UNIT 9 — SALINITY OF OCEANS

Block 3: Properties of Oceans | Comprehensive Notes

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Oceans have several physical properties — temperature, salinity, and density — that govern their
behaviour. This unit focuses on salinity, one of the most significant properties of ocean water. The
unit explores the concept of salinity, factors that influence it, how it is distributed spatially (both
horizontally and vertically), and how it varies temporally across daily, seasonal, and interannual
timescales.

Expected Learning Outcomes

• Define and grasp the concept of salinity of the oceans.
• Explain different methods used to calculate salinity.
• Discuss the importance of salinity in ocean circulation and climate.
• Describe the factors affecting the salinity of the oceans.
• Identify and explain the patterns of salinity variation across different latitudes and depths.
• Recognise how salinity fluctuates on daily, seasonal, and interannual timescales.

9.2 OCEANIC SALINITY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

Oceanic salinity refers to the concentration of dissolved salts present in seawater. It is measured
in parts per thousand (‰ or ppt) — indicating how many parts of salt are found in a thousand
parts of water. On an average, the salinity of ocean water is about 35‰, meaning 35 grams of
dissolved salts are present per 1,000 grams of seawater. These salts are mostly common table
salt (sodium chloride), along with magnesium, calcium, and potassium.

Salinity plays a crucial role in controlling the physical properties of seawater — its density,
freezing point, and ability to conduct electricity. It also influences ocean currents, marine life
distribution, and the global climate system.

9.2.1 Composition of Sea Water

During the HMS Challenger expedition (1872–1876), chemist William Dittmar analysed 77
seawater samples collected from various depths and locations. He confirmed 47 different salts in
seawater and formulated the 'Principle of Constant Proportions', which states that while the total
salinity of seawater can vary, the relative proportions of its major ions remain nearly constant
across the world's oceans.

Methods for Measuring Salinity

Two primary methods have historically been used:

1. Titration Method (Mohr's Method):

This chemical technique involves adding a silver nitrate solution to a seawater sample containing
chloride ions. Silver ions react with chloride to form a white silver chloride precipitate. Once all
chloride ions have reacted, additional silver nitrate causes a reddish-brown precipitate, marking
the endpoint. The chloride concentration (chlorinity) is then used to calculate salinity using:
Salinity (ppt) = Chlorinity (ppt) × 1.80655

2. Hydrometer Method:
This physical method measures the specific gravity (density) of seawater using a hydrometer.
Since dissolved salts increase water density, the hydrometer's buoyancy changes accordingly. By
calibrating against known salinity standards and accounting for temperature variations, salinity is
inferred.

Average Salinity of Oceans and Seas

The average salinity of ocean water typically ranges between 33‰ to 37‰. This variation is
influenced by evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, and ice formation or melting.

Composition of Sea Salts

Sl. No. Salt Amount ‰ Percentage (%)
1. Sodium Chloride 27.213 77.8
2. Magnesium Chloride 3.807 10.9
3. Magnesium Sulphate 1.658 4.7
4. Calcium Sulphate 1.260 3.6
5. Potassium Sulphate 0.863 2.5
6. Calcium Carbonate 0.123 0.3
7. Magnesium Bromide 0.076 0.2
Total 35.000 100.0

These salts not only contribute to salinity but also play crucial roles in marine ecosystems —
compounds of silicon, nitrogen, and phosphorus act as essential nutrients for marine life.

9.2.2 Factors Affecting the Salinity of Oceans

Ocean salinity varies across different regions due to a combination of physical, climatic, and
geographical factors. The key factors are:

• A. Evaporation: Evaporation
Evaporation plays a major role in increasing ocean salinity. In subtropical zones (20°–30°
latitude), intense sunlight causes large amounts of water to evaporate, leaving behind dissolved
salts. For example, the Red Sea and Persian Gulf have some of the highest salinity levels in the
world due to extreme evaporation under hot desert climates.

• B. Precipitation: Precipitation decreases salinity of ocean water. When rain or snow falls,
it adds fresh water, diluting the salt concentration. Regions near the equator, where heavy
rainfall is common, exhibit lower salinity compared to drier areas. The Amazon Basin and
Western Pacific Warm Pool are prime examples.

