WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Module – 1

Syllabus: Water and its importance. Monsoon- types and behaviour in India, rainfall —
characteristics and distribution, onset and withdrawal of effective rains, dry spells and
wet spells, critical dry spells, water loss from the soil, measurement and factors,
hydrological cycle, Importance and issues relating water status Scenario of water in
Karnataka: sources, geographical distribution, quality. Water (hydrological) cycle,
influence of human activity on the water cycle, Surface water resources.

Monsoon- types and behaviour in India:

Monsoon refer to a system of winds in the tropical regions under which the direction of
winds is reversed completely between the summer and the winter seasons. Generally,
across the world, the monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20°
N and 20° S. The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type.

Out of a total of 4 seasonal divisions of India, monsoon occupy 2 divisions, namely.

1. The southwest monsoon season - Rainfall received from the southwest

monsoons is seasonal in character, which occurs between June and September.
2. The retreating monsoon season - The months of October and November are
known for retreating monsoons.

Factors Influencing South-West Monsoon Formation:

• The differential heating and cooling of land and water

• The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

• The presence of the high-pressure area.

• The Tibetan plateau and the movement of the westerly jet stream

• Southern Oscillation (SO)

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone

The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a broad trough of low pressure in
equatorial latitudes. This is where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge.
This convergence zone lies more or less parallel to the equator but moves north or south
with the apparent movement of the sun.

• The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 20°S

over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affect the
Indian Monsoon.
• The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong
vertical air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km
above sea level.
• The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the
presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.
• Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet).
• Southern Oscillation (SO): Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific Ocean
experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure.
But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions and the eastern
Pacific has lower pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic
change in pressure conditions is known as the SO.

Mechanism

Onset of the South-West Monsoon

• The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of the equator with the apparent
movement of the Sun. During the month of June, the sun shines vertically over
the Tropic of Cancer and the ITCZ shifts northwards.
• The southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and start
blowing in southwest to northeast direction under the influence of Coriolis force.
These winds collect moisture as they travel over the warm Indian Ocean.
• In the month of July, the ITCZ shifts to 20°-25° N latitude and is located in the
Indo-Gangetic Plain and the south-west monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal. The ITCZ in this position is often called the Monsoon
Trough.
• The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also related to the phenomenon of the
withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from its position over the north Indian plain,
south of the Himalayas.
• The easterly Jet Stream (Somali Jet) sets in along 15°N latitude only after the
western jet stream has withdrawn itself from the region.
• This easterly jet stream is held responsible for the burst of the monsoon in India.
As these winds approach the land, their south-westerly direction is modified by
the relief and thermal low pressure over northwest India.
• The monsoon approaches the Indian landmass in two branches: The Arabian Sea
branch - The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea.
• The Bay of Bengal branch - The Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar deflect
a big portion of this branch towards the Indian subcontinent.
• The monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from south and
southeast instead of from the south-westerly direction.
• Another phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have
‘breaks’ in rainfall. The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time.
• They are interspersed with rainless intervals. These breaks in monsoon are related
to the movement of the monsoon trough.
• Despite an overall unity in the general pattern, there are perceptible regional
variations in climatic conditions within the country.
Retreating Monsoon Season

• The retreating southwest monsoon season is marked by clear skies and rise in
temperature. The land is still moist.
• Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes
rather oppressive. This is commonly known as the ‘October heat’.
• In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly in
northern India. The weather in the retreating monsoon is dry in north India but it
is associated with rain in the eastern part of the Peninsula.
• Here, October and November are the rainiest months of the year. The widespread
rain in this season is associated with the passage of cyclonic depressions which
originate over the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the eastern coast of the
southern Peninsula.
• These tropical cyclones are very destructive. A bulk of the rainfall of the
Coromandel Coast is derived from these depressions and cyclones.
• Unlike the rest of the country, which receives rain in the southwest monsoon
season between June and September, the northeast monsoon is crucial for farming
and water security in the south.
Impact of Monsoons on Life in India

Positive

About 64% of people in India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and agriculture
itself is based on monsoon. Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on timely
and adequately distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture is adversely affected particularly
in those regions where means of irrigation are not developed. Regional variations in
monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops. Regional monsoon variation in
India is reflected in the vast variety of food, clothes and house types. Monsoon rain helps
recharge dams and reservoirs, which is further used for the generation of hydro-electric
power. Winter rainfall by temperate cyclones in north India is highly beneficial for Rabi
crops.

