3.

COMPACTION

Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil to rearrange the particles and reduce
the void ratio.

3.1 Purpose of Compaction

• The principal reason for compacting soil is to reduce subsequent settlement under working
loads.

• Compaction increases the shear strength of the soil.

• Compaction reduces the voids ratio making it more difficult for water to flow through soil. This
is important if the soil is being used to retain water such as would be required for an earth dam.

• Compaction can prevent the build up of large water pressures that cause soil to liquefy during
earthquakes.

3.2 Factors affecting Compaction

• Water content of the soil

• The type of soil being compacted

• The amount of compactive energy used

3.3 Laboratory Compaction tests

There are several types of test which can be used to study the compactive properties of soils.
Because of the importance of compaction in most earth works standard procedures have been
developed. These generally involve compacting soil into a mould at various moisture contents.

• Standard Compaction Test AS 1289-E1.1

Soil is compacted into a mould in 3-5 equal layers, each layer receiving 25 blows of a hammer of
standard weight. The apparatus is shown in Figure 1 below. The energy (compactive effort)
supplied in this test is 595 kJ/m3. The important dimensions are

Volume of mould Hammer mass Drop of hammer

1000 cm3 2.5 kg 300 mm

Because of the benefits from compaction, contractors have built larger and heavier machines to
increase the amount of compaction of the soil. It was found that the Standard Compaction test
could not reproduce the densities measured in the field and this led to the development of the
Modified Compaction test.
• Modified Compaction Test AS 1289-E2.1

The procedure and equipment is essentially the same as that used for the Standard test except that
5 layers of soil must be used. To provide the increased compactive effort (energy supplied = 2072
kJ/m3) a heavier hammer and a greater drop height for the hammer are used. The key dimensions
for the Modified test are

Volume of mould Hammer mass Drop of hammer

1000 cm3 4.9 kg 450 mm

Handle

collar (mould
extension)

Metal guide to control

drop of hammer

Cylindrical soil
mould

Hammer for
compacting soil
Base plate

Figure 1 Apparatus for laboratory compaction tests

3.4 Presentation of Results

To assess the degree of compaction it is important to use the dry unit weight, γdry, because we are
interested in the weight of solid soil particles in a given volume, not the amount of solid, air and
water in a given volume (which is the bulk unit weight). From the relationships derived previously
we have

Gs γ w
γ dry =
1+ e
which can be rearranged to give
Gs γ w
e = −1
γ dry
Because Gs and γw are constants it can be seen that increasing dry density means decreasing voids
ratio and a more compact soil.

In the test the dry density cannot be measured directly, what are measured are the bulk density and
the moisture content. From the definitions we have

Wt of Solids W Wt of Water W
γ dry = = s m = = w
TotalVolume V Wt of Solids Ws

W Wt of Solids + Wt of Water W + Ww
γ bulk = = = s
V TotalVolume V

(1 + m) Ws
=
V

= (1 + m) γdry

This allows us to plot the variation of dry unit weight with moisture content, giving the typical
reponse shown in Figure 2 below. From this graph we can determine the optimum moisture
content, mopt, for the maximum dry unit weight, (γdry)max.

(γdry)
Dry unit weight

max

mopt

Moisture content
Figure 2 A typical compaction test result

If the soil were to contain a constant percentage, A, of voids containing air where
 Va
A (%) = × 100
V

writing Va as V - Vw - Vs we obtain

A V + Vs
1 − = w
100 V

then a theoretical relationship between γdry and m for a given value of A can be derived as follows

A
(Ws + Ww ) (1 − )
γ bulkW + Ww 100
γ dry = = s =
1+ m V (1 + m) (Vs + Vw ) (1 + m)

Ws Ww mWs
Now Vs = Vw = =
Gs γ w γw γw

A  Gs γ w 
Hence γ dry = (1 − ) 
100  Gs m + 1

If the percentage of air voids is zero, that is, the soil is totally saturated, then this equation becomes

 G γ 
γ dry =  s w 
 Gs m + 1

From this equation we see that there is a limiting dry unit weight for any moisture content and this
occurs when the voids are full of water. Increasing the water content for a saturated soil results in
a reduction in dry unit weight. The relation between the moisture content and dry unit weight for
saturated soil is shown on the graph in Figure 3. This line is known as the zero air voids line.
 ze
ro
- ai
r-v
o
Dry unit weight

id
s
lin
e

M oisture content
Figure 3 Typical compaction curve showing no-air-voids line

3.5 Effects of water content during compaction

As water is added to a soil ( at low moisture content) it becomes easier for the particles to move
past one another during the application of the compacting forces. As the soil compacts the voids
are reduced and this causes the dry unit weight ( or dry density) to increase. Initially then, as the
moisture content increases so does the dry unit weight. However, the increase cannot occur
indefinitely because the soil state approaches the zero air voids line which gives the maximum dry
unit weight for a given moisture content. Thus as the state approaches the no air voidsline further
moisture content increases must result in a reduction in dry unit weight. As the state approaches
the no air voids line a maximum dry unit weight is reached and the moisture content at this
maximum is called the optimum moisture content.