• C. River Runoff: Freshwater from rivers flowing into the oceans dilutes seawater and
reduces salt content. Estuaries and areas near large river mouths have significantly lower
 salinity than the open ocean. The mouth of the Amazon River is a classic example, where
ocean water is considerably less salty.

• D. Atmospheric Pressure and Winds: Subtropical high-pressure belts with stable air and
high temperatures create conditions of higher salinity. Winds enhance evaporation and can
also cause upwelling, bringing deeper, saltier water to the surface — as seen in the
Arabian Sea during the monsoon season and off the coast of Peru.

• E. Oceanic Currents: Ocean currents redistribute salinity across the globe by transporting
saltier water from one region to another. For example, the Gulf Stream carries warm, saltier
water from tropical areas towards the North Atlantic, modifying salinity patterns along its
path.

• F. Ice Formation and Melting: In Polar Regions, when sea ice forms, salts are left behind
in surrounding water, increasing local salinity. Conversely, when ice melts, it releases
freshwater into the ocean, lowering salinity in those areas.

• G. Temperature: Temperature indirectly impacts salinity through its influence on

evaporation and ice formation. Warm regions see higher evaporation (saltier water); cold
regions see ice formation that increases local salinity.

• H. Geographical Location: Geographical location determines overall climate,

temperature, and rainfall patterns. Areas at different latitudes experience varying amounts
of sunlight and precipitation, leading to differences in salinity. Coastal regions are often less
salty than open ocean areas due to land-based freshwater inputs.

9.3 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY IN THE OCEANS

Spatial distribution of salinity refers to how salinity is distributed across the world's oceans, both
at the surface (horizontal) and with increasing depth (vertical). Understanding this is crucial
because salinity influences ocean circulation, climate patterns, marine life habitats, and
biogeochemical processes.

9.3.1 Horizontal Distribution of Salinity

The horizontal distribution of salinity refers to how the concentration of dissolved salts in ocean
water varies across different parts of the world at the surface level. Salinity is not uniform but
changes significantly depending on latitude, climate conditions, and proximity to landmasses and
rivers.

A. Latitudinal Distribution
Ocean salinity shows clear patterns when observed from the equator towards the poles — salinity
is lowest near the equator, highest in the subtropical regions, and decreases again towards the
poles.

1. Equatorial Region (0° – 10° latitude):

Despite intense solar radiation and high evaporation rates, the salinity is relatively moderate —
around 34–35 ppt. This is primarily due to heavy and consistent rainfall in the equatorial belt,
which dilutes the seawater. Additionally, freshwater inflow from major river systems like the
Amazon and Congo further reduces salinity.

2. Tropical and Subtropical Regions (10° – 30° latitude):

Salinity rises sharply in these belts. Evaporation is at its maximum due to high temperatures,
while precipitation is significantly lower. The highest surface salinities in the world (36–37 ppt) are
found around 20°–25° latitude. Examples include the subtropical zones of the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans. The Sahara and Arabian Desert regions reinforce high salinity in adjacent oceans.

3. Mid-Latitudes (30° – 50° latitude):

As we move towards mid-latitudes, salinity begins to decrease again. These regions receive more
precipitation compared to evaporation. Frequent cyclonic storms and greater river discharge
contribute to relative dilution. Salinity here typically ranges between 34–36 ppt.

4. Polar Regions (Above 60° latitude):

In Polar Regions, salinity values drop considerably, often falling below 32 ppt. Reasons include
limited evaporation due to low temperatures, substantial freshwater input from melting ice, and
higher precipitation compared to evaporation. The Arctic Ocean has relatively low salinity due to
continuous freshwater inflow from rivers like Lena, Ob, and Yukon.

Latitudinal Zones Salinity (‰)

70-50°N 30-31
50-40°N 33-34
40-15°N 35-36
15°N-10°S 34.5-35
10-30°S 35-36
30-50°S 34-35
50-70°S 33-34
(Source: Johnstone, J. (1928), An Introduction to Oceanography)

B. Regional Variations in Salinity

1. Atlantic Ocean:
The Atlantic Ocean generally exhibits the highest salinity among all the world's oceans. In North
Atlantic subtropical regions, salinity often exceeds 37 ppt. The Mediterranean Sea, connected to
the Atlantic, has extremely high salinity (around 38–39 ppt) due to restricted water exchange and
intense evaporation. However, areas near the mouths of major rivers like the Amazon and Congo
show noticeably lower salinity. The Baltic Sea shows very low salinity (as low as 7–8 ppt) due to
limited evaporation and extensive river runoff.