Negative

Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year in some parts of the country.
Sudden monsoon burst creates a problem of soil erosion over large areas in India. In hilly
areas sudden rainfall brings landslide which damages natural and physical infrastructure
subsequently disrupting human life economically as well as socially.

Monsoon Prediction in India

• More than a century ago, when there were no computers, IMD’s forecasts depended
only on snow cover. Lesser cover meant a better monsoon.
• British physicist Gilbert Walker, who headed the IMD, designed a statistical weather
model – an empirical way of predicting the weather – based on the relationship
between two weather phenomena.
• In 2014, the IMD started to use numerical models to supplement statistical models for
long-range forecasting as well.
• Now, although the numerical models used by the IMD are state-of-the-art – developed
by the US National Centres for Environmental Prediction – their forecast capacity is
still weak because a longer period of forecast creates more uncertainty in prediction.
• At the moment, the IMD provides district-wise weather data but it’s not sufficient;
because when IMD says there will be scattered rainfall over a particular district, it
means that 26-50% that district (by area) will receive rainfall.
• The IMD collects weather data like temperature, humidity, wind and precipitation
through 679 automatic weather stations, 550 surface observatories, 43 radiosonde or
weather balloons, 24 radars and three satellites. Currently, highly advanced dynamical
models need supercomputers.
• Prediction models will not run until proper data about current weather conditions is
available. Factors Responsible for Inaccurate Monsoon Forecast The lack of data due
to insufficient monitoring stations. Automatic weather stations are of substandard
quality.
• They need to be calibrated and cleaned regularly, which does not happen often. That
affects data. Then, there are major data gaps, like those involving dust, aerosols, soil
moisture and maritime conditions are not monitored.
• The models that we have brought from the west have been developed by western
scientists to forecast in their region, little progress has been made is the fine-tuning of
weather models to suit Indian conditions. Lack of competent software professionals
and scientists working with the IMD.

RAINFALL — CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION

PRECIPITATION: The precipitation in the country (India) is mainly in the form of rain
fall though there is appreciable snowfall at high altitudes in the Himalayan range and
most of the rivers in north India are perennial since they receive snow-melt in summer
(when there is no rainfall).

TYPES OF PRECIPITATION:

i. Convective precipitation: This type of precipitation is in the form of local whirling

thunder storms and is typical of the tropics. The air close to the warm earth gets heated
and rises due to its low density, cools adiabatically to form a cauliflower shaped cloud,
which finally bursts into a thunder storm. When accompanied by destructive winds,
they are called ‘tornadoes.
ii. Frontal precipitation: When two air masses due to contrasting temperatures and
densities clash with each other, condensation and precipitation occur at the surface of
contact, Figure 1.2. This surface of contact is called a ‘front’ or ‘frontal surface’.

If a cold air mass drives out a warm air mass’ it is called a ‘cold front’ and if a warm air
mass replaces the retreating cold air mass, it is called a ‘warm front’. On the other hand,
if the two air masses are drawn simultaneously towards a low pressure area, the front
developed is stationary and is called a ‘stationary front’. Cold front causes intense
precipitation on comparatively small areas, while the precipitation due to warm front is
less intense but is spread over a comparatively larger area.
 Figure 1.2: Frontal precipitation

iii. Orographic precipitation: The mechanical lifting of moist air over mountain
barriers causes heavy precipitation on the windward side (Figure 1.3). For example:
Cherrapunji in the Himalayan range and Agumbe in the western Ghats of south India
get very heavy orographic precipitation of 1250 cm and 900 cm (average annual
rainfall), respectively.

