oldest and widely used Internet applications. Message
transfer between computers is handled by SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), where sending
and receiving mail servers communicate using DNS to locate each other. Since SMTP supports only
ASCII text, MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) is used to handle non-text data. For
accessing emails, POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) allows downloading messages to a local
machine, while IMAP (Internet Mail Access Protocol), enables storing and managing emails
directly on the mail server for access from multiple devices.
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): VoIP enables voice communication over the Internet using
data transmission. It operates using P2P communication but involves additional challenges like call
setup and integration with traditional systems.
VoIP systems come in four different forms. VoIP soft phones consist of P2P software that
allows two or more PCs to share a call with no more special hardware than a speaker and a
microphone. Example: Skype.
A second form of VoIP consists of analog telephone adapters, which are devices that
allow a user to connect his/her traditional telephone to phone service provided by an access ISP.
The third type of VoIP is embedded VoIP phones, which are devices that replace a
traditional telephone with an equivalent handset connected directly to a TCP/IP network.
Finally, the current generation of smartphones use wireless VoIP technology.
Internet Multimedia Streaming: A large portion of Internet traffic involves audio and video
streaming in real-time. Example: Netflix, YouTube.
The basic method, N-unicast, sends individual streams to each user but creates heavy load on
servers. Alternatives include P2P distribution, where peers share data, and multicast, where routers
distribute messages to multiple users. However, modern systems mainly use on-demand streaming,
where each user accesses content independently.

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To support large-scale streaming, services use Content Delivery Networks (CDNs), which
are distributed servers that provide content from locations closer to users. Technologies like anycast
help users connect to the nearest server. Streaming is now supported across various devices such as
smartphones, TVs, & other embedded systems, enabling widespread multimedia access over Internet.
World Wide Web (WWW)
The Web originated by combining Internet technology with hypertext (linked documents). The
early system introduced following key components: a hypertext document format for embedding
hyperlinks to other documents, a protocol for transferring hypertext across the network, and a
server process that supplied hypertext pages upon request. The Web later expanded to support
multimedia (images, audio, & video) and became the dominant Internet application.
Web Implementation: Web accessing on the Internet fall into one of two categories: browsers
and webservers. A browser resides on the user’s computer and obtains materials requested by the
user and presents these materials to the user in an organized manner. Example: Firefox, Safari,
and Internet Explorer.
The webserver resides on a computer containing hypertext documents to be accessed. It
provides access to the documents as requested by clients (browsers). Hypertext documents are
normally transferred between browsers and webservers using a protocol known as the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
To locate and retrieve documents on the Web, each document is given a unique address
called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). Each URL contains the information needed by a
browser to contact the proper server and request the desired document. A typical URL is
presented in Figure 4.8.

It consists of four segments: the protocol to use to communicate with the server, the
mnemonic address of the machine containing the server, the directory path needed for the server
to find the directory containing the document, and the name of the document itself.

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Sometimes a URL will consist of only a protocol and the mnemonic address. In these
cases, the webserver will return a predetermined document, called a home page that usually
describes the information available at that website. Such shortened URLs provide a simple means
of contacting organizations. For example, the URL [Link] will lead to the
home page of Google.
HTML: A hypertext document contains special symbols, called tags that describe how the
document should appear on a display screen, what multimedia resources should accompany the
document, and which items within the document are linked to other documents. This system of
tags is known as HTML (Hypertext Markup Language).
The HTML version of a simple webpage is shown in Figure 4.9a. The tags are enclosed
within the symbols < and >. The HTML document consists of two sections: a head (surrounded
by the <head> and </head> tags) and a body (surrounded by the <body> and </body> tags).

The head of the webpage contains only the title of the document (surrounded by “title”
tags). This title is only for documentation purposes; it is not part of the page that is to be displayed
on the computer screen. The material that is displayed on the screen is contained in the body of
the document.
The first entry in the body is a level-one heading (surrounded by the <h1> and </h1>tags)
containing the text “My Web Page.” The browser will display this text on the screen. The next
entry in the body is a paragraph of text (surrounded by the <p> and <p> tags) containing the text
“Click here for another page.” Figure 4.9b shows the page as it would be presented on a computer
screen by a browser.

