ADA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED SCIENCE

GROUP: FOUR (4) | SUB-GROUP: FIVE (5)

FORCES IN PHYSICS
Cohesion · Adhesion · Nuclear Force · Fusion · Fission

GROUP MEMBERS — NAMES AND REFERENCE NUMBERS

# FULL NAME REF. NO.

1. NORVIDZRO ALEXANDER SEDUDZI 2567842

2. ASAFO ELIKEM 2562664

3. HLORDZI EMMANUELLA OHUI 2527940

4. AYITTAH FREDRICK KWAME 2544471

5. NKRUMAH ANDREWS TAWIAH 2562267

6. DAITEY EDMOND DOE 2571115

7. KORANKYE AUGESTINA 2504107

8. SATSI OBED DAVID SEYRAM 2531284

9. ANKU WORLANYO 2574076

10. OWARE KINGSLEY AMPAW 2563002

11. AMEGATSI MAXWELL 2542896

Ada College of Education | Introduction to Integrated Science

 ■ Forces in Physics
Cohesion · Adhesion · Nuclear Force
Fusion · Fission · Anomalous Behaviour

A concise reference guide covering contact & non-contact forces,

intermolecular interactions, and nuclear phenomena.

1. Cohesion
Definition: Cohesion is the attractive force between like molecules (molecules of the same substance). It
arises mainly from van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, or electrostatic interactions between identical
particles.

Force Classification
✔ Contact Force — Cohesion acts between molecules that are in direct proximity or contact with each
other. No physical separation is involved; the effect is felt at a molecular/atomic scale.

Real-World Examples
1. Water droplets on a surface
Water molecules attract each other strongly through hydrogen bonds. When water is placed on a
hydrophobic surface (e.g. a waxed car hood or a lotus leaf), cohesion overcomes gravity and pulls the
water into a near-spherical bead rather than spreading out. You can see hundreds of tight, rounded
droplets after rain.

2. Mercury forming a dome shape

Liquid mercury has exceptionally strong cohesive forces. When poured onto a flat surface, mercury beads
up into a dome and does not spread, because mercury-mercury attraction is far stronger than any
mercury-surface attraction.

3. Water strider walking on water

The surface tension that allows insects like water striders to walk on water is a direct consequence of
cohesion. Surface molecules are pulled inward by neighbouring molecules, creating a strong 'film' at the
air-water interface.

4. Rain drops staying intact in mid-air

Falling raindrops maintain their shape (roughly spherical) as they descend because cohesive forces keep
the water molecules together against the air drag trying to break them apart.

Anomalous Behaviour in a Container

When a liquid is held in a container, the interplay between cohesion and adhesion creates a curved liquid
surface called a meniscus. For most liquids the meniscus is concave (curved upward at the edges).
However, mercury shows an anomalous convex meniscus:

Mercury's cohesive forces are so strong that mercury molecules prefer each other over the glass
surface. The result is that the centre of the mercury surface bulges upward — the opposite of water.
This convex meniscus is considered anomalous because it defies the usual expectation that a liquid
wets its container. When reading a mercury thermometer or barometer, you must read from the top of
the curve rather than the bottom.

2. Adhesion
Definition: Adhesion is the attractive force between unlike molecules (molecules of different
substances). It involves electrostatic attraction, van der Waals forces, or chemical bonding between two
different materials.

Force Classification
✔ Contact Force — Adhesion requires direct molecular contact between two different materials. The
force is purely a surface/interface phenomenon.

Real-World Examples
1. Water wetting glass
Water molecules are attracted to glass (silicon dioxide) molecules more strongly than to each other. When
you pour water into a glass, it spreads and clings to the inner surface, forming a thin film. The glass
appears 'wet' because adhesion pulls water molecules toward it.

2. Glue / adhesive tapes

Adhesive glue works by forming strong intermolecular bonds (adhesion) with two different surfaces. A
sticky tape adheres to paper, plastic, or glass because its adhesive layer forms attractive forces with
whichever surface it touches.

3. Paint on a wall
Paint molecules bond to wall molecules through adhesion. A primer coat is often used to increase
adhesion — without it the paint might peel off because cohesion within the paint layer would exceed its
adhesion to the wall.

4. Ink on paper
Ink adheres to paper fibres through adhesive forces between the ink molecules and the cellulose fibres of
the paper. This is why a pen writes on paper but not on a greasy surface — grease reduces adhesion.

Anomalous Behaviour in a Container

Adhesion is responsible for the standard concave meniscus seen in most liquids (e.g. water in glass).
Water molecules are more attracted to the glass than to each other, so they 'climb' the glass wall, curving
the surface upward at the edges and downward in the centre. This causes the anomalous effect of
capillary action:

In a narrow glass tube, adhesion pulls water up the inner wall, and cohesion pulls the rest of the water
column along. The water rises well above the surrounding level — seemingly defying gravity. The
narrower the tube, the higher the water climbs. This phenomenon is vital in plants (water transport in
xylem), paper towels absorbing spills, and ink rising in a pen nib. It is called 'anomalous' because a
liquid appears to move against gravity due to surface interactions alone.

Quick Comparison: Cohesion vs. Adhesion

Property Cohesion Adhesion

Molecules involved Same substance Different substances

Force type Contact Contact

Dominant in … Mercury, water droplets Water + glass, glue

Meniscus shape Convex (mercury) Concave (water/glass)

Capillary action Assists (holds column) Initiates the rise

3. Nuclear Force
Definition: The nuclear force (also called the strong nuclear force or strong interaction) is one of the
four fundamental forces of nature. It is the force that holds protons and neutrons (nucleons) together
inside the nucleus of an atom. It is mediated by particles called gluons and acts on quarks inside
nucleons.

