MODULE 4 – SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE

MANAGEMENT
SOLID WASTE
Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from human activities in
residential, industrial or commercial areas. Solid waste comprises of all the wastes arising from
human and animal activities that are typically solid. It is all-inclusive of the heterogeneous
mass from the urban community, as well as a more homogeneous accumulation of agriculture
and industrial wastes.

Solid wastes in general can be classified as rubbish and garbage

➢ Rubbish refers to the solid waste components that will not putrefy and that are either
combustible (such as paper, plastic, rubber etc.) or non-combustible (such as glass,
metal, ceramics, etc.).)

➢ Garbage refers to solid waste that will putrefy (such as fruits, fish, meat, vegetables,
etc.).

It is estimated that, on average, 200-600 g of solid waste is generated per person per day
in Indian cities. Solid waste includes:

✓ Garbage (food waste)

✓ Rubbish (paper, plastics, wood, metal, throw-away containers, glass)

✓ Demolition products (bricks, masonry, pipes)

✓ Sewage treatment residue

✓ Dead animals, manure and other discarded material

Environmental Impact of Solid Waste Disposal on Land

• Groundwater contamination by the leachate generated by the waste dump.
• Surface water contamination by the run-off from the waste dump.
• Bad odour, pests, rodents, and wind-blown litter in and around the waste dump.
• generation of inflammable gas (e.g., methane) within the waste dump.
• Bird menace above the waste dump, which affects the flight of aircraft.
• Fires within the waste dump.
• Erosion and stability problems relating to the slopes of the waste dump.
• Epidemics through stray animals.
• Acidity to the surrounding soil and release of greenhouse gas.

WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid Waste Management (SWM) is the process of collecting and treating solid waste. It also
offers solutions for recycling items that are not garbage or trash. As long as people have been
living in settlements and residential areas, garbage or solid waste has been an issue.

CONSUMERISM AND THROW-AWAY CULTURE OF SOLID WASTE

• Consumerism of solid waste refers to the direct link between excessive consumer habits
and the generation of large amounts of solid waste.

• A "throw-away culture" of solid waste is directly linked to consumerism.

• To buy new products, often designed for single use, results in a significant increase in
disposable waste.

• This leads to overflowing landfills and environmental damage.

• Excessive disposal of solid waste led to the reuse or recycling.

• People are encouraged to discard items quickly rather than repair or maintain them,
contributing to a culture of waste generation

Sources of Solid Waste

1. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

Solid waste generated from

• Households (residential areas)

• Commercial sector (hotels and restaurants),

• Institutional buildings (offices and educational institutions) and

• Municipal sector (landscape and tree trimmings, construction and demolition waste and
street sweepings)
2. Industrial Waste

• Solid waste generated from industrial activities

• Various industries (such as pulp and paper industry, chemical manufacturing industry
etc.) generate a variety of wastes.

• Some are toxic (toxic chemicals) and some are recyclable (paper, plastic and metals).
3. Hospital waste

• Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis treatment or immunization of human

beings or animals

• It includes wastes the form of disposable syringes, needles, bandages, body fluids,
contaminated organs of infected persons, etc. which are highly infectious

• Biomedical waste scattered in and around the hospitals invites flies, insects, rodent
dogs, etc.

• They play an important role in spreading communicable diseases like plague and rabies

4. Hazardous waste

• Hazardous wastes are wastes that pose a substantial danger either immediately or over
a period of time not only to living things (plants, animals and human beings) but also
to the environment

• Typical examples are paints, radioactive wastes, pesticides, pathological wastes from
hospitals etc.

• They are acutely toxic which can cause cancer and trigger birth defects
5. Agricultural Waste

• Wastes generated from farms, dairies vineyards, fields etc.

• Mainly consist of spoiled food grains, vegetable wastes and animal wastes

• Animal and vegetable wastes can be used to increasing the soil fertility as they contain
valuable nutrients

6. Plastic waste

• Plastic has become an intrinsic part of our lives at home, work, and the marketplace.

• This is the reason why we see plastic everywhere in our day-to-day life

• The lifestyle we follow today is "use and throw”.