Figure 1.3: Orographic precipitation

iv. Cyclonic precipitation: This type of precipitation is due to lifting of moist air
converging into a low pressure belt, i.e., due to pressure differences created by the
 unequal heating of the earth’s surface. Here the winds blow spirally inward counter
clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.

There are two main types of cyclones- tropical cyclone (also called hurricane or
typhoon) of comparatively small diameter of 300-1500 km causing high wind velocity
and heavy precipitation, and the extra-tropical cyclone of large diameter up to 3000 km
causing wide spread frontal type precipitation.

Rainfall Distribution in India

In India, rainfall varies a lot. It falls in different amounts across the country. Some places
get more rain than others. On average, India gets about 115 inches (2900 mm) of rain
every year. But in the western Himalayan region, it's lower, around 50 inches (1270 mm),
while in the northeast, it's higher, about 160 inches (4000 mm).

Here's a summary of regions categorized by their precipitation levels:

Precipitation
Category Regions Included

Heavy Precipitation (>200 Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Meghalaya, Arunachal

cm) Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Sikkim,
Assam

Very Heavy Precipitation

Coastal Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Lakshadweep
(>250 cm)

Extremely Heavy
West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh
Precipitation (>400 cm)
 Precipitation
Category Regions Included

Desert and Semi-desert Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Haryana, Punjab, Jammu &
regions (<50 cm) Kashmir

Coastal regions (>100 cm) Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu

Inland regions (>150 cm) Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand

Himalayan region (>200 Parts of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal

cm) Pradesh

Rainfall in India varies throughout the year, with a distinct rainy season from about June
to September. According to the Koppen climate classification, India can be divided into
seven different climate regions:

1. Tropical semi-arid
2. Sub-tropical arid desert
3. Sub-tropical semi-arid
4. Tropical rainforest
5. Tropical Savannah
6. Sub-tropical humid
7. Alpine

The average annual rainfall in India is 118 cm, as per data from the Meteorological
Department. Here's how rainfall is distributed across different regions:

1. Extreme Precipitation regions: The northeastern regions and the windward side of
the Western Ghats receive an average of 400 cm of annual rainfall. Areas like Assam,
Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, and hilly parts of the Western Ghats have tropical
rainforests. The village of Mawsynram in Meghalaya holds the record for the highest
rainfall in India and the world.
2. Heavy Precipitation regions: Regions experiencing 200-300 cm rainfall fall into this
category. Most of Eastern India, including states like West Bengal, Tripura, Nagaland,
 Manipur, Odisha, and Bihar, are included here. This zone also covers most areas in
the sub-Himalayan belt.
3. Moderate Precipitation regions: Areas with 100 to 200 cm of rainfall include parts
of West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and the leeward
side of the Western Ghats. These regions typically feature Wet Deciduous forests as
their predominant natural vegetation.
4. Scanty Precipitation regions: Areas receiving 50 to 100 cm of rainfall include parts
of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh. Tropical Grasslands, Savannah, and Dry
Deciduous forests are commonly found here.
5. Desert and Semi-desert Regions: These areas receive below 50 cm of rainfall. States
like Rajasthan, Gujarat, and adjacent areas are classified as desert or semi-desert.
Some parts of Jammu & Kashmir, like the Ladakh plateau, are considered cold deserts.
Vegetation in these regions consists of hardy species adapted to extended droughts.
Some areas, like parts of Gujarat, have Savannah vegetation in the wetter regions. The
village of Ruyli in Rajasthan holds the record for the lowest rainfall in India.

Rainfall Onset and Withdrawal of Effective Rains

1. Rainfall Onset

The onset of rainfall refers to the beginning of the rainy season, which is determined
based on meteorological conditions and the adequacy of precipitation for agricultural or
hydrological purposes. The effective onset of rains is when:

• The cumulative rainfall reaches a threshold sufficient for germination and

establishment of crops.
• There is a low probability of false starts, meaning the rainfall is sustained rather
than followed by prolonged dry spells.