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XML: The eXtensible Markup Language (XML) is a standardized style for designing notational
systems for representing data as text files. It is a simplified version of SGML (Standard
Generalized Markup Language). Using XML standards, various markup languages have been
developed for representing mathematics, multimedia, and music. HTML is the markup language
based on the XML standard that was developed for representing webpages.
Instead of creating separate markup systems for each application, XML provides a general
framework for designing markup languages. This ensures uniformity and compatibility, allowing
different markup languages to be combined for complex documents (e.g., text containing
mathematical expressions & multimedia).
A key feature of XML is its focus on semantics (meaning) rather than just appearance.
Unlike HTML, which formats how data is displayed, XML allows data to be tagged based on its
meaning (e.g., identifying ingredients in a recipe). This improves data interpretation & processing.
INTERNET PROTOCOLS
The Layered Approach to Internet until it is delivered to the application layer at
Software: Internet communication is achieved the message’s destination.
through cooperation among all computers using
a layered software structure. This structure is
similar to a delivery system, where each level
performs a specific role without needing details
of other levels. The Internet uses a four-layer
model: Application layer, Transport layer,
Network layer, and Link layer. A message
originates at the application layer, moves
down through the transport and network
layers as it is prepared for transmission, and
finally it is transmitted by the link layer. The
message is received by the link layer at the
Figure 4.13: Internet Software Layers
destination and passed back up the hierarchy
The application layer consists of software units that use Internet communication to carry
out their tasks. This layer also includes utility packages like FTP and SSH. This layer uses the
transport layer to send and receive messages over the Internet. The layer is responsible for
generating messages and providing Internet-compatible addresses, often using DNS to convert human-
readable names into IP addresses.

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The transport layer accepts messages from the application layer and ensures that the
messages are properly formatted for transmission over the Internet. The transport layer divides
long messages into small segments, which are transmitted over the Internet as individual units
(packets). The layer also assigns sequence numbers to packets so they can be correctly
reassembled at the destination. Additionally, it uses port numbers to deliver messages to the correct
application (e.g., port 80 for HTTP, port 25 for SMTP).
The network layer is responsible for routing packets across the Internet. It determines the best
path using forwarding tables and directs packets accordingly. Packets may travel through different
routes and are treated independently during transmission.
The link layer handles the actual transmission of packets over the physical network. It deals
with network-specific protocols such as CSMA/CD (Ethernet) and CSMA/CA (WiFi). It transfers
packets between directly connected devices.

When a packet is transmitted, it is received by the link layer at the other end of the
connection. Now the link layer hands the packet up to its network layer where the packet’s final
destination is compared to the network layer’s forwarding table to determine the direction of the
packet’s next step. The network layer returns the packet to the link layer to be forwarded along
its way. In this manner each packet hops from machine to machine on its way to its final
destination. (Figure 4.14)

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The need for open network standards led to models like the Open System Interconnection (OSI)
reference model, which uses a seven-layer architecture. However, the Internet primarily follows
a four-layer model, implemented through the TCP/IP protocol suite. Although named after TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol), the suite includes many protocols
that together support Internet communication. TCP/IP suite provides multiple protocols for the
transport layer: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

TCP is connection-oriented, meaning it establishes a connection before transmission and

ensures reliable delivery using acknowledgments and retransmissions. It also provides flow
control (prevents overwhelming the receiver) and congestion control (adjusts transmission rate
based on network conditions).
UDP is connectionless, sending messages without prior setup or guarantee of delivery,
making it faster but unreliable. UDP is preferred for time-sensitive applications like DNS and
VoIP, while TCP is used for reliable services like email.
The IP protocol handles packet forwarding and routing across the Internet. Forwarding
determines the next hop for packets, while routing updates paths based on network conditions
such as failures or congestion. Routers exchange routing information to maintain efficient
communication.
Each packet includes a hop count (TTL), which limits the number of times it can be
forwarded. This prevents packets from circulating endlessly. The value decreases at each router,
and packets are discarded when the count reaches zero.
The traditional IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which are now insufficient due to Internet
growth. To address this, IPv6 was introduced with 128-bit addresses, providing a much larger
address space and improved features like multicast. The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is ongoing.

