Marine processes and landforms

Coasts
The coast, also known as the coastline or seashore, is defined as the area where land meets the
ocean, or as a line, that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake. The Earth
has around 620,000 kilometers of coastline
Wave Action
 Coasts are the meeting point of the land and sea and are an open system, with inputs
(sediment), transfers (longshore drift), stores (beach) and outputs (water).
 Coastal processes are divided into two parts:
o Marine processes - offshore (water-based)
o Terrestrial processes - onshore (land-based)
 These processes are then sub-divided into:
o Wave action
o Erosion
o Transportation
o Weathering
o Mass movement
o Deposition
 It is these activities that are responsible for producing distinctive landforms found on the
coast
Wave Action
 Waves are marine processes. They erode, transport and deposit material
 Waves are formed by winds blowing over the surface of the sea
 The height and strength of a wave is dependent on 3 factors:
o The fetch
o The amount of time the wind blows
o The strength of the wind
 The greater the strength, time and fetch of the wind, the larger the wave.

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  As a wave approaches the coast and enters shallower water, friction from the sea bed
causes the wave to lean forward and eventually will crest and break onto the beach
Wave movements:
 Swash: the forward movement of waves up the beach or shore is called swash.
 Backwash: the flow back to the sea (due to gravity) backwash carries the materials back
towards the sea. These are shown in a diagram below.

 There are two types of waves:

o Destructive waves erode the beach. They have a short wavelength, high-
frequency rate and a steep wave gradient. Their backwash is stronger than their
swash, which scours the beach, dragging material out to sea. Destructive waves
occur on steeply sloping coasts. These waves break violently with high energy.
Instead of depositing materials on the coast, destructive waves erode the coast and
transport coastal rocks and beach materials away from it.

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 o Constructive waves are beach builders. They have a long wavelength, low-
frequency rate and a shallow wave gradient. The swash is stronger than its
backwash, which carries material up onto the beach and deposits it
there. Constructive waves are waves that occur in calm weather on gently sloping
coasts. The gentle gradient allows waves to bring materials and deposited on the
coast than are removed. Over time, the deposited sediment -builds the coast.

Comparison of Wave Type

Constructive Wave Destructive Wave

Swash Strong Weak

Backwash Weak Strong

Wavelength Long with low height Short with high height

Frequency Low (6-8 per minute) High (10-12 per minute)

Type of beach Sandy - depositional Shingle - erosional

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Exam Tip
Make sure you are familiar with the way waves are formed and their different characteristics.
Don't be surprised if you are asked to identify the type of wave from a list of identifiers.
Worked Example
Which statement below, best describes the characteristics of a destructive wave? (1)

A long wavelength & weak backwash

B short wavelength & weak backwash

C short wavelength & strong backwash

D long wavelength & strong backwash

Wave: the movement of water rising and falling in the oceans or seas.

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Wave energy: the three main factors, which determine the size and energy of wave, are wind
energy, duration of wind and fetch.
Duration of wind refers to the length of time, which the wind blows continuously while fetch
refers to the distance of the sea over which wind blows to generate waves.
The responsible agents that shape the coast are:
i) Wave action
ii) Tides and
iii) Currents
Tides:
Besides waves, another agent responsible for shaping coast is tides. Tides refer to the daily
alternate rising and falling of the sea level along the coast.
They are caused primarily by the gravitational pull of the Moon and to a lesser extent, the Sun.
The pull produces two tidal bulges or high tides on opposite sides of the earth. The tidal action,
like wave action, has a significant impact on the coast.
The rise and fall of the sea level affects coastal processes of erosion and transportation. At high
tides, wave attack, erode and transport away.
Currents:
Coasts are also shaped by currents. Currents are large-scale and persistent movements of water in
the ocean, driven largely by prevailing winds.
Longshore drift is the example of ocean current that flow parallel to a coast. They can transport
an entire section of a sandy beach several kilometers down the coast within a short period

Processes of Coastal Erosion

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Coastal erosion is the process of the sea wearing away the land. Four processes could cause erosion on a
cliff:

