UNIT -02

DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION METHODLOGY

What is Transmission Media?

Transmission media is the physical medium through which data is transmitted from one device to
another within a network. These media can be wired or wireless. The choice of medium depends on
factors like distance, speed, and interference.

A transmission media is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the path
along which data is sent from one device to another.

Principles of Data Communication

For communication to be effective, it must satisfy four principles:

1. Delivery – Data must reach the correct destination.

Example: If you send a mail to your teacher, it should not go to another student.
2. Accuracy – Data must arrive without alteration.
Example: Sending “Exam date: 22 Aug” should not be received as “23 Aug.”
3. Timeliness – Data must be delivered on time.
Example: In online classes or video calls, delayed data makes communication useless.
4. Jitter (Smooth Flow) – Variation in packet arrival time should be minimal.
Example: In a Zoom class, if voice and video keep breaking, that’s jitter.

Issues in Data Transmission

During transmission, some problems may occur:

1. Attenuation (Signal Loss): Signal becomes weak over distance.

Example: Poor mobile signal in remote areas.
2. Noise / Interference: Unwanted signals disturb communication.
Example: Crackling sound in a phone call.
3. Bandwidth Limitation: Medium may not support high data rates.
Example: Slow internet speed due to low bandwidth.
4. Security Risks: Data may be intercepted, modified, or stolen.
Example: Hackers stealing credit card details.
 5. Synchronization: Sender and receiver clocks must match.
Example: If sender sends faster than receiver can handle → data loss.
6. Protocol Mismatch: Both devices must follow the same communication rules.
Example: One system uses FTP but the other doesn’t support it.

Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

Guided Media
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted
are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
[Link] Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires twisted about each other. Generally, several such
pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission
Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around
one another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High-speed capacity
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

[Link] Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket (a copper
braid covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast data rate Ethernet and in
voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2
parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits
information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable
bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial
cables.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables has high bandwidth.
 It is easy to install.
 Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers, this
compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fiber Cable uses the concept of total internal reflection of light through a core made up of glass.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the coating. It is used for the
transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM
(Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages of Optical Fiber Cable

 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cable
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
Applications of Optical Fiber Cable
 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defense Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the interior and
exterior of automobiles.
Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert M. Barrett
of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the planar
transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a
waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are
usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.

Microstripline
A microstripline is a type of transmission media used to carry high-frequency signals, commonly found
in microwave and radio frequency circuits. It consists of a flat, narrow conducting strip (usually made
of metal) placed on top of a dielectric material (an insulating layer), with a metal ground plane on the
other side.
2. Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media . No physical medium is required for
the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
Radio Waves
Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz - 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use
Radio waves for transmission.
Types of Radio Waves:
 Short Wave: AM Radio
 VHF (Very High Frequency): FM Radio/TV
 UHF (Ultra High Frequency): TV

HF (High Frequency)

 Range: 3 MHz – 30 MHz

 Wavelength: 10 m – 100 m
 Used for: Long-distance communication (radio broadcasting, amateur radio, aviation
communication).
 Special feature: Signals can bounce off the ionosphere, so they travel thousands of kilometers
without satellites.

VHF (Very High Frequency)

 Range: 30 MHz – 300 MHz
 Wavelength: 1 m – 10 m
 Used for: FM radio, TV broadcasting, walkie-talkies, marine communication, air traffic control.
 Limitation: Travels in line-of-sight (straight path), so range is shorter than HF, but quality is
clearer.
UHF (Ultra High Frequency)
 Range: 300 MHz – 3 GHz
 Wavelength: 10 cm – 1 m
 Used for: Mobile phones, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, TV broadcasting, GPS, cordless phones.
 Advantage: High capacity, supports more users.
 Limitation: Shorter range, easily blocked by buildings and obstacles.
5. Ku Band
 Range: 12 GHz – 18 GHz (subset of microwave band)
 Wavelength: 1.7 cm – 2.5 cm
 Used for: Satellite TV (like Dish TV, Direct-to-Home), satellite internet, broadcasting.
 Advantage: Smaller dish antennas, widely used for DTH services.
 Limitation: Rain fade – signal weakens during heavy rain.
Radio Wave Components:
 Transmitter: Responsible for encoding the signal.
 Receiver: Responsible for decoding the signal.

Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with
each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range:1GHz - 300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.
 Range: 1 GHz – 30 GHz (overlaps with UHF & SHF)
 Wavelength: 1 cm – 30 cm
 Used for: Satellite communication, radar, Wi-Fi, cellular networks, point-to-point links.
 Requires: Line-of-sight (needs antennas directly facing each other).

Advantages:
 Cheaper than using cables
 Freedom from land acquisition
 Ease of communication in difficult terrains
 Communication over oceans
Disadvantages:
 Insecure communication.
 Out of phase signal.
 Susceptible to weather conditions.
 Bandwidth is limited.
 High cost of design, implementation, and maintenance.

Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz - 400THz. It is used
in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Network Topology
Network Topology is the arrangement of the various elements of a communication network. Network
Topology is a topological structure of a network and may be depicted physically or logically.

Network topology refers to how devices in a computer network are connected. Network Topology is the
way that defines the structure, and how these components are connected. Network Topology is divided
into two types:

Physical Topology: Physical topology indicates the arrangement of different elements of a network. It
reflects the physical layout of devices and cables to form a connected network.
Logical Topology: Logical topology defines the path that data packets take as they travel through the
network independent of its physical layout.

Basic Terminology Related to Network Topology

Node: A node refers to any device or point in the network, such as computers, servers, routers, or
switches. These nodes are crucial for transmitting and receiving data within the network.

Link: A link signifies a physical or logical connection between two nodes, allowing data to flow between
them. Links can be wired (Ethernet cables) or wireless (Wi-Fi).

Topology: Topology is the arrangement or layout of nodes and links in a network. It determines how
devices are interconnected and how data travels within the network

Types of Network Topology

1. Mesh Topology

In Mesh Topology, every node has a dedicated point-to-point link in every other node. Such a network is
called complete because, for any two devices, there is a special link and non-redundant links cannot be
added to the main network.

 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. There are 5 devices connected to each
other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of ports
required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5
devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
There are two types of Mesh topologies:
Full Mesh Topology: All the nodes within the network are connected with every other If there are n
number of nodes during a network, each node will have an n-1 number of connections.

Partial Mesh Topology: The partial mesh is more practical as compared to the full mesh. In a partially
connected mesh, all the nodes aren’t necessary to be connected with one another during a network.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Easy fault identification and isolation.

 Failure during a single device won’t break the network.
 There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point links for every computer.
 It provides high privacy and security.
 Data transmission is more consistent because failure doesn’t disrupt its processes.
 Adding new devices won’t disrupt data transmissions.
 This topology has robust features to beat any situation.
 A mesh doesn’t have a centralized authority.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Each node must have an interface for every other node.

 There is only a limited number of I/O ports in a computer.
 The cost to implement mesh topology is high
 There is a high risk of redundant connections.
 Maintenance needs are challenging with a mesh topology.

Star Topology
 In a Star Topology, all the nodes (PCs, printers and peripherals) are connected to the central
server. It has a central connection point, like a hub or switch.
 In star topology. each device is connected with central hub.
 Advantages of Star Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Star networks can require more cable length than a linear topology.
 More expensive cabling.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

Bus Topology

 In bus topology, all stations are attached to the same cable.

 In the bus network, messages are sent to both directions from a single point.
 In the bus topology, signals are broadcast to all stations. Each computer checks the address on
the signal (data frame) as it passes along the bus.
 If the signal's address matches that of the computer, the computer processes the signal. If the
address doesn't match, the computer takes no action and travels down the bus.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10
Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Ring Topology

All the nodes in a Ring Topology are connected in a closed circle of cable. Messages that are transmitted
travel around the ring unit they are addressed to, the signal being refreshed by each node. In a ring
network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to another
node.

Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 The data transmission is high-speed.

 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.
Tree Topology
In tree topology nodes are connected in a hierarchical structure to form a tree. There is a root node in
tree topology and the remaining nodes are considered as child nodes, basically it is a combination of star
and bus topology. The central bus works as a communication pathway, and each star-configured
network represents a level in the tree. In tree topology, a hierarchy is formed by the branching cable
having no loops that connect the root with all other nodes for communication.

Advantages of Tree Topology

 Security is high in Tree Topology

 Tree Topology is more reliable
 Tree topology is more scalable
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that
is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more types of topology, they arise from the integration of
multiple network topologies that is why called Hybrid Network Topology
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 Hybrid Topology provides more flexibility than others topologies.