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SECURITY
Forms of Attack: When a computer is connected to a network, it becomes vulnerable to
unauthorized access and vandalism, often carried out using malicious software (malware). Such
software might be transferred to, and executed on, the computer itself, or it might attack the
computer from a distance. These attacks are viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and spyware.
A virus is software that infects a computer by inserting itself into programs present in the
machine. When the host program is executed, the virus is also executed and transfer themselves
to other programs within the computer. Some viruses, causes damages like degrading portions of
the OS, erasing large blocks of mass storage, or otherwise corrupting data and other programs.
A worm is an autonomous program that transfers itself through a network, resides in
computers and forwards copies of itself to other computers. A worm is a self-replicating program
that degrades the performance of legitimate applications and can ultimately overload an entire
network or internet.
A Trojan horse is a program that enters a computer system disguised as a desirable
program, such as a game or useful utility package. The Trojan horse performs additional activities
that might have harmful effects. These additional activities may start immediately or may lie
dormant until triggered by a specific event. Trojan horses often arrive in the form of email
attachments. When the attachment is opened, the misdeeds of the Trojan horse are activated.
A spyware (sniffing software) is a software that collects information about activities at the
computer on which it resides and reports that information back to the instigator of the attack.
Spyware can secretly collect user information such as passwords or credit card details.
Other Forms of Attacks: Phishing is a technique used to obtain sensitive information by directly
asking users. It is usually carried out through emails, where attackers pretend to be trusted
organizations such as banks, government agencies, or law enforcement. These emails request
confidential information like passwords or financial details under the pretence of legitimate needs.
However, the information provided by users is misused for fraudulent or malicious purposes.
A denial of service (DoS) attack is the process of overloading a computer with messages.
DoS attacks are launched against large commercial webservers on the Internet to disrupt the
company’s business and bring the company’s commercial activity to a halt. A DoS attack requires
the generation of a large number of messages over a brief period of time. To accomplish this, an
attacker usually plants software on numerous unsuspecting computers (botnet) that will generate
messages when a signal is given. When the signal is given, all these computers swamp the target
with messages.

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Another common issue is spam, which overwhelms users with unwanted emails and is
often used for phishing or malware distribution.
Protection and cure: Prevention is key in network security.
A primary prevention technique is to filter traffic passing through a point in the network,
using firewall. The firewalls are designed to block outgoing messages with certain destination
addresses or to block incoming messages from suspicious sources. Firewalls provides security
against attacks such as spoofing (impersonation). Firewalls are also used to protect individual
computers rather than entire networks or domains. Spam filters are specialized firewalls that are
designed to block unwanted emails.
A proxy server is a software unit that acts as an intermediary between a client and a server
to enhance security. Instead of communicating directly with the server, the client first connects to
the proxy server, which then forwards the request to the actual server and returns the response
back to the client. This setup helps in protecting the client’s identity, as the external server
interacts only with the proxy server and is unaware of the actual client or the internal network
structure. This prevents external servers from collecting sensitive information about an
organization’s intranet.
The advantage of a proxy server is enhanced security and privacy, as the actual server is
unaware of the real client. Another advantage is filtering capability, where the proxy server can
inspect incoming data and block harmful content such as infected files or malicious messages.
The auditing software is used by the system administrator to detect a sudden increase in
message traffic at various locations within the administrator’s realm, monitor the activities of the
system’s firewalls, and analyze the pattern of requests being made by the individual computers in
order to detect irregularities. In effect, auditing software is an administrator’s primary tool for
identifying problems before they grow out of control.
Antivirus software is used to detect and remove the presence of known viruses and other
infections. The antivirus software must be routinely maintained by downloading updates from
the software’s vendor.
Encryption: To protect data during transmission, encryption is used to encode information so
that unauthorized users cannot read it. Secure versions of applications, such as HTTPS, use
protocols like SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) to ensure safe communication, often indicated by a
padlock icon in browsers.
Public-key encryption is an encryption technique in which knowing how messages are
encrypted does not allow someone to decrypt them, making it different from traditional methods.

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This system uses two keys: a public key and a private key. The public key is shared openly and
is used to encrypt messages, while the private key is kept secret by the receiver and is used to
decrypt messages. (Figure 4.18)
When someone wants to send a secure message, they use the receiver’s public key to
encrypt it. Even if the message is intercepted during transmission, it cannot be understood because
only the receiver has the private key needed for decryption.

Public-key systems also support authentication through digital signatures, where a sender
encrypts data using their private key. The receiver can verify the sender’s identity using the public
key, ensuring message authenticity.
WHAT IS CYBERSECURITY?
NIST, defines cybersecurity as: “Prevention of damage to, protection of, and restoration of computers,
electronic communications systems, electronic communications services, wire communication, and electronic
communication, including information contained therein, to ensure its availability, integrity, authentication,
confidentiality, and nonrepudiation”.
U.S. law, defines information security as “protecting information and information systems from
unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide—integrity,
confidentiality, and availability”.
In cybersecurity practice, this is commonly known as the CIA triad where C stands for
confidentiality, I for integrity, and A for availability. The main goal of cybersecurity is to protect
information and the systems that manage it from unauthorized access, use, or attacks.