• It is estimated that approximately 56 lakh tonnes of plastic waste is generated in India

annually, and most of it ends up on land and in waterways.
7. Construction and Demolition Waste
 • Construction and demolition waste is generated whenever any construction/demolition
activity takes place, such as building roads, bridges, flyovers, subways, remodelling,
etc. It consists mostly of inert and non-biodegradable materials such as concrete,
plaster, metal, wood, plastics, etc. A part of this waste comes to the municipal stream.

• Solid waste produced in these places includes steel materials, concrete, wood, plastics,
rubber, copper wires, dirt, and glass.
8. Municipal services

• Some of the waste brought about by the municipal services include street cleaning,
waste from parks and beaches, waste from wastewater treatment plants, landscaping
wastes, and waste from recreational areas including sludge.

9. E- Waste

• E- waste covers any household or business item.

• E- waste contains circuits and electrical components (also known as electronic gadgets).

• Some of them are computers, mobile phones, air conditioners, televisions, etc.

• India ranks among the top 10 countries globally in terms of solid waste generation

CHARACTERISTICS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

a) Physical Characteristics

1. Density

The density of solid waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m3). It is a critical factor in the
design of an SWM system. Example - design of sanitary landfills, storage, types of collection,
and transport vehicles, etc. Usually, it refers to uncompacted waste. Normal compaction
equipment can achieve a reduction in the volume of waste by 75%. It increases an initial
density of 100 kg/m3 to 400 kg/m3. In other words, a waste collection vehicle can haul four
times the weight of waste in its compacted state than when it is un-compacted.

2. Moisture Content

Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of water (wet weight - dry weight) to
the total weight of the wet waste. Loss of moisture occurs when heated to 104°C for 24 h. It
is one of the important physical characteristics of solid waste. Moisture increases the weight of
solid wastes, and thereby, the cost of collection and transport. In addition, the moisture
content is a critical determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration.
Wastes should be insulated from rainfall or other extraneous water. A typical range of moisture
content is 20% to 40%, representing the extremes of wastes in an arid climate and in the wet
season of a region of high precipitation.

3. Particle Size
Particle size is an important characteristic of solid waste because of its significance in the
design of mechanical separators and shredders. The size and distribution of the components of
wastes are also important for the recovery of materials. Waste is separated by mechanical means
such as trammel screens and magnetic separators. For example, ferrous items that are of large
size may be too heavy to be separated by a magnetic belt so a magnetic separator is needed.

4. Field capacity

Field capacity of MSW is the total amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste sample
subject to gravitational pull. It is a critical physical characteristic of solid waste because the
water in excess of field capacity will form leachate. Leachate can be a major problem in
landfills. Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure and the state of
decomposition of the wastes.

5. Permeability

Hydraulic conductivity of compacted waste. It is an important physical property that to a large

extent governs the movement of liquids and gases in landfills.
b) Chemical Characteristics

1. Volatile solid content - Volatile matter exhibited an additional loss of weight on ignition at
950°C in a covered crucible.

2. Ash content

• Ash is the amount of material remaining after burning the waste.

• Ash content exhibited a weight of residue after combustion in an open crucible.

3. CHNSO content

• CHNSO content represents Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), sulphur (S), and
oxygen (O).

• It is critical for optimizing waste-to-energy conversion, waste-to-resource processes,

and for meeting environmental regulations.

• C, H, N, S, and O contents were measured through an elemental analyzer (CE

Instruments, CHNS-O Model EA-1110, Thermo Electron).

4. Calorific value

Calorific value is the amount of heat generated from the combustion of a unit weight of a
substance, expressed as kcal/kg. The energy content of the organic components in MSW can
be determined by:

• using a full-scale boiler as a calorimeter,

• using a laboratory bomb calorimeter,

• Calculation, if elemental composition is known.

The calorific value is determined experimentally using a bomb calorimeter in which the heat
generated at a constant temperature of 25⁰C from the combustion of a dry sample is measured.

c) Biological Characteristics

The most important biological characteristic of the organic fraction of solid waste is that it can
be converted biologically to gases and relatively inert organic and inorganic solids. The
generation of flies is also related to the putrescible nature of the organic materials.

WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

1. Landfill
A landfill is the site for the disposal of waste materials by burial is called landfill. Modern
sanitary landfills are carefully engineered structures designed to separate garbage from nearby
water, soil, wildlife, and people. The cavities are dug out of the ground, and then the walls are
sealed with layers of clay and coated with plastic to prevent groundwater contamination from
wastewater that accumulates. Any waste that is not recycled or reused has to go somewhere
and ends up at a landfill site. Landfill sites can be created from a void made by quarrying. It
contains both household and commercial rubbish, for example, food, paper, cardboard, or
wood. It also contains wastes from construction and commercial businesses, such as soil,
concrete, and brick rubble.

A landfill is the site for the disposal of waste materials by burial. It is the oldest form of waste
treatment. Modern sanitary landfills are carefully engineered structures designed to separate
garbage from nearby water, soil, wildlife, and people. Cavities are dug out of the ground. Walls
are sealed with layers of clay and coated with plastic to prevent groundwater contamination
from wastewater that accumulates.

Any waste that is not recycled or reused has to go somewhere ends up at a landfill site. Landfill
sites can be created from a void made by quarrying. It contains both household and commercial
rubbish. For example, food, paper, cardboard or wood. It also contains wastes from
construction and commercial businesses, such as soil, concrete and brick rubble.
Main components of a landfill are:
1. Bottom liner & side liner
2. Leachate collection system
3. Stormwater drainage
4. Methane collection system
5. Cover/top cap
6. Groundwater monitoring stations

Fig. Cross-section of a landfill

Methods of Landfilling are:

a) Area method

Area landfilling method is also known as Above Ground Landfill. Area landfilling is mostly
used to dispose urban waste. This method is best suited for flat or gently sloping areas where
some land depressions may exist. Area landfilling method involves depositing waste in layers
and forming terraces over an identified landfilling area. Area landfilling method generates
excessive leachate, which is not only difficult to control but will also pollute ground water
table. The wastes are spread, compacted and then covered with material which may need to be
hauled in from adjacent areas.
 b) Trench method

Trench method is also known as Below Ground Landfill. This method of landfilling involves
excavation of a waste trench. Collected waste is disposed inside excavated trench and is
covered-up with a layer of soil. This method is suitable only for small quantity of waste. Trench
landfilling method may not be suitable for large quantity of waste because larger trench needs
to be excavated with proportionate increase in the cost of disposable.

The trench method is best suited for nearly level land where the water table is not near the
surface. Usually, the soil excavated from the trench is used for cover material.

c) Ramp/slope method

Ramp/slope method involves disposal of collected waste along the sides of the existing hill
slope. The slope or ramp is sometimes used in combination with the other two methods. The
wastes are spread on an existing slope, compacted, and covered. This variation may be suitable
for most areas. The cover materials usually come from just ahead of the working face.

d) Valley method

Valley Landfilling Method is also known as Canyon Landfills/depression method. In the valley
landfilling method, collected waste is deposited in valleys, low-lying areas, canyons, ravines
etc. Used where natural or artificial depressions exist and are used for land filling. Method
depends on the geometry of the site, the hydrology and geology of the site, and access to the
site.

e) Cell method

Cell method is a progressive filling and restoration concept that advocates tidy disposal of
waste and involves depositing collected waste in a pre-constructed bonded area. Solid waste
is spread in thin layers, compacted, and covered daily with soil or alternative materials within
a designated, lined area

f) Combination method

More than one of the above listed landfilling methods are employed in combination to
dispose of collected waste

Advantages of landfilling

• Simple and economical. No costly plant or equipment is required.

• Separation of different kinds of refuse is not required.

• No residues are evolved and hence no further disposal is required

• Low-lying water-logged areas and odd quarry pits can be easily recovered and put to
better use

• The mosquito breeding places are also thus eliminated.

Disadvantages of sanitary landfilling

• Low lying depressions or dumping sites may not always be available

• Evolution of landfill gases

• Highly toxic and polluted leachate generation

2. Incineration
Incineration method is also known as combustion. In this method the waste is burnt at high
temperatures to convert into gaseous compounds. Important use of incineration is that it
reduces volume of waste by 20-30% of original volume. This process is also known as thermal
treatment where solid waste materials are converted by Incinerators into heat, gas, steam and
ash.