 Hybrid topology is more robust than the other.
 Hybrid Topology provides optimized performance

Disadvantage of Hybrid Topology

 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.

 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and network
devices.

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and receiver.
It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the other one is
the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Advantages of Point to Point Topology

 P2P networks are highly efficient as they allow for direct communication between two devices
without any intermediate devices or network components.
 P2P networks are relatively more secure than other topologies as they do not rely on
intermediate devices that can be compromised or attacked.
 P2P networks are easy to configure and require minimal management or administration.

Disadvantages of Point to Point Topology

  P2P networks are not scalable as adding new devices requires establishing a separate link
between each new device and the existing network, which can be time-consuming and
expensive.
 P2P networks can be difficult to maintain as each device has to be managed separately.
 P2P networks do not provide redundancy, which can be a problem if a link fails or a device goes
offline. with a dedicated communication connection between two systems.

Daisy Chain Topology

The daisy chain topology connects nodes along a chain of connections. Data is transported from one
node to the next until it reaches its intended destination. There are two types of daisy chain network
topologies: linear daisy chains and ring daisy chains.

Advantages of Daisy Chain Topology

 Easy to create and maintain

 Less cable usage
 Cost-Effective

Disadvantages of Daisy Chain Topology

 It provides slow data transmission.

 Easy failure, particularly in linear daisy chain topologies
 Every nodes needs two transmitters and two receivers for successful data transmission.

Data-link layer
Data-link layer is the second layer after the physical layer. The data link layer is responsible for
maintaining the data link between two hosts or nodes.

Before going through the design issues in the data link layer. Some of its sub-layers and their functions
are as following below.

The data link layer is divided into two sub-layers :

Logical Link Control Sub-layer (LLC) -

Provides the logic for the data link, Thus it controls the synchronization, flow control, and error checking
functions of the data link layer. Functions are -

(i) Error Recovery.

(ii) It performs the flow control operations.

(iii) User addressing.

Media Access Control Sub-layer (MAC) -

It is the second sub-layer of data-link layer. It controls the flow and multiplexing for transmission
medium. Transmission of data packets is controlled by this layer. This layer is responsible for sending the
data over the network interface card.

Functions are -

(i) To perform the control of access to media.

(ii) It performs the unique addressing to stations directly connected to LAN.

(iii) Detection of errors.

Design Issues of Data Link Layer

1. Framing: The physical layer just sends a stream of bits (0s and 1s). The receiver must know where one
frame ends and the next begins.

How it works: The DLL groups bits into frames by using methods like:

 Character/Byte Count → First field shows how many bytes are in the frame.
 Character/Byte Stuffing → Special start/end characters added.
 Bit Stuffing → Inserted extra bits so flags are not confused with data.
 Example: In HDLC, each frame starts and ends with the flag 01111110.

2. Error Control: Transmission errors can occur due to noise, interference, etc. DLL must detect or fix
these errors.

How it works:

 Error Detection → Parity bit, CRC, Checksum.

 Error Correction → Forward Error Correction (extra redundancy) or ARQ (retransmission).
 Example: If a frame is corrupted, the receiver sends a negative acknowledgment (NAK) to ask for
retransmission.

3. Flow Control: Sender might send data faster than the receiver can process. This causes buffer
overflow.

How it works:

 Stop-and-Wait → Sender sends one frame and waits for ACK.

 Sliding Window → Sender can send multiple frames but is limited by a “window size.”
 Example: Wi-Fi uses flow control to avoid packet loss if the receiver is busy.

4. Synchronization: Both sender and receiver must stay in sync so that frames are read in proper order
without mixing up data.
How it works:

 Frames have sequence numbers.

 Acknowledgments confirm which frame was received.
 Example: In TCP/IP, if frame #3 is lost, the receiver will not accept frame #4 until #3 is
retransmitted.

5. Addressing: On a network, multiple devices are connected. The receiver must know which frame is
for it.

How it works:

 Each frame contains source and destination address.

 Example: Ethernet uses MAC addresses (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
 Example: If a frame is broadcasted, only the device with the matching MAC address accepts it.

6. Access Control (Medium Access Control – MAC): When multiple devices share the same
communication channel, collisions may happen. DLL decides who can send and when.