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Confidentiality: Confidentiality means preserving authorized restrictions on access and disclosure,
including means for protecting personal privacy and proprietary information. Information custodians
(such as banks) are responsible for preventing unauthorized access. For example, banks protect
customer credit card details and provide services like fraud alerts and account freezing to prevent
misuse if data is compromised.
Integrity: Integrity means guarding against improper information modification or destruction, and includes
ensuring information non-repudiation and authenticity. Users rely on systems to provide accurate and
trustworthy data (e.g., bank balances or academic grades). If data is altered incorrectly, it can lead
to serious consequences, requiring investigation and correction. Without integrity, information
systems lose reliability and usefulness.
Availability: Availability means ensuring timely and reliable access to and use of information. Cyber threats
like viruses can reduce availability by deleting or disrupting data. Even temporary unavailability
leads to loss of productivity. A notable example is the global outage of Facebook, Instagram,
WhatsApp, and Oculus on October 4, 2021, which disrupted services worldwide.
BRIEF HISTORY OF CYBERSECURITY EVENTS
1982–1983—Gang of 414’s: A group of teenagers used home computers, phone lines, and default
passwords to access around 60 high-profile systems. This incident brought the term “hacker” into
mainstream use. Although no damage was caused, it revealed system vulnerabilities, leading to
U.S. Congress hearings and the enactment of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (1986), which
criminalized unauthorized system access.
1988—Morris Worm: A self-replicating program released to measure Internet size ended up
infecting many systems and disrupting about 10% of the Internet. It became the first Internet
worm and led to the first conviction under the 1986 law. This incident resulted in the
establishment of CERT Coordination Center (CERT/CC) to handle cybersecurity emergencies.
1995–1998—Windows 95/98 Era: Windows 95 gained massive popularity due to its user-
friendly interface but lacked strong security features. Most systems ran without passwords and
with administrative privileges. Combined with TCP/IP networking, this created a highly
vulnerable environment, often considered the starting point of information security profession.
2000—ILOVEYOU Virus: This email-based virus spread rapidly by sending itself to all contacts
of infected systems, affecting millions of computers and causing billions in damages. The absence
of strict cyber laws in the Philippines led to no punishment, highlighting the need for global
cybersecurity regulations.

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2005–2007—Retailer Attacks: Major breaches in retail systems led to the theft of millions of
credit card details. Attackers used insecure wireless networks and SQL injection techniques.
These incidents exposed major security weaknesses and led to increased focus on secure software
development practices (secure SDLC).
2008—Georgia Cyber Attacks: During a military conflict, Georgia faced large-scale distributed
denial-of-service attacks that disrupted government and media websites. These attacks
demonstrated how cyber warfare could be used as a strategic tool in conflicts.
2010—Operation Aurora (Google-China): Cyber-attacks aimed at stealing intellectual property
and accessing sensitive emails were traced to institutions in China. This incident highlighted the
emergence of suspected state-sponsored cyber-attacks.
2011—Sony PlayStation Network Attack: An external breach compromised personal data of
about 70 million users. The network was shut down for investigation, affecting millions of users
worldwide and demonstrating the large-scale impact of cybersecurity failures.
2014—Yahoo Data Breach: A massive breach exposed 500 million user accounts through
phishing and social engineering techniques. It highlighted increasing sophistication in cyber-
attacks and the risks of unencrypted sensitive data.
2021—RockYou2021 Leak: A dataset containing about 8.4 billion passwords was leaked online,
becoming the largest known password collection. It is widely used for studying brute force attacks,
emphasizing the scale of modern cybersecurity threats.
THE BASIC INFORMATION SECURITY MODEL
Information security is a broad domain as incidents can arise from various weaknesses within an
organization. To manage this complexity, a unified model is used to structure all security-related
activities. Figure 250 represents a framework for understanding information security. The core
components of this model illustrate relationship between assets, vulnerabilities, threats, & controls.
Assets: An asset is defined as a resource or information that is to be protected. Security efforts begin with
identifying valuable assets that require safeguarding. Unlike physical assets, information assets
have two unique characteristics:
 Invisibility: Data exists in digital form (0s and 1s) and cannot be directly seen. Theft may
occur unnoticed, even from remote locations.
 Duplicability: Information can be copied without the owner’s knowledge, unlike physical
items which exist in one place.
These characteristics make information security more challenging than conventional security.
Once stolen, data is difficult to recover or control, making prevention and monitoring essential.

