■ Communication Engineering

Complete Study Notes — 2nd Semester

TDM & FDM • Frequency Bands • Types of Communication • Need of

Modulation • AM / FM / PM • PAM / PWM / PPM
 CHAPTER 1: MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES

1.1 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Definition: TDM is a digital multiplexing technique in which multiple signals are transmitted over a single
communication channel by allocating each signal a different time slot within a common time frame. The
signals share the channel sequentially, not simultaneously.

Principle of Operation
■ The time axis is divided into fixed-length frames.
■ Each frame is further divided into time slots equal to the number of channels.
■ A rotating switch (commutator) samples each input channel in turn.
■ At the receiver, a synchronised de-commutator separates the channels.
■■ A synchronisation pulse is added to mark the beginning of each frame.

Key Parameters
Frame Duration = N × Ts | Bit Rate = N × fs × bits/sample | Nyquist Rate: fs ≥ 2fmax

Types of TDM
Type Description Application
Synchronous TDM Fixed slots; slot = channel (even if idle) T1/E1, SONET, PDH

Asynchronous TDM
Slots assigned on demand; no idle waste ATM, Packet networks
(Statistical MUX)

Interleaved TDM Bit/byte/word interleaving variant PCM telephony

 Figure 1.1 – TDM Waveforms: individual channels and multiplexed output

Advantages & Disadvantages of TDM

 Advantages Disadvantages
No inter-channel interference Requires synchronisation between Tx & Rx

Simple digital implementation Bandwidth wasted in synchronous TDM (idle slots)

Suitable for digital signals Not suitable for analogue signals without ADC

Easy to add/drop channels Timing jitter can cause errors

Cost-effective for PCM telephony Complexity increases with number of channels

1.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Definition: FDM is an analogue multiplexing technique where the total available bandwidth of a channel is
divided into several non-overlapping frequency sub-bands. Each sub-band carries a separate signal
simultaneously.

Principle of Operation
■ Each input signal modulates a unique carrier frequency.
■ Bandpass filters (BPF) separate bands at transmitter and receiver.
■■ Guard bands prevent adjacent channel interference.
■ All modulated signals are linearly summed before transmission.
■ Applications: AM/FM radio, cable TV, telephone networks, OFDM.

Total Bandwidth = N × (Signal BW + Guard Band)

Figure 1.2 – FDM: modulated channels and frequency spectrum
 Figure 1.3 – Block Diagrams of TDM (left) and FDM (right)

TDM vs FDM – Detailed Comparison (15 Points)

Parameter TDM FDM
Domain Time domain Frequency domain

Signal Type Primarily digital Primarily analogue

Channel Sharing Sequential time slots Simultaneous frequency bands

Bandwidth Use Full bandwidth per slot Divided bandwidth, always shared

Guard Provision Guard time between slots Guard bands between channels

Crosstalk Synchronisation errors cause it Imperfect filters cause it

Complexity Higher (needs sync circuits) Lower for simple analogue systems

Flexibility Easy to reconfigure slots Difficult – needs retuning filters

Efficiency Wasted slots in sync TDM Guard bands reduce efficiency

 Parameter TDM FDM
Cost Higher (digital circuitry) Lower for analogue implementation

Noise Immunity Better (digital) More susceptible to noise

Application PCM, SONET, T1/E1 AM/FM radio, cable TV, ADSL

Synchronisation Mandatory Not required

Multiplexer Electronic commutator Filter bank + carrier oscillators

Expansion Add more time slots Add more frequency bands

 CHAPTER 2: FREQUENCY BANDS FOR
COMMUNICATION

Figure 2.1 – Electromagnetic Spectrum: Communication Frequency Bands

Band Frequency Range Wavelength Propagation Applications

ELF Extremely 100,000 – 10,000
3 Hz – 30 Hz Ground wave Submarine comms, power grid monitoring
Low km

VLF Very Low 3 – 30 kHz 100 – 10 km Ground & sky wave Navigation, time signals, submarines

LF Low 30 – 300 kHz 10 – 1 km Ground wave AM long-wave radio, navigation beacons

MF Medium 300 kHz – 3 MHz 1000 – 100 m Ground & sky wave AM broadcast (530–1600 kHz), maritime
 Band Frequency Range Wavelength Propagation Applications
HF High 3 – 30 MHz 100 – 10 m Sky wave (ionosphere) Shortwave radio, amateur (Ham) radio, CB