INCINERATORS

An apparatus for burning waste material, especially industrial waste, at high temperatures until
it is reduced to ash. It reduces the volume of the waste by removing combustible matter.
Different types of incinerators include fluidized bed incinerator, liquid injection incinerator,
multiple hearth incinerator, waste gas flare, direct flame, etc.
Advantages of incineration

• Decreases quantity of waste

• Efficient waste management

• Production of heat and power

• Reduction of pollution

• Incinerators have filters for trapping pollutants

• Saves on transportation of waste

• Provides better control over odour and noise

• Prevents the production of methane gas

• Eliminates harmful germs and chemicals

• Incinerators operate in any weather

• It has a computerized monitoring system

• Occupies a relatively small space

• Uncontaminated groundwater
Disadvantages of incineration

• Expensive

• Pollutes the environment

• Damaging public health

• The possibility of long-term problems

• Ash waste can potentially harm people and the environment

3. Recycling
Recycling is a process of salvaging valuable materials from waste generated so that it can be
used again as the same material. Eg: Recycling of food wastes, Recycling of plastics, glass,
etc. Recycling can be a primary or a secondary process.

Primary recycling is a process in which the original waste material is made back into the same
material. For example, a ‘soda can’ can be recycled and used as a soda can itself.

In secondary recycling, waste materials are made into different products that may or may not
be recyclable. For example, cardboard made from waste newspaper, shredded used tires used
in the construction of pavements, and compost from food waste.
For ease of recycling, it is better to segregate the wastes at the source itself. It helps to ensure
that waste, which can be processed for recovery of material and energy, does not become co-
mixed with undesirable elements.

SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES IN WASTE MANAGEMENT

Sustainable waste management system is an efficient way to minimize the hazards or pollution
caused by wastes. Sustainable waste management means using material resources efficiently
to cut down the number of wastes produced and where waste is generated, dealing with it in a
way that actively contributes to the economic, social and environmental goals of sustainable
development.

Sustainable waste management practices include:

• Reducing waste

• Reusing materials

• Recycling

• Composting

Reduce, Reuse & Recycle

Reduce
Reduction is the most important strategy of the three R's. It focusses on the source of the waste,
or where the waste is originally coming from. Source reduction is carried out when products
are designed, manufactured, packaged, and used in a way that limits the amount or toxicity of
waste created.
The term reduce means reducing the waste generation at source. Purchase the minimum
number of products that is just necessary. This means one has to cut back on unnecessary
purchases. This saves not only money and resources but also reduces the waste generated. For
example, e-mails minimise paper use. But all this depend upon the attitude and lifestyle of the
consumer.

Reuse
The second most important strategy of the three Rs is to Reuse, which is when an item, is
cleaned and the materials are used again.

Long lasting goods should be reused over and over with or without minor modification or
repair. Bottles, Cans, Cartons etc. can be reused as such. A number of electronic gadgets can
be reused again and again after minor repairs. Use shopping bags made of cloth or jute, which
can be used over and over again thus increasing its useful lifespan.

Advantages of reuse:
• Reduced disposal, needs and costs.
• Energy and raw material savings.

Recycle
In recycling the generated waste or discarded material that cannot be used again in its original
form should be sent back to the industry. There this waste material is broken down so that the
industry can use this as a resource for the manufacturing of the product. Thus, recycling occurs
in three phases:
■ First the waste is sorted and recyclables are collected

■ Then the recyclables are used for making the raw materials

■ Thereafter these raw materials are used in the production of products

Thus, recycling reduces the amount of waste that is thrown into the community dustbins
thereby making the environment cleaner. For example, plastic items are recycled into new
plastic products; metal scrap is used to make new metal products. Finally, the waste material
that can neither be reused nor recycled must be disposed of in a proper manner with minimum
impact to the environment.

Advantages of recycling:
• Saves energy
• Conserves resources
COMPOSTING
Composting is the natural process of 'rotting' or decomposition of organic matter by
microorganisms under controlled conditions. It is controlled biological decomposition of
organic matter, such as food and yard wastes, into humus. This can be done anaerobically and
aerobically. This process takes about 4 to 6 weeks.

➤ Benefits of composting:

• Provides nutrients to the soil. - Compost improves the quality of soil, and for this reason
it is considered as a soil conditioner.

• Increases beneficial soil organisms.

• Protects soil from erosion.