Factors influencing rainfall onset:

• Interactions between oceanic and atmospheric conditions (e.g., El Niño and La

Niña).
• Local topography and wind patterns.
• Soil moisture content and land cover.
• Temperature variations affecting evaporation and cloud formation.
Indicators of Rainfall Onset:

• Consistent daily rainfall exceeding a defined threshold (e.g., 20-30 mm over a

few days).
• Increased humidity and cloud cover.
• Changes in wind direction and pressure patterns.

2. Withdrawal of Effective Rains

The withdrawal of rains, or the cessation of the rainy season, marks the transition into
the dry season. It is determined when:

• Rainfall decreases below a threshold (e.g., less than 10 mm over a 10-day period).
• The likelihood of significant precipitation drops significantly.
• Evapotranspiration exceeds rainfall, leading to soil moisture depletion.

Factors influencing rainfall withdrawal:

• Shifts in atmospheric pressure patterns (e.g., movement of the Intertropical

Convergence Zone - ITCZ).
• Seasonal cooling or warming of oceanic waters affecting moisture availability.
• Reduction in cloud cover and increased solar radiation.

3. Dry Spells and Wet Spells

Dry Spells

A dry spell is a period within the rainy season when there is little or no rainfall for a
certain duration. It can range from a few days to several weeks and may affect crop
growth and soil moisture availability.

Characteristics of Dry Spells:

• Typically, last between 5-15 days but vary by region and climate.
• Can occur due to changes in wind patterns or localized atmospheric disturbances.
• May lead to temporary water stress in plants, particularly during critical growth
stages.
Impacts of Dry Spells:
• Reduced soil moisture affecting crop germination and growth.
• Increased evapotranspiration leading to moisture loss.
 • Risk of partial crop failure if prolonged.
Wet Spells

A wet spell is a consecutive period of significant rainfall within the rainy season. These
periods contribute to soil moisture replenishment, groundwater recharge, and crop
growth.

Characteristics of Wet Spells:

• Usually last for 5-20 days, depending on climate patterns.

• Enhance plant growth but may lead to excessive soil moisture or flooding.
• Influence hydrological processes such as runoff and groundwater recharge.

Impacts of Wet Spells:

• Improved soil moisture availability.

• Potential waterlogging if drainage is poor.
• Enhanced growth conditions for crops and natural vegetation.

4. Critical Dry Spells

A critical dry spell is a prolonged dry period that occurs during key agricultural growth
stages, such as germination, flowering, and grain filling. These dry spells have severe
consequences on crop yields.

Key Characteristics:

• Typically occur in the middle of the growing season.

• Can lead to irreversible yield losses if soil moisture is insufficient.
• More damaging in areas with high evapotranspiration rates.

Effects on Crops:

• During Germination: Seeds may fail to sprout, leading to poor crop

establishment.
• During Vegetative Growth: Stunted plant growth and reduced leaf development.
• During Flowering & Grain Filling: Poor pollination, reduced grain size, and
low yields.

Mitigation Strategies:
• Water Conservation: Mulching, conservation tillage, and rainwater harvesting.
 • Drought-Resistant Crops: Use of varieties with deeper roots and high water-use
efficiency.

• Supplemental Irrigation: Providing water during critical growth periods.

5. Water Loss from the Soil

Water loss from soil occurs through various processes, affecting soil moisture availability
and plant growth. The major pathways include:

a. Evaporation

• Direct loss of moisture from the soil surface due to solar radiation and wind.
• More pronounced in bare soils with no vegetation cover.
• Reduced by mulching and conservation tillage.

b. Transpiration

• Water loss from plants through stomatal openings in leaves.

• Influenced by plant type, temperature, humidity, and wind speed.
• Managed through efficient irrigation and shading techniques.

c. Evapotranspiration (ET)

• Combination of evaporation and transpiration.