 Hydraulic action – air may become trapped in joints and cracks on a cliff face by a
wave. This exerts pressure on the rock wall. When a wave breaks, the trapped air is
compressed which weakens the cliff and causes erosion. As the wave retreats, the
pressure is released with a sudden jolt, causing parts of rock to break off.
 Abrasion – bits of rock and sand in waves grind down cliff surfaces like sandpaper.
Rocks are thrown against a cliff, breaking off fragments and wearing them away.
 Attrition – Two or more rocks collide and bump into each other, breaking off fragments
and making the rocks smaller. Waves smash rocks and pebbles on the shore into each
other, and they break and become smoother.
 Solution – Parts of a cliff are eroded by the acids contained in seawater which dissolves
elements in some types of rock such as limestone or chalk.
Factors affecting coastal erosion
The types of waves, the structure and the composition of the coastal rocks and the position of
coast affect coastal erosion.
i) Types of waves: destructive waves have more energy than constructive waves. More materials
are eroded than deposited when destructive waves are present.
ii) Structure of coastal rocks: coastal rocks with numerous lines of weakness such as cracks
and joints will be eroded and broken down more quickly when attacked by waves.
iii) Composition of the coastal rocks: coastal rocks with minerals composition that can be
easily dissolved in water, or that can chemically react with water to form new chemicals may
gradually weakened and broken down under the constant attack of sea waves.
iv) Position of the coast: coasts that are protected or sheltered from prevailing winds and wave
action by natural or man-made structures will experience less erosion than coast that are open
and unprotected.
Exam Tip
Make sure you know the difference between the four types of erosion, particularly between
abrasion (corrasion) and attrition. So many students confuse these two terms. A tip for you, is to
think of abrasion as rubbing with sandpaper or maybe you have grazed your knees or elbows
when you fell off your bike/skateboard? Those grazes were abrasions on your knees/elbows etc.

Erosional features
1. Caves, arches, stacks and stumps
Caves, arches, stacks and stumps are erosional features that are commonly found on a headland

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 1. Cracks are widened in the headland through the erosional processes of hydraulic action
and abrasion.
2. As the waves continue to grind away at the crack, it begins to open up to form a cave.
3. The cave becomes larger and eventually breaks through the headland to form an arch.
4. The base of the arch continually becomes wider through further erosion, until its roof
becomes too heavy and collapses into the sea. This leaves a stack (an isolated column of
rock).
5. The stack is undercut at the base until it collapses to form a stump.

2. Cliffs and wave-cut platforms

Due to continuous undercutting by the wave the roof of the cave is collapsed and formed a cliff
Cliffs are shaped through erosion and weathering. Soft rock erodes quickly and forms gentle
sloping cliffs, whereas hard rock is more resistant and forms steep cliffs. A wave-cut platform is
a wide gently-sloping surface found at the foot of a cliff.

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A wave-cut platform is formed when the following occurs:

1. The sea attacks the base of the cliff between the high and low water mark.

2. A wave-cut notch is formed by erosional processes such as abrasion and hydraulic action
- this is a dent in the cliff usually at the level of high tide.

3. As the notch increases in size, the cliff becomes unstable and collapses, leading to the
retreat of the cliff face.

4. The backwash carries away the eroded material, leaving a wave-cut platform.

5. The process repeats. The cliff continues to retreat.

3. Formation of Headland and Bay

Cliffs along the coastline do not erode at the same pace. When a stretch of coastline is
formed from different types of rock, headlands and bays can form.

Bands of soft rock such as clay and sand are weaker therefore they can be eroded quickly.
This process forms bays. A bay is an inlet of the sea where the land curves inwards,
usually with a beach. Hard rock such as chalk is more resistant to the processes of
erosion. When the softer rock is eroded inwards, the hard rock sticks out into the sea,
forming a headland.

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Processes of Coastal Transportation
One of the most important ways in which waves transport sediment along the coast is by
longshore drift. When waves approach the coast at an angle, the swash carries the materials in
the water up the beach at an oblique angle, while the backwash carries materials perpendicularly
down the beach because of the pull of gravity. A powerful process is capable of moving very
large amounts of beach materials along the direction of movement

Transportation – Longshore Drift

 Waves approach coast at an angle
 Swash moves up the beach at an angle
 Backwash drains straight back down the beach
 Gradually moving material along beach in zig-zag motion

3. Processes of Coastal Deposition:

Depositional landforms
When water loses its energy, any sediment it is carrying is deposited. The build-up of deposited
sediment can form different features along the coast. Deposition of sediments along the coast
depends on the following factors:
i) Supply of sediment: Most sediment is transported down to the coast by rivers. Some sediment
come from coastal erosion. When the wave energy is weak and the weak waves cannot carry
their load of sediment, deposition takes place.
ii) Gradient of slope: On gentle slopes, constructive wave is prominent and the swash is stronger
than backwash and it deposits materials rather than erode the materials from the shore.