VHF Very High 30 – 300 MHz 10 – 1 m Line of sight FM radio (88–108 MHz), VHF TV, aircraft

UHF Ultra High 300 MHz – 3 GHz 100 – 10 cm Line of sight UHF TV, 4G LTE, GPS (1.575 GHz), Wi-Fi

SHF Super
3 – 30 GHz 10 – 1 cm Line of sight Microwave links, radar, 5G, satellite
High

EHF Extremely
30 – 300 GHz 10 – 1 mm Line of sight mmWave 5G, imaging, future 6G
High

THF Terahertz 300 GHz – 3 THz 1 mm – 0.1 mm Very short range Research, security scanning, future 6G

■ Key Notes on Propagation Modes

Ground Wave: Follows Earth's curvature; effective for LF/MF; attenuated at high frequencies.
Sky Wave (Ionospheric): Refracted by ionosphere; enables long-distance HF comms (up to 4000 km).
Line-of-Sight (LOS): Direct path; VHF and above; range limited by horizon (~60 km at 100m height).
Space Wave: Includes direct + reflected waves; dominant for VHF/UHF/SHF bands.
 CHAPTER 3: TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

3.1 Based on Direction of Information Flow

Type Direction Simultaneous? Example
Simplex One way only (A→B) No Radio broadcast, TV

Half Duplex Both ways, not simultaneously No Walkie-talkie, CB radio

Full Duplex Both ways simultaneously Yes Mobile phone, landline

3.2 Based on Transmission Medium

Type Medium Features Examples
Low noise, high bandwidth,
Wired (Guided) Copper wire, coax, fibre optic LAN, telephone, cable TV
secure

Wireless (Unguided) Free space (EM waves) Mobile, wide coverage, broadcast Wi-Fi, cellular, satellite

Optical Optical fibre Highest BW, immune to EMI Internet backbone, FTTH

3.3 Based on Signal Type

Feature Analogue Communication Digital Communication
Signal Nature Continuous values Discrete binary levels (0/1)

Noise Immunity Low – noise accumulates High – signal can be regenerated

Bandwidth Lower Higher

Examples AM/FM radio, analogue TV Wi-Fi, 4G/5G, digital TV, optical

Encryption Difficult Easy & secure

Processing Simple circuits Requires DSP, ADC/DAC

3.4 Other Classification Types

Type Description Example
Point-to-Point One sender ↔ one receiver Telephone, Wi-Fi unicast

Broadcast One sender → many receivers AM/FM radio, TV

Multicast One sender → group of receivers IPTV, video conferencing

Satellite Communication Via geostationary/LEO satellites GPS, DTH TV, internet

Optical Fibre Light pulses in glass fibre Internet backbone, FTTH

Microwave SHF line-of-sight links Telephone trunk, radar

 CHAPTER 4: NEED OF MODULATION
Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high-frequency carrier signal (amplitude,
frequency, or phase) in accordance with the instantaneous value of a low-frequency message (baseband)
signal.

Figure 4.1 – Eight Key Reasons Why Modulation is Necessary

Reason Explanation
Practical antenna length λ/4. At audio freq (1 kHz), λ/4 = 75 km! At 1 MHz (AM), λ/4 = 75 m
1. Antenna Size Reduction
– practical. Modulation shifts signal to high freq.

Different stations use different carrier frequencies (FDM), so they do not interfere with each
2. Avoid Interference
other.

Baseband (audio) signals attenuate rapidly. High-frequency modulated signals travel

3. Long-Distance Transmission
farther with amplification.
 Reason Explanation
4. Multiplexing (FDM) Multiple messages on different carriers share one channel simultaneously.

5. Noise Reduction (FM) FM and PM provide better noise immunity than baseband transmission.

6. Bandwidth Efficiency Carrier frequency can be chosen to match channel bandwidth for optimal use.

EM wave propagation requires high frequency – modulation makes baseband signals

7. Wireless Transmission
radio-ready.

8. Security Modulated signals can be encrypted; baseband audio is trivially intercepted.

CHAPTER 5: AMPLITUDE, FREQUENCY & PHASE
MODULATION

5.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In AM the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the message signal while frequency and
phase remain constant.
s(t) = A_c[1 + m·m_n(t)]·cos(2πf_c·t) where m = modulation index = A_m / A_c (0 ≤ m ≤ 1 for
undistorted AM)