2. Pacific Ocean:
The Pacific Ocean, the largest and deepest ocean basin, generally has lower average salinity
than the Atlantic. Salinity ranges from 33–36 ppt in the Pacific. This is largely due to greater
overall precipitation, warm moist air masses, and substantial river inflow from the Yangtze,
Mekong, and Columbia Rivers. The western Pacific near Southeast Asia has particularly low
salinity due to high rainfall and abundant river runoff.

3. Indian Ocean:
The Indian Ocean shows a complex salinity distribution. The Arabian Sea has high salinity
(around 37 ppt) due to high evaporation, dry winds, and low river input. Conversely, the Bay of
Bengal has lower salinity (around 32–34 ppt) due to enormous freshwater discharge from the
Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Irrawaddy, combined with heavy monsoon rains. In the southern
parts, salinity moderates to about 34–35 ppt.

4. Marginal Seas — Extreme Cases:

• Red Sea: One of the highest salinity levels (~40 ppt) due to high evaporation and minimal
freshwater inflow.
• Persian Gulf: Salinity reaching up to 42 ppt owing to arid climate and limited connection to
open oceans.
• Black Sea: Much lower salinity (~18–22 ppt) because of massive freshwater input from
surrounding rivers and limited water exchange with the Mediterranean.

5. Polar Oceans:
The Arctic Ocean has the lowest average salinity among all oceans (around 30–33 ppt), due to
inflow of large rivers and continuous ice melting. The Southern Ocean around Antarctica has
variable salinity patterns influenced by ice dynamics, but generally lower salinity levels near the
coast.

Note: Isohalines are imaginary lines drawn on maps connecting all points of equal salinity.
Regional distribution of salinity is expressed in the form of isohalines on a map.

9.3.2 Vertical Distribution of Salinity in the Oceans

Salinity not only varies horizontally but also changes with depth — this is called the vertical
distribution of salinity. Various processes including evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, ice
melting, and vertical mixing influence how salinity is layered from the surface to the deep ocean.

A. General Pattern of Vertical Salinity Distribution

In most parts of the ocean, the vertical distribution of salinity follows a three-layered structure:

1. Surface Layer (0 – 100/200 m depth):

The surface layer shows highly variable salinity, directly influenced by atmospheric conditions —
evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, and wind-driven mixing. In regions of high evaporation
(subtropical belts), surface salinity tends to be high. In regions with high rainfall or river discharge
(equatorial or coastal zones), surface salinity is lower.

2. Pycnocline or Halocline (Intermediate Layer: 200 – 1000 m depth):

The halocline is characterised by a sharp vertical gradient in salinity — i.e. salinity changes
rapidly with depth. In areas where surface salinity is high, the halocline shows a decrease in
salinity with depth; in areas where surface salinity is low, it may increase with depth. In this layer,
the water is not well mixed by winds or currents, so the effects of evaporation and freshwater
addition are still strong and not balanced out, creating clear layering.

3. Deep Layer (Below 1000 m to ocean floor):

Below the halocline, from about 1000 metres to the ocean floor, the salinity tends to be relatively
uniform. Deep ocean salinity generally ranges between 34.5 and 35 ppt. This uniformity exists
because deep waters are very stable and experience little direct influence from surface
processes. Mixing happens very slowly, mainly driven by global thermohaline circulation —
movement of water due to differences in temperature and salinity.

B. Regional Variations in Vertical Salinity

• Equatorial and Tropical Regions: In equatorial areas, surface salinity is moderate due to
heavy rainfall. A well-developed halocline is present with salinity increasing with depth
(surface water is fresher, deeper water is saltier).
• In tropical regions, surface salinity is very high due to intense evaporation. Salinity
decreases with depth in the upper few hundred metres.
• Mid-Latitude Regions: Surface salinity is high; there is a clear halocline where salinity
decreases sharply with depth. The contrast between surface and deeper salinity is quite
strong.
• Polar Regions: Surface salinity is lower due to ice melting and high precipitation. There is
often no sharp halocline. Salinity increases slightly with depth but remains relatively uniform
overall.