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Threats: A threat is defined as the capabilities, intentions, and attack methods of adversaries to exploit or
cause harm to assets. Threats exploit weaknesses in systems to cause damage.
The most popular types of threats observed in cybersecurity include viruses, worms, phishing,
and malware. Viruses and worms are computer programs that adversely affect computers and
propagate through the network without the user’s consent. A virus uses other programs (e.g., the
user’s email client) to spread, while the worm can propagate all by itself. Phishing is an attempt
to compromise a user by masquerading as a trustworthy entity in electronic communication.
Early phishing attacks attempted to acquire information such as usernames, passwords, and credit
card details. Malware (malicious software) is a general term used to describe software or code
specifically designed to exploit a computer, or the data it contains, without the user’s consent. A
very common way for malware to reach computers is via free downloads.
Vulnerabilities: A vulnerability is a weakness in an information system that gives a threat the opportunity
to compromise an asset. These may include unauthorized access, software flaws, or hardware
failures. Modern systems are complex, making it difficult to eliminate all vulnerabilities.

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Vulnerabilities can be classified into specialized categories such as software vulnerabilities.
A software vulnerability is an error in the specification, development, or configuration of software
such that its execution can violate the security policy. Example: Lack of input validation can lead
to SQL injection attacks.
Controls: Security controls are safeguards used to minimize the impact of threats. Since vulnerabilities
and attackers will always exist, controls aim to prevent, detect, and minimize damage. Most
threats are effectively blocked by commonly adopted organizational controls, such as operating
systems equipped with firewalls, the use of strong passwords to secure administrative user
accounts, and regular backup of files along with keeping computers locked to prevent
unauthorized access. However, controls may have weaknesses (e.g., weak passwords, irregular
backups), which attackers can exploit.
Cybersecurity controls can be classified as physical, procedural, and technical. Physical
controls use traditional non-technical methods of preventing harm. They prevent unauthorized
users from being able to enter technical facilities. Examples: locks, fire extinguishers, background
checks, and doors. Procedural controls are prescribed plans of action that govern the use of
computer resources. Examples: procedures for obtaining computer accounts, procedures for
escalating privileges, procedures for modifying programs, procedures for hiring, etc. Technical
controls are the security measures built into the information system itself. Examples: passwords,
firewalls, intrusion detection systems, system updates, and antivirus software.
CYBER HYGIENE
Cyber hygiene refers to practices that reduce the risk of a successful cyber-attack. It includes
keeping devices updated, using end-point protection (antivirus) software, and regularly changing
passwords. These simple measures help protect personal information, maintain device security,
and prevent cyber threats.
Password management is one of the most effective ways to practice good cyber hygiene.
Keeping passwords safe and secure include practices such as:
 avoid using the same password for multiple accounts;
 change passwords on a regular basis;
 passwords should be at least 12 or more characters long;
 passwords should include a mixture of upper and lower-case letters plus symbols and letters;
 avoid obvious passwords such as sequential numbers like 1234 or personal information
someone could acquire on your social media accounts such as your pet’s name or first car;
 use a password manager to help generate, store, and manage all your passwords in one