Carrier: c(t) = A_c·cos(2πf_c·t)

Message: m(t) = A_m·cos(2πf_m·t)
AM spectrum: carrier at f_c + two sidebands at f_c ± f_m
Bandwidth: BW = 2f_m (twice the message bandwidth)
Power: P_total = P_c(1 + m²/2); sidebands carry only m²/(m²+2) fraction
Modulation Index: m > 1 → overmodulation → distortion
Types: DSB-SC (suppressed carrier), SSB (single sideband), VSB (vestigial)

Figure 5.1 – AM Transmitter Block Diagram

5.2 Frequency Modulation (FM)
In FM the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is varied in proportion to the message signal while
amplitude and phase remain constant.
s(t) = A_c·cos[2πf_c·t + 2πk_f·∫m(τ)dτ] Modulation Index: β = ∆f / f_m = k_f·A_m / f_m

Frequency Deviation: ∆f = k_f · A_m (proportional to message amplitude)

Carson's Rule: BW ≈ 2(∆f + f_m) = 2f_m(β + 1)
Narrowband FM (NBFM): β < 1; BW ≈ 2f_m (similar to AM)
Wideband FM (WBFM): β > 1; commercial FM radio uses β ≈ 5
Noise immunity: FM has 3dB/Hz improvement over AM for large β
Capture effect: stronger FM signal suppresses weaker co-channel signal
Applications: FM radio (88–108 MHz), TV audio, two-way radio

Figure 5.2 – FM Transmitter Block Diagram (VCO method)

5.3 Phase Modulation (PM)

In PM the instantaneous phase of the carrier is varied in proportion to the message signal while amplitude
and frequency remain constant.
s(t) = A_c·cos[2πf_c·t + k_p·m(t)] Phase Deviation: ∆φ = k_p · A_m (rad) Modulation Index: m_p = k_p ·
A_m
Relationship with FM: PM is FM with pre-differentiated message; FM is PM with pre-integrated
message
Phase deviation ∆φ is proportional to message amplitude (unlike FM where ∆f ∝ A_m)
BW (Carson): BW = 2(∆φ + 1)·f_m
PM is basis for digital modulation: BPSK, QPSK, 8-PSK, QAM all derived from PM
Application: Digital communications, satellite modems, CDMA systems
Figure 5.3 – Waveform Comparison: Message, Carrier, AM, FM, PM
 AM vs FM vs PM — Detailed Comparison (15 Points)
Parameter AM FM PM
Varied Parameter Amplitude Frequency Phase

Constant Parameters Freq, Phase Amplitude, Phase Amplitude, Freq (instantaneous)

Modulation Index m = A_m/A_c (0–1) β = ∆f/f_m (any value) m_p = k_p·A_m

Bandwidth 2f_m (narrow) 2(∆f + f_m) (wide) 2(∆φ + 1)f_m

Noise Immunity Lowest High (best for analogue) High

Power Efficiency Low (carrier wastes power) High (constant amplitude) High (constant amplitude)

Circuit Complexity Simple Moderate Moderate–Complex

Medium Wave (535–1605

Frequency Range VHF 88–108 MHz Microwave / Digital
kHz)

Capture Effect None Present (good feature) Similar to FM

Pre-emphasis Not used Used (50 or 75 µs) Used in digital

Fading Effect Severe amplitude fading Less affected Less affected

FM radio, TV audio, 2-way

Application AM radio, aviation QPSK, satellite, digital modems
radio

Demodulation Envelope detector Limiter + discriminator / PLL PLL, Costas loop

Baseband Relation Direct amplitude mapping Integral of message Direct phase mapping

Spectral Efficiency Low (DSB), better (SSB) Moderate–low (wide BW) Similar to FM
CHAPTER 6: PULSE MODULATION — PAM, PWM,
PPM
Pulse modulation involves varying the parameters of a train of pulses according to the message signal. It is
the first step from analogue to digital communication. Three main types are PAM, PWM (PDM), and PPM.