• Varies based on temperature, solar radiation, humidity, and wind.
• Can be estimated using models such as Penman-Monteith equation.

d. Infiltration and Percolation

• Infiltration: Water entering the soil, influenced by soil texture and structure.
• Percolation: Movement of water through soil layers, contributing to groundwater
recharge.
• Enhanced by organic matter addition and proper land management.
e. Runoff

• Surface water movement due to excess rainfall.

• Increased by compacted soils, steep slopes, and heavy rainfall events.
• Managed by contour farming, terracing, and check dams.
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION: Rainfall may be measured by a network of
rain gauges which may either be of non-recording or recording type.

1. Symons rain gauge

• The non-recording rain gauge used in India is the Symon’s rain gauge (Figure 1.4).
• It consists of a funnel with a circular rim of 12.7 cm diameter and a glass bottle as a
receiver. The cylindrical metal casing is fixed vertically to the masonry foundation
with the level rim 30.5 cm above the ground surface.
• The rain falling into the funnel is collected in the receiver and is measured in a special
measuring glass graduated in mm of rainfall; when full it can measure 1.25 cm of rain.
The rainfall is measured every day at 08.30 hours IST.
• During heavy rains, it must be measured three or four times in the day, lest the receiver
fill and overflow, but the last measurement should be at 08.30 hours IST and the sum
total of all the measurements during the previous 24 hours entered as the rainfall of
the day in the register.
• Usually, rainfall measurements are made at 08.30 hr IST and sometimes at 17.30 hr
IST also. Thus, the non-recording or the Symon’s rain gauge gives only the total depth
of rainfall for the previous 24 hours (i.e., daily rainfall) and does not give the intensity
and duration of rainfall during different time intervals of the day.
• It is often desirable to protect the gauge from being damaged by cattle and for this
purpose a barbed wire fence may be erected around it.

2. Recording Rain Gauge

• This is also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain gauge. This type of
rain gauge has an automatic mechanical arrangement consisting of clockwork, a drum
with a graph paper fixed around it and a pencil point, which draws the mass curve of
rainfall.
• From this mass curve, the depth of rainfall in a given time, the rate or intensity of
rainfall at any instant during a storm, time of onset and cessation of rainfall, can be
determined. The gauge is installed on a concrete or masonry platform 45 cm square in
the observatory enclosure by the side of the ordinary rain gauge at a distance of 2-3 m
from it.
• The gauge is so installed that the rim of the funnel is horizontal and at a height of
exactly 75 cm above ground surface. The self-recording rain gauge is generally used
in conjunction with an ordinary rain gauge exposed close by, for use as standard, by
means of which the readings of the recording rain gauge can be checked and if
necessary adjusted. There are three types of recording rain gauges- tipping bucket
gauge, weighing gauge and float gauge.

3. Tipping bucket rain gauge: This consists of a cylindrical receiver 30 cm diameter

with a funnel inside. Just below the funnel a pair of tipping buckets is pivoted such
that when one of the bucket receives a rainfall of 0.25 mm it tips and empties into a
tank below, while the other bucket takes its position and the process is repeated. The
tipping of the bucket actuates on electric circuit which causes a pen to move on a chart
wrapped round a drum which revolves by a clock mechanism. This type cannot record
snow.
 Figure 1.5: Tipping bucket gauge

4. Weighing type rain gauge: In this type of rain-gauge, when a certain weight of
rainfall is collected in a tank, which rests on a spring-lever balance, it makes a pen to
move on a chart wrapped round a clock driven drum. The rotation of the drum sets the
time scale while the vertical motion of the pen records the cumulative precipitation.