C. Factors Affecting Vertical Distribution of Salinity

• Temperature: Warmer surface waters are often more saline in tropics, but colder polar
waters are less saline at the surface.
• Evaporation and Precipitation: It directly impacts the surface layers and causes
stratification in salinity.
• River Inflow and Ice Melt: This adds fresh water at the surface, reducing salinity in coastal
or Polar Regions.
• Mixing and Circulation: Wind-driven surface mixing and deep thermohaline circulation
help distribute salinity vertically.
• Upwelling and Downwelling: Upwelling brings saltier, nutrient-rich deep water to the
surface, while downwelling can push surface waters deeper.

9.4 TEMPORAL VARIATION OF SALINITY IN THE OCEANS

Ocean salinity is not static — it changes over time, showing noticeable temporal variations
depending on changes in evaporation, precipitation, river runoff, ice melting, and climatic events.
These variations occur across different timescales: daily, seasonal, and interannual (over several
years).

A. Daily Variations
On a daily basis, salinity can fluctuate slightly due to local weather events. During sunny and dry
days, high rates of evaporation can cause a slight increase in surface salinity. In contrast, rainy
days bring an influx of freshwater through precipitation, leading to a temporary decrease in
surface salinity. Such variations are generally small and more noticeable near coastal regions or
in shallow waters where the influence of local weather is stronger. For example, tropical coastal
areas often experience a brief drop in surface salinity following heavy afternoon rainfall.

B. Seasonal Variations
Salinity levels undergo larger and more systematic changes with the seasons:
 • During the rainy or monsoon season, abundant precipitation and increased river runoff
lower surface salinity significantly. In dry seasons, when evaporation dominates, salinity
tends to rise.
• Polar regions show distinctive seasonal changes — ice melting during summer months
adds freshwater to the ocean, reducing salinity, whereas in winter, the formation of sea ice
extracts freshwater from seawater, increasing salinity of surrounding waters.
• A prominent example of seasonal salinity change is seen in the Bay of Bengal, where
surface salinity drops markedly during the monsoon season due to enormous river
discharge and sustained rainfall.

C. Interannual and Longer-Term Variations

On scales of several years or decades, salinity changes are influenced by broader climatic
phenomena:
• El Nino events (characterised by warmer Pacific Ocean waters) typically lead to increased
rainfall in the central and eastern Pacific, resulting in lower salinity levels.
• Conversely, during La Nina events, drier conditions prevail in many regions, causing higher
salinity levels.
• Long-term global warming is altering the Earth's hydrological cycle — enhancing
evaporation in arid regions and boosting precipitation in wetter zones. These changes are
gradually modifying global patterns of ocean salinity.
• During strong El Nino years, the surface salinity in the central Pacific Ocean drops
significantly due to widespread and abnormal rainfall.

Key Drivers of Temporal Salinity Changes

• Atmospheric variations in rainfall and temperature.
• Seasonal river discharges that supply freshwater into coastal and open ocean areas.
• Seasonal cycles of ice formation and melting in Polar Regions.
• Shifts in the major ocean currents which redistribute saline and freshwater masses across
the globe.

Temporal variations in ocean salinity, though often subtle, have profound impacts on ocean
circulation, marine life, and the Earth's climate system. Monitoring these changes is vital for
understanding and predicting environmental and climatic shifts, and offers critical insights into
how global patterns such as ocean currents and ecosystems may evolve in response to ongoing
climate change.

9.5 SUMMARY
• Salinity determines seawater density, driving global thermohaline circulation, nutrient
distribution, and climate regulation.
• Surface salinity is lowest at the equator, peaks in subtropical belts (20°–30° lat.), and
decreases towards the poles; vertically, it forms a mixed surface layer, a sharp halocline,
and a nearly uniform deep layer.
• The Atlantic Ocean generally has the highest salinity, while the Pacific and Polar Oceans
are lower. Enclosed seas like the Red Sea and Persian Gulf can have extremely high
salinity, while the Black Sea and Baltic Sea have very low salinity.
• Salinity varies on daily (weather events), seasonal (monsoon cycles, ice freeze/melt), and
interannual scales (El Nino/La Nina, long-term climate trends).
• The study of ocean salinity is crucial for understanding ocean dynamics, predicting climate
behaviour, managing marine ecosystems, and facilitating navigation and maritime activities.