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iii) Position of the coast: along the coast that are sheltered or protected from strong winds such as
indented coastlines and riverine inlets, destructive waves are not common. The calm coastal
conditions allow deposition to take place and a beach may develop
Beaches
Beaches are made up from eroded material that has been transported from elsewhere and then
deposited by the sea. For this to occur, waves must have limited energy, so beaches often form in
sheltered areas like bays. Constructive waves build up beaches as they have a strong swash and a
weak backwash.

Sandy beaches are usually found in bays where the water is shallow and the waves have less
energy. Pebble beaches often form where cliffs are being eroded, and where there are higher
energy waves.
A cross-profile of a beach is called the beach profile. The beach profile has lots of ridges
called berms. They show the lines of the high tide and the storm tides. A sandy beach typically
has a gentle sloping profile, whereas a shingle beach can be much steeper. The size of the
material is larger at the top of the beach, due to the high-energy storm waves carrying large
sediment. The smallest material is found nearest the water as the waves break here and break
down the rock through attrition.

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Spits
A spit is an extended stretch of sand or shingle jutting out into the sea from the land. Spits occur
when there is a change in the shape of the landscape or there is a river mouth. A spit is a long
narrow ridge of sand or shingle running out from the coast with one end attached to the land.
They are formed by longshore drift. When there are abrupt changes in the direction of the
coastline, the longshore drift continues to transport the materials in the original direction into the
sea. The materials are deposited in the sea where they accumulate over time. Eventually, the
accumulated
.

Tombolo
A spit that has one end connected to a mainland while the other end projects out into the sea. If
an Island lies near the mainland where the split is formed, the spit may continue to expand until
it joins the island to the mainland. In this case, a new landform is formed known as Tombolo.
Materials will appear above the surface of the water forming a spit.

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BARS
A bay bar is very similar to a spit. It is a ridge of sand or shingle that
joins two headlands on either side of a bay. It is formed due to
longshore drift transporting sediment along the coastline.
Behind the bar, a lagoon is created, where water has been trapped
and the lagoon may gradually be infilled as a salt marsh develops
due to it being a low energy zone, which encourages deposition.

Saltmarsh: A salt marsh is a type of marsh found in the intertidal transition between land and
ocean. They are also called tidal marshes or saltings.

OFFSHORE BARS

An offshore bar is a raised area of seabed that is found offshore. They usually
form adjacent to the coastline. They are formed in areas with high levels of
sediment on a beach and where the sea is shallow. They form when
sediment is transported on and off a beach. Destructive waves remove
sediment from the beach and form the offshore bar. Constructive waves
transport material from the offshore bar back onto the beach.

Visible offshore bars, found in parallel to the coast are known as barrier
islands.

Barrier islands are visible offshore bars that form parallel to the coast, often
in chains.

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 Characteristics of an offshore sandbar

Barrier Island

 Barrier islands form parallel to the coast

 The main difference between a bar and barrier island is that a bar joins two headlands, whereas
a barrier island is open at one or both ends

Exam Tip

You may be asked to draw and label a diagram showing how depositional landforms (beaches, spits etc.)
are formed. You need to be able to show how sediment is transported along the coast by waves.
Practice drawing and labelling these diagrams so you can reproduce any of them in the exam. Marks will
be awarded for the accuracy and completeness of your labelling and drawing.

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SAND DUNES

Sand dunes are small ridges or hills of sand found at the top of a
beach, above the reach of the waves. Onshore winds (winds blowing
inland from the sea) cause the formation of sand dunes at the back
of a beach.
Sand is deposited by the wind around an object such as a rock,
forming embryo dunes. Over time, vegetation such as marram grass
stabilise the sand dunes forming foredunes. As the vegetation
around the foredunes decomposes nutrients are released and soil
begins to form. A wider range of plants are then able to colonise the
dunes.

Sand Dunes at Harlech Beach, North Wales.

How are sand dunes formed?

The conditions required for sand dune formation are:

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  a large supply of sand

 a large flat beach

 time for the sand to dry, so an extensive tidal range is needed

 an onshore wind (wind blowing from the sea to the land) for sand to be transported to the back of

the beach

 an obstacle for the dune to form against, e.g. pebble or driftwood

A beach with a large tidal range

HOW DOES WIND TRANSPORT SAND?