5. Float type rain gauge: In this type, as the rain is collected in a float chamber, the
float moves up which makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a clock driven
drum. When the float chamber fills up, the water siphons out automatically through a
siphon tube kept in an interconnected siphon chamber. The clockwork revolves the
drum once in 24 hours. The clock mechanism needs rewinding once in a week when
the chart wrapped round the drum is also replaced. This type of gauge is used by IMD.
 The weighing and float type rain gauges can store a moderate snow fall which the
operator can weigh or melt and record the equivalent depth of rain.

Factors Affecting Rainfall in an Area

Rainfall is a crucial component of the Earth’s hydrological cycle and plays a significant
role in determining the climate, agriculture, and overall ecosystem of any region.
Understanding the factors that influence rainfall amounts and patterns is essential for
managing water resources, predicting weather events, and planning agricultural
activities. Rainfall is influenced by a complex interplay of geographical, meteorological,
and environmental factors. Here, we explore the key determinants of rainfall in an area.

1. Geographical Location

Geographical location is one of the primary factors affecting rainfall. Areas situated near
large bodies of water, such as oceans, seas, and large lakes, generally receive more
rainfall due to the availability of moisture. Coastal regions often experience higher
humidity levels and, consequently, more precipitation. For example, the western coasts
of continents like North America and Europe tend to receive more rainfall due to the
moist air brought in by prevailing westerly winds from the ocean.

Conversely, areas located far from large water bodies are often drier. The interiors of
continents, such as central Asia and central Australia, tend to experience continental
climates with lower precipitation. These regions can become deserts if they are also
situated at latitudes with high pressure systems that inhibit cloud formation and rainfall.

2. Elevation and Topography

Elevation and topography significantly impact rainfall distribution. Mountains play a

pivotal role in creating what is known as the ‘orographic effect.’ As moist air masses
move toward mountainous regions, they are forced to ascend. When the air rises, it cools
and condenses, forming clouds and precipitation on the windward side of the mountains.
This phenomenon is why areas on the windward side of a mountain range (facing the
incoming wind) typically receive more rainfall.

In contrast, the leeward side (the side sheltered from the wind) often becomes a rain
shadow region, experiencing significantly less precipitation. For example, the eastern
side of the Sierra Nevada mountains in the United States exhibits arid conditions
compared to the western side, which receives ample rainfall.

3. Prevailing Winds

The direction and nature of prevailing winds profoundly influence rainfall patterns.
Winds blowing from the ocean towards the land (onshore winds) carry moist air that can
lead to increased rainfall. In contrast, offshore winds (blowing from the land to the ocean)
typically bring drier conditions.

Trade winds and monsoons are prime examples of prevailing wind patterns that affect
regional rainfall. The monsoon winds, particularly in South Asia, bring heavy seasonal
rainfall by reversing direction and drawing moist air inland during the summer months.

4. Atmospheric Pressure Systems

Atmospheric pressure systems, such as high-pressure and low-pressure zones,

significantly influence rainfall. High-pressure systems are associated with descending
air, which inhibits cloud formation and results in dry conditions. Conversely, low-
pressure systems encourage rising air, which cools and condenses to form clouds and
precipitation.

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a critical low-pressure belt near the
equator where trade winds from the Northern and Southern Hemispheres converge. This
area is characterized by high humidity and frequent rainfall, shaping the climate of
equatorial regions.

5. Temperature

Temperature is intrinsically linked to the capacity of air to hold moisture. Warmer air can
hold more water vapor, which increases the potential for rainfall when the air rises and
cools. Tropical regions, where temperatures are consistently high, usually experience
more significant convective rainfall due to the enhanced evaporation and moisture
content in the atmosphere.

On the other hand, polar and high-altitude regions often have lower temperatures,
resulting in decreased moisture-holding capacity and, therefore, less rainfall.

6. Ocean Currents

Ocean currents, both warm and cold, can also exert a profound influence on rainfall
patterns in coastal regions. Warm ocean currents, such as the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic
Ocean, can increase the temperature and moisture content of air masses, leading to higher
precipitation levels in adjacent coastal areas.