6.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

The amplitude of each pulse in the pulse train is proportional to the instantaneous sample value of the
message signal. Position and width remain constant.
s_PAM(t) = m(nTs)·p(t – nTs) where Ts = sampling period = 1/fs

Sampling theorem: fs ≥ 2B (Nyquist rate); B = message bandwidth

Natural PAM: pulse top follows message shape during pulse (trapezoidal)
Flat-top PAM: sample-and-hold; used in practice; causes aperture distortion
Aperture effect: high-frequency droop in spectrum, corrected by equaliser
PAM is basis for PCM: samples are then quantised and encoded → digital
Demodulation: LPF after PAM reconstruction

6.2 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) / Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM)

The width (duration) of each pulse is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the message signal. Amplitude
and position remain constant.
Pulse Width τ(t) = τ_0 + k_w·m(nTs) where τ_0 = unmodulated width, k_w = width sensitivity

Leading-edge PWM: only trailing edge varies

Trailing-edge PWM: only leading edge varies
Symmetrical PWM: both edges vary symmetrically
Advantage: amplitude variations in channel do not affect recovered signal
Bandwidth: wider than PAM; contains harmonics of pulse rate
Applications: Motor speed control, power electronics, audio amplifiers (Class D)

6.3 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

The position (time of occurrence) of each pulse relative to a reference is varied in proportion to the
message amplitude. Width and amplitude remain constant.
Pulse position t_n = nT_s + k_p·m(nTs) where k_p = position sensitivity constant

Best noise immunity among the three pulse modulation types

Constant pulse amplitude → not affected by amplitude noise
Requires synchronisation between transmitter and receiver (critical)
Bandwidth: largest of the three; sharp, narrow pulses need high BW
Power efficient because pulses are narrow (small duty cycle)
Applications: Optical fibre comms, IR remote controls, pulse radar
Figure 6.1 – PAM, PWM, PPM Waveforms derived from the same message signal
 PAM vs PWM vs PPM — Detailed Comparison (15 Points)
Parameter PAM PWM (PDM) PPM
Varied Parameter Pulse Amplitude Pulse Width (Duration) Pulse Position (Time)

Constant Parameters Width, Position Amplitude, Position Amplitude, Width

Equation A(t) = k·m(nTs) τ(t) = τ■ + k_w·m(nTs) t_n = nTs + k_p·m(nTs)

Bandwidth Required Moderate Moderate–High Highest (narrow pulses)

Noise Immunity Lowest (amplitude noise) Medium Highest

Power Requirement Variable (high) Variable Constant (lowest avg)

Synchronisation Not critical Not critical Mandatory (critical)

Circuit Complexity Simplest Moderate Most complex

Amplitude Noise Effect Severe – directly affects signal Minimal Minimal

Information Content Amplitude level Pulse duration Time of occurrence

Similarity to PCM Direct precursor to PCM Used in class-D audio Used in optical comms

Demodulation LPF LPF after pulse stretching Sync + threshold detector

Crosstalk High (amplitude overlap) Medium Low (position-based)

Efficiency Low (amplitude wasted) Medium High (narrow pulse = low duty)

Application PCM first stage, TDM Motor control, audio class-D Optical fibre, radar, IR remote
 QUICK REVISION — KEY FORMULAS &
MNEMONICS
Topic Key Formula / Mnemonic
AM BW BW = 2f_m

AM Power P_T = P_c(1 + m²/2)

FM BW (Carson) BW = 2(∆f + f_m) = 2f_m(β + 1)

FM Mod Index β = ∆f / f_m = k_f·A_m / f_m

PM Mod Index m_p = k_p · A_m

Nyquist Rate f_s ≥ 2f_max

Antenna Length L = λ/4 = c/(4f)

TDM Frame Rate Frame Rate = f_s (sampling rate)

FDM Total BW BW_total = N×(Signal BW + Guard Band)

PAM Amplitude ∝ m(t) → basis of PCM

PWM Width ∝ m(t) → noise-immune amplitude

PPM Position ∝ m(t) → best noise immunity

■ Exam Tips
• AM: Always draw envelope; mark upper & lower sidebands in spectrum; calculate power ratio.
• FM: Use Carson's rule for BW; distinguish NBFM (β<1) from WBFM (β>1).
• PM: Remember PM is dual of FM; phase deviation ∝ amplitude (not rate of change).
• TDM: Draw commutator switch; show guard time; explain synchronisation pulse.
• FDM: Draw frequency spectrum; mark guard bands; explain BPF role.
• PAM/PWM/PPM: Always draw all 4 waveforms (message + 3 pulse types) together for comparison.
• Frequency bands: Memorise VLF→LF→MF→HF→VHF→UHF→SHF→EHF with example for each.
• Modulation need: 8 reasons; antenna size calculation always impresses examiners.

END OF NOTES | Communication Engineering | 2nd Semester