How it works:

 Random Access → ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA.

 Carrier Sense → CSMA/CD (Ethernet), CSMA/CA (Wi-Fi).
 Controlled Access → Token passing, Polling.
 Example: In Wi-Fi (CSMA/CA), devices listen before sending data to avoid collisions.

7. Reliability: The DLL must guarantee that frames arrive:

Without duplication.

In correct order.

Without loss.

How it works: Uses sequence numbers, ACKs, retransmissions.

Example: If frame #5 is lost, the sender retransmits it until an ACK is received.

 Preamble → synchronization.
 Destination MAC address.
 Source MAC address.
 Type/Length → tells upper layer protocol (like IP).
 Data (Payload).
 CRC → for error checking.

Access Method:

 Uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection).

  Devices “listen” to the medium before sending.
 If two send at the same time → collision detected, they stop, wait random time, and retransmit.

Error Handling: Errors detected by CRC; corrupted frames discarded (upper layers handle
retransmission).

Speed: Started with 10 Mbps → today up to 100 Gbps+.

🔹 Advantages

 Simple and cost-effective.

 High speed and reliable.
 Compatible with many devices

Usage

 Office LANs.
 Data centers.
 Wired backbone networks.

Data Link Layer Protocol

A data link layer protocol is a set of rules that defines how data is formatted, transmitted, and
controlled between two directly connected devices in a network.

1. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): Ethernet is the most widely used wired LAN protocol.

Medium: Uses cables (twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optic) to connect devices in a local network.

Speed: Common speeds are 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps and higher.

Working:

 Devices are connected via switches/routers.

 Data is sent in frames.
 Uses MAC addresses to identify devices.

Access Method: CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) – avoids collisions in
data transfer.

Example: Your desktop connected to a LAN cable in a computer lab.

2. WLAN (Wi-Fi – IEEE 802.11): WLAN means Wireless Local Area Network. It is commonly known as Wi-
Fi.

Medium: Uses radio waves (2.4 GHz or 5 GHz) instead of cables.

Range: Around 30–100 meters indoors, more outdoors.

Speed: Varies with standards (802.11b: 11 Mbps, 802.11n: 600 Mbps, 802.11ac: several Gbps).

Working:

 Devices connect wirelessly to an Access Point (AP) or Wi-Fi router.

 Uses SSID (network name) for identification
 Provides mobility within the coverage area.

Security: WPA2 / WPA3 encryption used.

Example: Your mobile phone connecting to a Wi-Fi router at home.

3. Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1): Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication protocol

Medium: Uses low-power radio waves (2.4 GHz ISM band).

Range: Typically, 10 meters (up to 100 m in some cases).

Speed: Usually up to 3 Mbps (Bluetooth 2.0), higher in newer versions (Bluetooth 5.0 ~ 50 Mbps).

Working:

 Works in a piconet (one master device + up to 7 slave

 Suitable for device-to-device communication (no router needed)

Use Cases:

 Wireless headphones, keyboards, mice.

 File transfer between phones.
 IoT devices like smartwatches.

SWITCHING
 Switching in networking is the process of forwarding data packets from the source to the
destination through the network efficiently.
 It decides how data should travel between devices in a network, selecting the best path to
deliver information.
  A switch is a device that performs switching at the data link layer (Layer 2) or sometimes at the
network layer (Layer 3).

There are three main types of switching:

1. Circuit Switching

 A dedicated physical path is established between sender and receiver before communication
starts.
 Once established, the path remains reserved until communication ends.
 Mostly used in traditional telephone networks.

Advantages: Reliable, no delay after connection setup.

Disadvantages: Wastes bandwidth if no data is being transmitted.

Example: Old telephone calls.

2. Packet Switching

 Data is broken into small packets.

 Each packet is sent independently and may take different routes.
 At the destination, packets are reassembled in the correct order.
 Used in the Internet and computer networks.

Advantages: Efficient, no dedicated line needed.

Disadvantages: Delay due to packet routing and congestion.

Example: Internet browsing, emails.

3. Message Switching

 The whole message is treated as a single unit and transmitted from one node to another (store-
and-forward).
 Each intermediate node stores the message completely before forwarding it.
 No dedicated path is required.

Advantages: No need for dedicated circuits.

Disadvantages: High delay if the message is large.

Example: Older telegraph networks.