• Assists pollution remediation

Types of composting
1. AEROBIC COMPOSTING
Aerobic composting is the decomposition of organic matter using microorganisms that require
oxygen. Oxygen from the air diffuses into the moisture and is taken up by the microbes. As
aerobic digestion takes place, the by-products are heat, water, and carbon dioxide (CO2). The
heat produced in aerobic composting is sufficient to kill harmful bacteria and pathogens, as
these organisms are not adapted to these environmental conditions. Indore method is an
example of aerobic composting. Support the growth of beneficial bacteria species, including
psychrophilic, mesophilic, and thermophilic bacteria.
• Psychrophilic – Cold-loving – Temperature <15⁰C
• Mesophilic – Moderate temperature – 20- 45⁰C
• Thermophilic bacteria – Heat-loving – Temperature > 45⁰C
 2. ANAEROBIC COMPOSTING

In this decomposition occurs in the absence of oxygen or under the limited supply of oxygen.
They produce the intermediate compounds like methane, organic acids, hydrogen sulphide and
other substances. These substances have strong odour and some are phytotoxic. It is a low
temperature process meaning decomposition takes much longer and doesn't reach sufficient
temperatures to safely kill plant pathogens, weed and seeds. The Bangalore method is an
example of anaerobic composting.

3. VERMICOMPOSTING
Worm composting is using worms to recycle food scrap sand other organic material into a
valuable soil amendment called vermicompost. It is a mesophilic process, utilizing
microorganisms and earthworms that are active at 10-32°C. The process is faster than
composting; because the material passes through the earthworm gut, whereby the resulting
earthworm castings ie, rich in nutrients. Earthworms consume various organic wastes and
reduce the volume by 40-60%.
TRANSITION TO ZERO WASTE LIFESTYLE
Zero Waste maximizes recycling, minimizes waste, reduces consumption, and ensures that
products are made to be reused, repaired or recycled back into nature or the marketplace. Zero
waste is aimed at eliminating all discharges to land, water or air that are a threat to planetary,
human, animal, or plant health.

Zero waste is a concept for a range of measures aimed at mimicking nature's successful
strategies to make our industrial systems work. But moving towards zero waste is a big
challenge to humanity. For a successful zero-waste initiative, waste should be considered as a
resource.

Benefits of Zero wastes

• Economic benefits: Reduction of waste can, in turn, reduce handling, transport, and
treatment costs incurred for solid wastes.

• Faster Progress: A zero-waste strategy improves the production processes and

environmental prevention strategies, which can lead to taking larger, more innovative
steps.

• Supports sustainability: A zero-waste strategy supports all three of the generally

accepted goals of sustainability- economic well-being, environmental protection, and
social well-being.

• Improved material flows: A zero-waste strategy would use far fewer new raw materials
and send no waste materials to landfills. Any material waste would either return as
reusable or recycled materials or would be suitable for use as compost.

CIRCULAR ECONOMY
• An economic model that aims to reduce waste and reuse resources

• In contrast to the 'produce-consume-waste’ linear model, a circular economy is based

on a restorative or regenerative design of industries, businesses, processes etc.

• This minimizes/eliminates the waste and promotes sustainability throughout the life
cycle
 • Treating waste as a potential resource and recovering materials from waste streams
through recycling might generate revenue and make the value chain self-sustaining

HAZARDOUS AND E-WASTE IDENTIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT

HAZARDOUS WASTE
Hazardous waste includes materials that are toxic, ignitable, corrosive, or reactive, posing
significant risks to health and the environment.
1. Listed Waste by US Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA)
a) F-List - Non-Specific Source Wastes – Eg. - Spent solvent wastes, Electroplating wastes
b) K-List - Specific Source Wastes – Eg. - Wood Preservation, Organic Chemical
Manufacturing
c) P-List - Discarded commercial chemical products
d) U-List - Discarded Commercial Chemical Products
The F-List and K-List pertain to wastes that are generated during manufacturing processes that
are carried out at a facility. The P-List and U-List of wastes are usually related to unused,
expired, or spilled commercial chemicals.
2. Characterized Waste - Characteristic hazardous wastes are “D” waste
a) Ignitability (D001)- The ignitability characteristic identifies wastes that can readily
catch fire and sustain combustion. Ignitability is not supposed to include all wastes that
burn.
b) Corrosivity (D002) - The corrosivity characteristic identifies wastes that are acidic or
alkaline and can readily corrode or dissolve flesh, metal, or other materials.
c) Reactivity (D003) - The reactivity characteristic identifies wastes that readily explode
or undergo violent reactions.
d) Toxicity (D004) - If the concentration of certain pollutants in the leachate exceeds a
standard in the rules, it is a toxic hazardous waste (unless otherwise exempted).
3. Universal Waste

a) Batteries
b) Pesticides

c) Equipment containing mercury

d) Lamps containing mercury

4. Mixed Waste: Radioactive + Hazardous

5. E-Waste: Electrical Waste, Electronic Waste

Hazardous waste management

• Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and physical methods
 • Chemical methods include ion exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and
neutralization