Aeolian Transport is the first process of coastal dune formation and involves the movement
and weathering of sand particles behind and along the shoreline. Aeolian transportation is when the wind
transports sediment. Wind transports sand in 3 ways. These are:

 suspension

 saltation

 creep

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Aeolian transportation

1% of the movement of sand is by suspension when sand is picked up and carried within the wind. 95% of

sand movement results from saltation when grains of sand bounce along the beach as they are picked up

and dropped by the wind. Finally, 4% of transportation is by creep when sand grains collide and push each

other along.

The video below shows a combination of these processes of transportation.

As the wind blows up the beach, it will transport material. Larger pieces of sediment will rest against an

obstacle forming a ridge, while smaller particles will settle on the other side. On the side facing the wind,

the material begins to reach a crest. This is because the pile of material becomes steep and unstable and

begins to collapse. When this happens, smaller particles fall down the other side. Once there is a stable

angle (30-34 degrees), the sand stops slipping, and the cycle repeats. As the sand becomes an obstacle,

more dunes may form in front of it— the stronger the wind, the higher the dunes.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SAND DUNES

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Characteristics of sand dunes

Sand dunes have:

 a gentle slope on the side the wind blows against

 a steep side on the sheltered side (30-34 degrees)

 a crest (top of the sand dune) up to 15 metres

HOW DO SAND DUNES CHANGE AS YOU MOVE INLAND?

How do sand dunes change with distance from the beach?

 Dunes become taller further inland. Embryo dunes (youngest sand

dunes) are only a few metres high whereas mature dunes are up to
15m high.

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  This is because marram grass and other vegetation colonise the sand
dune and hold it together with long roots, stopping the migration of
the dune.
 Dunes closer to the beach are more yellow, whereas further away,
they are grey due to humous and bacteria from plants and animals
being added.
 A trough separates each dune (dip), called a slack. They are formed
by the removal of sediment from the sheltered lee side of the dune
and the windward side of the next dune.
 Slacks can be eroded so much that they reach the water table
resulting in the formation of salty dunes.

Coastal Environmental Change

Influence of Geology
 Geology shapes the coastline over time, place and space
 A coastline made up of softer rocks such as sands and clays will be easily eroded by
destructive waves to form low, flat landscapes such as bays and beaches
 Coastlines of more resistant, harder rock will take longer to erode and produce rugged
landscapes such as headlands
 The differences between hard and soft rocks will also impact the shape and
characteristics of cliffs

Hard Rock Soft Rock

Shape of cliff High and steep Generally lower and less steep

Cliff face Bare rock and rugged Smoother; evidence of slumping

Foot of cliff Boulders and rocks Few rocks; some sand and mud

 Geology, therefore, shapes the coastline vertically through the height and profile of a cliff
and horizontally with bays and headlands
Influence of Vegetation

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  The longer a coastal landform has existed, the more likely it will be colonised by
vegetation
 Over time, vegetation will 'fix' a feature (e.g. a sand dune)
 Vegetation adaptation is important in order to survive coastal conditions
 Vegetation has to cope with high levels of salt in both air and soil
 Largest influence of vegetation is to assist protect and preserve coastal landforms such as
sand dunes, salt marshes and mangroves
Influence of Sea-level Changes & People
 Rising sea levels produce submergent coastlines, with rias and fjords
 Falling sea levels produce emergent coastlines, with relic features such as raised
beaches, cliffs with caves, arches etc.
 Sea levels have risen and fallen many times in the past
 During the last Ice Age, sea levels fell as the water was locked up in glaciers and ice
sheets, rising again as the ice melted
 Sea levels are linked to global warming and will have a significant effect on many low
lying coasts and islands
 Many Pacific Ocean islands, such as Kiribati and Tuvalu are at risk of being completely
submerged by rising sea levels
 This issue is made worse as many of the world's densely populated areas are located on
coastal lowlands
 New York and Miami in the US are major cities vulnerable to sea-level rise as the cities
are built at sea level
Influence of People
Human Activity
 Human activities, either intentionally or not, transform the features and landscape of a
coastline:
o Settlement - coasts have always been a place of attraction and residence to
people
o Economic Development - exploitation through fishing, farming, trade, tourism
and energy production
o Coastal Management - controlling the coastline to protect human interests
 Through any or all of the above, the natural landscapes and features of the coast can be
changed, thereby changing the coastline over time, space and place