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security online account, for example: 1Password, [Link]
 avoid sharing passwords with others;
 use apps that require multi-factor authentication, for example, many social media accounts
require a login username/password and a code sent as a text to your cell phone to complete
the login process;
 back up your important files in a secure and protected location, for example, on an external
hard drive or cloud storage;
 don’t post private information like home address or phone number on social media accounts;
 check all your social media privacy settings because each social media account is slightly
different and designed to protect its users when settings are appropriately applied;
 keep your devices locked with a password or PIN when not in use;
 do not use websites or apps that disclose private information on a public Wi-Fi;
 only make online transactions on websites that are secure (this requires a URL with https://
rather than just [Link]
 change the default name of your home Wi-Fi router, don’t leave your home router with the
same name it has been given by the manufacturer when you took it out of the box;
 setup a guest network on your home Wi-Fi so that guests in your home use this network
instead of the one setup for your personal use;
 use firewalls to prevent malicious software from accessing your home network;
 encrypt devices that contain sensitive data, for example, removable USB drives; and
 before selling or disposing of a device, it is a good practice to wipe the hard drive clean.
TEAMS IN CYBERSECURITY
Cybersecurity professionals work in teams to respond to and investigate cyber incidents. These
teams must understand the Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (TTPs) used by attackers to
effectively protect systems.
Tactics can be described as the basic methods used by the hacker to gain access to a system
or information. A technique may include the tools or methods used by the hacker to gain access
to the system. The procedure describes how a hacker carries out the techniques step-by-step.
The following summarizes the two common types of cybersecurity teams that specialize
in the TTPs used by actors involved in a cybersecurity event:
Red Teams: The Red teams consist of operators that use tools and techniques typically used by
malicious actors to attack a system or the information it manages. Cybersecurity attacks executed
by Red Teams are often called campaigns. The intent of a Red Team operator (hacker) is to help

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companies understand how their security weaknesses (vulnerabilities) can be exploited by a
malicious actor.
Blue Teams: The Blue teams focus on the constant defense of systems and information managed
by organizations. These team work with Security Operation Centers (SOC), to keep a close watch
on all the systems. Blue Teams are trained to use tools designed to protect, capture, analyze, and
respond to a cybersecurity event.
ETHICAL ISSUES IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Overview: Ethics are a community’s shared beliefs about what is good for the individual and for
society and the duties that people owe themselves and one another. The word “ethics” traces to
the Greek word ethos, which describes the guiding ideals of a community.
The use of networked computers has introduced new ethical concerns, especially related
to information usage. Practices that were acceptable earlier may become unethical in the digital
era due to the ease of copying and distribution. For example, music sharing, once beneficial for
promotion, now allows flawless and widespread duplication, reducing artists revenue and
affecting content creation. This creates a need for updated ethical guidelines in the digital world.
Ownership Rules
Many users assume that information available online is free to use since it can be accessed easily
without payment. However, all content on the World Wide Web is owned by someone, usually
the creator or publisher. Users are expected to respect ownership of text, images, media, and
ideas. The online environment follows ownership rules similar to the real world, and
understanding these rules is essential to act responsibly and avoid legal issues. Several traditional
concepts have gained greater importance with the growth of computers and online resources.
Copyright: Copyright is a form of intellectual property that protects original works once they are
expressed in a tangible form. It protects the expression of ideas, not the ideas themselves. Different
creators can hold copyrights for the same idea if each produces an original expression. For eg.,
multiple photographers can capture the same scene, but each owns their own photograph.
Creators generally retain copyright for 70 years after death, while “works made for hire”
have limited durations. Copyrighted material cannot be used without permission, even if it is
publicly available online, especially for commercial purposes. Computer software is also
protected under copyright laws, which contributed to the development of an independent
software industry. Legal enforcement of copyright is common, although cases can be complex.
Open-Source Software (OSS): Some developers choose to make their software freely available
for public use. Open-source software allows users to run, modify, and share code. It is widely

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used in critical systems and provides valuable learning opportunities. However, using open-source
code in commercial products may involve risks, so organizations must carefully review its usage.
Public Domain: Public domain refers to creative works that are not protected by intellectual
property rights, either because they were never eligible or because the copyright has expired. Such
works can be freely used in new creations, though users cannot claim ownership of them.
Fair Use: Fair use allows limited use of copyrighted material without permission for purposes
such as teaching, research, criticism, commentary, or parody. It is a legal principle that balances
the rights of creators with freedom of expression. Typically, only small portions of content can be
used, and users should exercise caution or seek permission when unsure.
Plagiarism: Plagiarism involves using someone else’s words or ideas without proper
acknowledgment. Ethical practice requires quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing with proper
citation. Even unintentional plagiarism can occur, especially when using online sources. Though
not always illegal, it is a serious ethical violation and can lead to disciplinary actions, including
dismissal. Tools are often used to detect plagiarism and ensure originality.
Piracy: Piracy refers to unauthorized copying, distribution, or selling of copyrighted material.
Unlike plagiarism, piracy does not claim ownership but still violates rights. It is common in areas
like music, movies, and software. Legal actions and technical measures such as encryption are
used to prevent piracy.
Ethics and Online Content
Ethical responsibilities extend beyond users to those who create, manage, and maintain online
platforms. Proper handling, monitoring, and sharing of information is necessary to protect users
and maintain trust.
Online Privacy: Privacy is the right of individuals to control their personal information. Laws
and principles require that collected data be used only for its intended purpose. Organizations
and individuals handling personal data must ensure its security and prevent misuse. This
responsibility is especially important in areas involving financial, educational, health information.
Social Media Addiction: Social media has created a new form of addiction among adults and
children, leading to excessive use of computers and phones. Users often spend long hours in the
virtual world watching videos, playing games, and engaging online. This addiction is largely
driven by instant gratification provided by social media platforms. Activities like following friends
trigger the release of dopamine, a chemical associated with pleasure and survival behaviours.
While dopamine originally helped humans survive by encouraging essential actions, it now
contributes to addictive behaviour due to easy access to pleasurable experiences. As a result,