3.6 Effects of increasing compactive effort

Increased compactive effort enables greater dry unit weights to be achieved which because of the
shape of the no air voids line must occur at lower optimum moisture contents. The effect of
increasing compactive energy can be seen in Figure 4. It should be noted that for moisture contents
greater than the optimum the use of heavier compaction machinery will have only a small effect
on increasing dry unit weights. For this reason it is important to have good control over moisture
content during compaction of soil layers in the field.
 ze
inc re a s ing c o m p a c tiv e ro
e ne rg y -a
ir-
v oi
Dry unit weight

ds
lin
e

M oisture content
Figure 4 Effects of compactive effort on compaction curves

It can be seen from this figure that the compaction curve is not a unique soil characteristic. It
depends on the compaction energy. For this reason it is important when giving values of (γdry)max
and mopt to also specify the compaction procedure (for example, standard or modified).

3.7 Effects of soil type

The table below contains typical values for the different soil types obtained from the Standard
Compaction Test.

Typical Values
(γdry )max (kN/m3) mopt (%)
Well graded sand SW 22 7
Sandy clay SC 19 12
Poorly graded sand SP 18 15
Low plasticity clay CL 18 15
Non plastic silt ML 17 17
High plasticity clay CH 15 25

Note that these are typical values. Because of the variability of soils it is not appropriate to use
typical values in design, tests are always required.

3.8 Field specifications

To control the soil properties of earth constructions (e.g. dams, roads) it is usual to specify that the
soil must be compacted to some pre-determined dry unit weight. This specification is usually that
a certain percentage of the maximum dry density, as found from a laboratory test (Standard or
Modified) must be achieved.

For example we could specify that field densities must be greater than 98% of the maximum dry
unit weight as determined from the Standard Compaction Test. It is then up to the Contractor to
select machinery, the thickness of each lift (layer of soil added) and to control moisture contents
in order to achieve the specified amount of compaction.

Accept Accept
Reject

Dry unit weight

Dry unit weight

Reject

Moisture content Moisture content

(a)
(b)
Figure 5 Possible field specifications for compaction

There is a wide range of compaction equipment. For pavements some kind of wheeled roller or
vibrating plate is usually used. These only affect a small depth of soil, and to achieve larger depths
vibrating piles and drop weights can be used. The applicability of the equipment depends on the
soil type as indicated in the table below

Equipment Most suitable soils Typical application Least suitable soils

Smooth wheeled Well graded sand- Running surface, Uniform sands
rollers, static or gravel, crushed base courses,
vibrating rock, asphalt subgrades
Rubber tired rollers Coarse grained Pavement subgrade Coarse uniform
soils with some soils and rocks
fines
Grid rollers Weathered rock, Subgrade, subbase Clays, silty clays,
well graded coarse uniform materials
soils
 Sheepsfoot rollers, Fine grained soils Dams, Coarse soils, soils
static with > 20% fines embankments, with cobbles, stones
subgrades
Sheepsfoot rollers, as above, but also subgrade layers
vibratory sand-gravel mixes
Vibrating plates Coarse soils, 4 to Small patches clays and silts
8% fines
Tampers, rammers All types Difficult access
areas
Impact rollers Most saturated and Dry, sands and
moist soils gravels

3.9 Sands and gravels

For soils without any fines (sometimes referred to as cohesionless) the standard compaction test is
difficult to perform. For these soil types it is normal to specify a relative density, Id, that must be
achieved. The relative density is defined by

emax − e
Id =
emax − emin

where e is the current voids ratio,

emax, emin are the maximum and minimum voids ratios measured in the laboratory
from Standard Tests (AS 1289-5.1)

Note that if e = emin, Id = 1 and the soil is in its densest state

e = emax, Id = 0 and the soil is in its loosest state

The expression for relative density can also be written in terms of the dry unit weights associated
with the various voids ratios. From the definitions we have

Gs γ w
e = − 1
γ dry

and hence

1 1
−
γ dry γ dry γ dry (γ dry − γ dry )
Id = min
= max min

1
−
1 γ dry (γ dry − γ dry )
max min

γ dry min
γ dry max
The description of the soil will include a description of the relative density. Generally the terms
loose, medium and dense are used where

Loose 0 < Id < 1/3

Medium 1/3 < Id < 2/3
Dense 2/3 < Id < 1

Note that you cannot determine the unit weight from knowing Id. This is because the values of the
maximum and minimum dry unit weights (void ratios) can vary significantly. They depend on soil
type (mineralogy), the particle grading, and the angularity.