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Coasts presents both hazards and opportunities
Coastal hazards:
Rapid coastal erosion:
 houses may fall; destroys private land; increases housing density; decreases housing price
 creates rock slides with boulders; a constant hazard e.g: East Yorkshire Coast
Tidal surges:
 coastal flooding; blocks transport routes; destroys businesses and homes;
massive insurance premiums
 strong winds and low pressure increases water surface and storm surges
Tsunamis:
 fast and high impact; prevents transport, massive loss of lives; huge rebuild times and
costs; ruins property and infrastructure
 farmland becomes saline and unusable; coastal territory underwater caused by
earthquakes; nuclear spillage e.g Fukushima
Hurricanes:
 destroys habitats; death
 high precipitation; flooding; deep low pressure systems; air swirls
 weakens economy; ruins all types of infrastructure
 27+ degrees in the tropics
Coastal opportunities:
 fishing; crabbing (Grimsby); provides jobs and food
 holiday homes (Monaco); improves tourism and economy
 tourist opportunities (Brighton); more jobs and economy boost
 trade (Rotterdam)
 water leisure activities (Gold Beach)
 HEP opportunities (Bristol)
 lots of transport and oil terminals (Easington)

Coastal Management or planning

There are two types of approaches to protect coasts are:
1. Hard Engineering
2) Soft engineering.
The hard engineering approach refers to the construction of physical structures to defend
against the erosive power of waves. This is also known as structural approach.

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The soft engineering approach, on the other hand focuses on planning and management so that
both coastal areas and property will not be damaged by erosion. It also aims at changing
individual behavior or attitudes towards coastal protection by encouraging minimal human
interference and allowing nature to take its course.

Hard engineering measures:

1) Seawalls: sea walls can be built along the coast. These structures absorb the energy of waves
before they can erode away loose materials. Sea walls are effective in protecting cliffs from
erosion.
2) Breakwater: break waters help to protect the coast and harbor by reducing the force of the
high energy waves before they reach the shore. They can built with one end attached to the coast
or build away from the coast.
3) Groynes: Groynes are built at right angles to the shore to prevent longshore drift. These
structures absorb or reduce the energy of the waves and cause materials to be deposited on the
side of the groyne facing the longshore drift.

4) Gabions: Gabions are wire cages usually filled with crushed rocks. These cage are then piled
up along the shore to prevent or reduce coastal erosion by weakening the wave energy.

Soft Engineering measures:

1) Beach nourishment: This soft engineering measure refers to the constant replenishment of
large quantities of sand to the beach system. The beach is therefore extended seawards, which
lead to the improvement of both beach quality and storm protection.
2) Relocation of property: Instead of constructing seawalls and groynes, coastal planners are
trying to protect man-made structures such as buildings by relocating them and letting the nature

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reclaim the beach in its own time. No building of new properties or structures would be allowed
in coastal areas that are vulnerable to coastal erosion.
3) Planting of mangroves: mangroves, with their long, curved roots that prop up from the soil
help to trap sediments
4) Stabilising dunes: coastal dunes can be found along the shore where there is a large supply of
and strong winds. The winds carry and deposit the sand on the coast further inland. The piled up
sand forming coastal dunes help to defend the coastal from the sea. These dunes are so fragile
that delicate shrubs struggle to hold in place. To prevent the dunes from being disturbed by
human traffic, access points to the beach should be controlled and designated. Shrubs and trees
can be planted to stabilize the dunes as the roots can reach downwards to tap the ground water
and thereby anchor the sand in the process.
5) Growth of coral reefs: Coral reefs can weaken wave energy. When coral reefs are destroyed,
the waves may move towards the shore at full force and wash away beaches. The natural reefs
can be conserved and protected while damaged reefs can be restored. Artificial reefs can be
created along the coast by placing environmentally friendly and durable materials such as steel or
concrete on the sea floor. Such manmade reefs can be just as protective of the coast as naturally
formed reefs.