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people increasingly seek constant stimulation through social media. This phenomenon is
described as a “Dopamine Nation.”
These addictions have negative effects, particularly on mental health. Increased use of
visual social media has been linked to a rise in mental health issues among teenagers, especially
girls. Factors such as reduced self-esteem and poor body image contribute to these effects. Overall,
excessive social media use has significant societal impacts and is becoming a growing concern for
parents and policymakers.
Online Tracking: Search companies, ecommerce companies, and social media companies have
a commercial interest in knowing about personal interests of user. They use the vast computing
power and algorithmic expertise to analyze the browsing behaviours and store detailed
information about user’s preferences in their databases. While this may seem harmless, it raises
ethical concerns about privacy and the extent of data collection.
Political Impacts:
The Internet has become a powerful tool for governments to manipulate and monitor citizens’
opinions. Rogue regimes can influence voter behavior in democracies and even disrupt critical
infrastructure like power grids, leading to “bloodless wars.” This phenomenon is known as digital
authoritarianism, where countries attempt to coerce or influence individuals and businesses in
other nations for their own benefit, which is considered unethical.
In some authoritarian countries, Internet usage is strictly monitored, where even searching
certain terms or criticizing the government on social media can lead to consequences not only for
the individual but also for their associates. Everyday activities, such as purchasing medical items,
may trigger government intervention.
Technology has significantly reshaped societal interactions by allowing social media
platforms to analyze user interests and political inclinations, grouping like-minded individuals
together. Through algorithms that capture and retain user attention, companies can influence
opinions, often amplifying differences among groups. Although driven by profit motives, such
practices can negatively impact social harmony and threaten the stability of society.
BIASES IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) MODELS
Artificial intelligence is the ability of computers to do tasks that require intelligence and training.
With the help of AI, we can train software programs to analyze vast amounts of existing
information to predict the outcome of an event, such as detecting diseases or enabling self-driving
cars. While AI offers significant benefits, it introduces ethical concerns, especially when used in
critical areas like healthcare, criminal justice, and finance.

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Bias can enter AI systems through the data used for training, leading to discrimination
based on attributes like race, gender, or age. For example, Amazon discovered an AI recruitment
model developed by them showed bias against women due to historical data dominated by male
employees. Similarly, a news organization claimed that an AI algorithm used by courts to predict
whether a criminal was more likely to revert to crime was biased against black people. Such biases
can result in unfair outcomes like denial of loans, jobs, or education opportunities.
Additionally, AI systems may produce false positives, incorrectly labeling individuals as
criminals or patients, leading to financial losses and social harm. Another issue is that most AI
models are trained on data from specific regions, making them less effective when applied globally
without proper adaptation.

Important Questions
1. Explain the classification of computer networks based on size, design and topology.
2. Explain the role of repeater, switch, router and access point in computer networks.
3. Discuss different interprocess communication models.
4. Describe various applications of Internet.
5. Explain four layers of Internet software.
6. With diagram explain the basic information security model.
7. What is URL? With diagram explain the segments of a typical URL.
8. Explain the Internet architecture with a block diagram.
9. Explain various forms of attacks on a computer connected to network.
10. What is cybersecurity? What does the CIA Triad represent in cybersecurity practice? Explain.
11. Explain the best practices used to keep passwords safe & secure as part of good cyber hygiene.
12. Explain the effect of social media addiction and breach of online privacy.
13. How do ownership rules help to prevent misuse of digital content? Describe five rules.
14. Define Artificial Intelligence (AI). Discuss ethical risks of biases in AI model in critical areas.
15. Define online tracking and explain the effects of social media addictions.

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