Force Classification
✘ Non-Contact Force — The strong nuclear force acts at a very short range (approximately 1–3
femtometres, i.e. 10−15 m) without direct classical 'contact.' It is a fundamental field-based interaction,
transmitted via gluons through quantum fields.

Key Characteristics
• Extremely short range: effective only within the nucleus (~1–3 fm).
• Strongest known force: about 100× stronger than electromagnetism at nuclear distances.
 • Charge-independent: acts equally between proton-proton, neutron-neutron, and proton-neutron
pairs.
• Overcomes repulsion: overpowers the electromagnetic repulsion between positively charged
protons.

Real-World Examples
1. Stability of atomic nuclei
Without the strong nuclear force, every nucleus with more than one proton would instantly explode due to
the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. The strong force binds protons and neutrons together,
allowing stable atoms like carbon, oxygen, and iron to exist — making all matter possible.

2. Radioactive decay
In heavy nuclei (e.g. uranium-238), the nucleus is so large that the strong force cannot effectively hold all
nucleons together. When the nuclear force is insufficient to maintain stability, the nucleus spontaneously
emits particles (alpha, beta, or gamma) — this is radioactive decay.

3. Energy released in nuclear reactions

The enormous energy released in nuclear fission and fusion (described below) comes directly from
changes in nuclear binding energy — the energy that the strong force uses to hold nucleons together.
Even a tiny change in nuclear binding energy releases millions of times more energy than a chemical
reaction.

3a. Nuclear Fusion

Definition: Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy. The mass of the product is slightly less than the
combined mass of the reactants — this 'missing mass' (mass defect) is converted to energy according to
Einstein's equation E = mc2.
Conditions required: Fusion requires extremely high temperatures (~107–108 K) and pressures to
overcome the electromagnetic repulsion between positively charged nuclei (the Coulomb barrier),
allowing the strong nuclear force to take over.

Examples of Nuclear Fusion

1. The Sun and stars

The Sun generates all its energy through fusion in its core. Four hydrogen nuclei (protons) fuse in a chain
of steps (the proton-proton chain) to form one helium-4 nucleus. The mass defect is released as
gamma-ray photons and neutrinos. The Sun converts ~600 million tonnes of hydrogen to helium every
second, releasing 3.8 × 1026 watts — all from the strong nuclear force.

2. Hydrogen bomb (thermonuclear bomb)

A hydrogen (H-bomb) uses fusion of deuterium and tritium (heavy isotopes of hydrogen) to release energy
far greater than a fission bomb. A fission bomb is used as a 'trigger' to create the extreme temperatures
needed to initiate fusion. The energy released can be thousands of times more powerful than the
Hiroshima fission bomb.

3. Experimental fusion reactors (ITER, NIF)

Scientists are working on harnessing fusion for clean energy. ITER (in France) and the National Ignition
Facility (USA) attempt to fuse deuterium and tritium in controlled conditions. Fusion produces no long-lived
radioactive waste and uses hydrogen isotopes available from seawater — making it a potentially unlimited
clean energy source.

3b. Nuclear Fission

Definition: Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two or more
smaller nuclei, along with the release of neutrons and a large amount of energy. Like fusion, energy is
released because the total mass of the products is slightly less than the original nucleus (mass defect → E
= mc2).

Chain reaction: The neutrons released in fission can strike other nuclei, causing further fissions —
producing a self-sustaining chain reaction. In a nuclear reactor, this is controlled; in a nuclear bomb, it
is uncontrolled.

Examples of Nuclear Fission

1. Nuclear power plants

Nuclear power plants use controlled fission of uranium-235 or plutonium-239. A slow-moving neutron is
absorbed by a U-235 nucleus, making it unstable and causing it to split into barium-141 and krypton-92,
plus 3 neutrons and energy. The heat produced is used to generate steam and drive turbines to produce
electricity. About 10% of the world's electricity comes from nuclear fission.

2. Atomic bomb (fission bomb)

The bombs dropped on Hiroshima (uranium-235) and Nagasaki (plutonium-239) in 1945 used uncontrolled
fission chain reactions. When a critical mass of fissile material is assembled, the chain reaction
accelerates exponentially, releasing catastrophic energy in microseconds.

3. Medical and industrial applications

Fission-produced radioisotopes are used in nuclear medicine (e.g. technetium-99m for imaging) and in
industrial radiography. Research reactors also use fission to produce neutron beams for material science
experiments.

Fusion vs. Fission at a Glance

Property Fusion Fission

Process Two light nuclei merge Heavy nucleus splits

Fuel H isotopes (deuterium, tritium) U-235, Pu-239

Energy released Higher per unit mass Very high, slightly less

Radioactive waste Minimal, short-lived Long-lived, hazardous

Conditions Extreme heat & pressure Neutron bombardment

Current use Stars; experimental reactors Power plants; bombs

Summary
Cohesion (contact) — same molecules attract; causes surface tension, water droplets, and mercury's
anomalous convex meniscus. Adhesion (contact) — different molecules attract; causes wetting,
capillary action, and water's concave meniscus. Nuclear force (non-contact) — holds the nucleus
together; responsible for the enormous energy in fusion (light nuclei merging, powers stars) and
fission (heavy nuclei splitting, powers reactors).