Coral Reefs
The coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Coral
is a living organism (polyp) found in clear, tropical waters. Corals live in communities known as
reefs. They secrete lime and build a skeleton. Coral reefs begin to form when free-swimming
coral larvae attach to submerged rocks or other hard surfaces along the edges of islands or
continents. They are colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients.
Often called “rainforests of the sea”, coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on
earth. They occupy less than 0.1% of the world’s ocean surface, yet they provide a home for 25%
of all marine species.
Location and distribution: Coral reefs are largely between Tropics of Cancer and
Capricorn/between 30N and 30S. In those areas where warm ocean currents are found more coral
reefs are found.

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Name of the countries: South East Asia, Caribbean, East African coast). Mexico, United States,
Peru, Cuba, Haiti, South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Madagascar, India, Saudi
Arabia, Indonesia, Thailand, etc.
Ideal conditions for formation:
i. Light – corals prefer shallow water because they need plenty of sunlight to aid photosynthesis.
ii. Temperature –Optimal conditions for growth are between 23°C and 25°C or warm sea water.
iii. Depth of water – most reefs grow in depths of water less than 25m or in shallow water, and so
are generally found on the margins of continents and islands.
iv. Sediment – corals prefer water free from sediment or clear water. Sediment has a negative
effect on coral. It clogs up feeding structures and cleansing systems and sediment-rich water
reduces the light available for photosynthesis.
v. Wave action – coral reefs generally prefer strong wave action, which ensures plentiful supply
of oxygen and a stronger cleansing action. This helps remove any trapped sediment and also
supplies microscopic plankton to the coral.
However, in extreme conditions, south as the South Asian tsunami, the waves may be too
destructive for the coral to survive.
vi. Salinity – corals are marine organisms and thrive in areas with plentiful supply of plankton,
etc.
vii. Exposure to the air – corals die if they are exposed to the air for too long. They are therefore
mostly found below the low tide mark.

(Coral cannot grow in freshwater, and cannot tolerate silt nor water in high nutrients that allow
plants to use the oxygen that the coral needs.

Types of reef
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1. Fringing reef – lie along the coast of a landmass. The coral platforms grow out to sea attached
to the mainland. A shallow lagoon lies above them (or directly attached to a shore, or borders it
with a shallow channel lagoon).
2. Barrier reef – coral grows in a shallower area away from the mainland. The barrier reefs tend
to be much farther away from shore than fringing reef.
3. Atoll reef – rise from submerged volcanic foundations and often support small islands of
wave-borne detritus. May form as fringing reefs grow in a circle attached to the land. Sea level
rises and subsidence of the land causes the coral to grow at the height of the rising sea level to
reach the light.
This eventually forms a ring of coral reefs with a lagoon replacing the island in the centre.

Threats to the Coral reef

1. Deforestation causes erosion, which releases a large amount of carbon stored in the soil, which
then flows into the ocean, contributing to ocean acidification.
2. Coral reefs are dying around the world due to coral mining
3. Coral reefs are also destroyed due to agricultural and urban runoff pollution
4. Over fishing, blast fishing, disease
5. Digging of canals and access into Islands and bays
6. Broader threats are sea temperature rise, sea level rise and pH changes from ocean
acidification, all associated with greenhouse gas emissions.

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7. A study released in April 2013 has shown that air pollution can also stunt the growth of coral
reefs – it shows the threat of factors such as coal- burning and volcanic eruptions.
Protection of coral reefs:
1. Marine protected areas (MPAs) have become increasingly prominent for reef management
2. MPAs promote responsible fishery management and habitat protections
3. MPAs encompass both social and biological objectives, including reef restorations, aesthetics,
biodiversity, and economic benefits. Conflicts surrounding MPAs involves lack of participation,
clashing views, effectiveness and funding
4. In some situations, as in the Phoenix Islands, Protected Areas, MPAs can also provide
revenue.
5. Many land use laws aims to reduce CO2 emissions by limiting deforestation
6. Biosphere reserve, marine park, national monument and world heritage status can protect
reefs. For example, the Galapagos Islands, Great Barrier Reef etc are world heritage sites.
7. In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan.
Human activities that damage the natural environment in coastal areas
1. Tourists walking through shallow reef waters damage coral structures;
2. The noise from ships could scare fish;
3. Litter from tourism pollute the environment;
4. Sewage outflows pollutes seas;
5. Oil spill to the sea from cruise and ships pollute the sea water
6. Overfishing has left stocks of fish seriously depleted;
7. Food chains – the fish consumes the contaminated oil in the sea
8. Visual effects of developments, etc

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