• Among thermal methods is high-temperature incineration, which not only can detoxify
certain organic wastes but also can destroy them

• Special types of thermal equipment are used for burning waste in either solid, liquid,
or sludge form

• Hazardous wastes that are not destroyed by incineration or other chemical processes
need to be disposed of properly

• For most such wastes, land disposal is the ultimate destination, although it is not an
attractive practice, because of the environmental risk is involved

• A common type of temporary storage impoundment for hazardous liquid waste is an

open pit or holding pond, called a lagoon

• New lagoons must be lined with impervious clay soils and flexible membrane liners in
order to protect groundwater

• Leachate collection systems must be installed between the liners, and groundwater
monitoring wells are required

E-WASTE

• Electronics waste, commonly known as e-scrap or e waste, is the trash we generate from
surplus, broken, and obsolete electronic devices

• Electronics contains various toxic and hazardous chemicals and materials that are
released into the environment if we do not dispose of them properly

• E-waste or electronics recycling is the process of recovering material from old devices
to use in new products
Steps for E-waste management

1. Use 3R technique to minimize the E-waste

2. Identify the e-waste category item

3. Identify the e-waste composition or determine it

4. Identify possible hazardous content in e- waste

5. Identify, whether the e-waste component is hazardous or the entire E-waste item is
hazardous

Recycling and waste-to-energy technologies

Main pathways for the conversion of organic waste material to energy

1. Thermochemical conversion
2. Biochemical conversion

3. Physicochemical conversion

4. Anaerobic digestion

5. Biofuel production

Thermochemical conversion

Thermochemical conversion, characterized by higher temperature and conversion rates, is best

suited for lower moisture feedstock. Thermochemical conversion includes three methods
incineration, pyrolysis and gasification. The incineration technology is the controlled
combustion of waste with the recovery of heat to produce steam which in turn produces power
through steam turbines. Pyrolysis and gasification represent refined thermal treatment methods
as alternatives to incineration. Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of organic material at
elevated temperatures in the absence of air. The process, which requires heat, produces a
mixture of combustible gases (primarily methane, complex hydrocarbons, hydrogen and
carbon monoxide), liquids and solid residues. Thermal decomposition takes place in the
presence of a limited amount of oxygen or air. The producer gas which is generated can then
be used in either boilers or cleaned up and used in combustion turbine/generators. Gasification
is a high-temperature (>700⁰C) thermochemical process that converts carbonaceous
materials—such as coal, biomass, or waste—into a clean-burning synthetic gas (syngas).

Biochemical conversion

Biochemical conversion of biomass involves use of bacteria, microorganisms and enzymes to

breakdown biomass into gaseous or liquid fuels, such as biogas or bioethanol. Anaerobic
digestion (or bio-methanation) and fermentation are the commonly used technologies in
Biochemical conversion. Anaerobic digestion is a series of chemical reactions during which
organic material is decomposed through the metabolic pathways of naturally occurring
microorganisms in an oxygen depleted environment.
Physico-chemical conversion

The physico-chemical technology involves various processes to improve the physical and
chemical properties of solid waste. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is a poor-quality fuel, and
hence pre-processing is necessary to improve its calorific value. The combustible fraction of
the waste is converted into high-energy fuel pellets, known as Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
which may be used in steam generation.

Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic Digestion (AD) is the natural biological process that stabilizes organic waste in the
absence of air. Anaerobic digestion is a reliable technology for the treatment of wet, organic
waste. Organic waste from various sources in biochemically degraded in anaerobic digesters
under oxygen-free condition resulting in the production of biogas, which can be used to
produce both electricity and heat. Almost any organic material, such as municipal solid waste,
animal manure, poultry litter, food wastes, sewage, and industrial wastes, can be used as the
feed Biogas can also be upgraded and used in gas supply networks.
Biofuel production

A variety of fuels can be produced from waste resources including liquid fuels, such as ethanol,
methanol, biodiesel and gaseous fuels such as hydrogen and methane. The resource base for
biofuel production is composed of a wide variety of forestry and agricultural resources,
industrial processing residues, and municipal solid and urban wood residues. Globally, biofuels
are most commonly used to power vehicles, heat homes, and for cooking. A schematic diagram
explaining the production of Bioethanol.

Ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass is produced mainly via biochemical routes such as
pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, and fermentation. Biomass is pretreated to improve the
accessibility of enzymes. After pretreatment, biomass undergoes enzymatic hydrolysis for
conversion of polysaccharides into monomer sugars, such as glucose and xylose. Subsequently,
sugars are fermented to ethanol by the use of different microorganisms.

BIOMEDICAL WASTE
Any waste which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human
beings or animals or in research activities pertaining to that or in the production or testing of
biological.

The waste generated from medical activities is a severe problem for the human world, even
though medical care is vital for our lives and health. Improper management of these wastes has
a direct impact on the health of the community. Various communicable diseases can spread
through water, sweat, blood, body fluids, and contaminated organs of infected persons. The
biomedical waste, scattered in and around the hospitals, invites flies, insects, rodents, cats and
dogs that are responsible for the spread of communicable diseases like plague and rabies. The
recycling of disposable syringes, needles, IV sets and other articles like glass bottles without
proper sterilization is responsible for Hepatitis, HIV, and other viral diseases.
Types of Biomedical Waste
1. Human Anatomical Waste - Human tissues, organs, body parts

2. Animal Waste - Animal tissues, organs, body parts, carcasses, bleeding parts, fluid,
blood and experimental animals used in research, waste generated by veterinary
hospitals and colleges, discharge from hospitals

3. Microbiology & Biotechnology Waste - Wastes from laboratory cultures, stocks or

specimen of live microorganisms, human and animal cell cultures used in research and
infectious agents from research and industrial laboratories, wastes from production of
biological, toxins and devices used for transfer of cultures

4. Waste Sharps - Needles, syringes, scalpels, blades, glass, etc. that may cause puncture
and cuts. This includes both used and unused sharps

5. Discarded Medicine and Cytotoxic drugs - Wastes comprising of outdated,

contaminated and discarded medicines

6. Soiled Waste - Items contaminated with body fluids including cotton, dressings, soiled
plaster casts, lines, bedding and other materials contaminated with blood

7. Solid Waste (Waste generated from disposable items other than the waste sharps such
as tubing, catheters, intravenous sets, etc.

8. Liquid Waste - Waste generated from the laboratory and washing, cleaning,
housekeeping and disinfecting activities

9. Incineration Ash - Ash from the incineration of any biomedical waste

10. Chemical Waste - Chemicals used in production of biological, chemicals used in

disinfecting, as insecticides, etc.

METHOD OF DISPOSAL OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE/MANAGEMENT

OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE
1. Incineration Technology: This is a high-temperature thermal process employing
combustion of the waste under controlled condition for converting them into inert
material and gases.
2. Autoclaving: An autoclave is a machine that provides a physical method of sterilization
by killing bacteria, viruses, and even spores present in the material. In general, an
autoclave is run at a temperature of 121° C for at least 30 minutes
3. Microwave irradiation: At a frequency of about 2450 MHz and a wavelength of 12.24
cm, microwaves destroy the majority of microorganisms.
4. Chemical Methods: 1% hypochlorite solution can be used for chemical disinfection.

Colour Waste Treatment

 Yellow Human & Animal anatomical waste /Micro- Autoclaving /
biology waste and soiled Microwaving/Chemical
cotton/dressings/linen/beddings etc. treatment
Incineration / Deep burial Red Tubing's,
Catheters, IV sets.

Red Tubing's, Catheters, IV sets Autoclaving /

Microwaving/Chemical
treatment

Blue/White Waste sharps - Needles, Syringes, Scalpels, Autoclaving / Microwaving

blades etc. /Chemical treatment &
Destruction / Shredding

Black Discarded medicines/cytotoxic drugs, Incineration ash, Chemical

waste. Disposal in secured
landfill

Self-study portions
An overview of:
• CPHEEO guidelines for solid waste management
• Regulations for hazardous waste management in India