Conversely, cold ocean currents, like the Humboldt Current along the western coast of
South America, can cool the overlying air, reducing its capacity to hold moisture and
leading to arid conditions on land. This is a contributing factor to the aridity of the
Atacama Desert in Chile, one of the driest places on Earth.

7. Human Activities

Human activities, such as deforestation, urbanization, and the emission of greenhouse

gases, have increasingly impacted local and global rainfall patterns. Deforestation
reduces the number of trees that can transpire water into the atmosphere, potentially
lowering local humidity levels and reducing rainfall.

Urbanization, with its extensive concrete surfaces, can alter local temperature and
humidity distributions, often creating urban heat islands. These heat islands can affect
local atmospheric circulation and potentially alter precipitation patterns.

Moreover, the emission of greenhouse gases is contributing to global climate change,

which is predicted to alter rainfall patterns worldwide. Changes in global temperatures
can shift the distribution of high and low-pressure systems, impact ocean current
behaviours, and modify prevailing wind patterns, leading to changes in rainfall
distribution.

8. Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Activity

Cyclones and anticyclones are weather systems that cause significant variations in
rainfall. Cyclones, typically associated with low-pressure systems, are known for
bringing heavy rainfall and sometimes leading to flooding. These systems can be tropical,
like hurricanes, or temperate, like mid-latitude cyclones.

Anticyclones, associated with high-pressure systems, generally bring dry and stable
weather conditions. Regions frequently affected by anticyclonic conditions are likely to
experience lower rainfall.

9. Seasonal Variability

Seasonal changes significantly influence rainfall in many parts of the world. The tilt of
the Earth’s axis and its orbit around the sun cause variations in temperature and daylight
hours, leading to different weather patterns in different seasons. For instance, many
tropical regions experience distinct wet and dry seasons based on the shifting patterns of
the ITCZ.

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Components of hydrologic cycle

The hydrologic cycle can be subdivided into three major systems: The oceans being the
major reservoir and source of water, the atmosphere functioning as the carrier and
deliverer of water and the land as the user of water. The amount of water available at a
particular place change with time because of changes in the supply and delivery.
On a global basis, the water movement is a closed system but on a local basis it is an
open system. The major components of the hydrologic cycle are precipitation (rainfall,
snowfall, hale, sleet, fog, dew, drizzle, etc.), interception, depression storage,
evaporation, transpiration, infiltration, percolation, moisture storage in the unsaturated
zone, and runoff (surface runoff, interflow, and baseflow).

Evaporation of water takes place from the oceans and the land surface mainly due to solar
energy. The moisture moves in the atmosphere in the form of water vapour which
precipitates on land surface or oceans in the form of rain, snow, hail, sleet, etc. A part of
this precipitation is intercepted by vegetation or buildings. Of the amount reaching the
land surface, a part infiltrates into the soil and the remaining water runs off the land
surface to join streams. These streams finally discharge into the ocean.

Some of the infiltrated water percolates deep to join groundwater and some comes back
to the streams or appears on the surface as springs. This immense movement of water is
mainly driven by solar energy: the excess of incoming radiation over the outgoing
radiation. Therefore, sun is the prime mover of the hydrologic cycle. The energy for
evaporation of water from streams, lakes, ponds and oceans and other open water bodies
comes from sun. A substantial quantity of moisture is added to the atmosphere by
transpiration of water from vegetation. Living beings also supply water vapor to the
atmosphere through perspiration. Gravity has an important role in the movement of water
on the earth’s surface and anthropogenic activities also have an increasingly important
influence on the water movement.

An interesting feature of the hydrologic cycle is that at some point in each phase, there
usually occur: (a) transportation of water, (b) temporary storage, and (c) change of state.
For example, in the atmospheric phase, there occurs vapor flow, vapor storage in the
atmosphere and condensation or formation of precipitation created by a change from
vapor to either the liquid or solid state. Moreover, in the atmosphere, water is present in
the vapor form while it is mostly (saline) liquid in the oceans.

Present status of water resources in Karnataka

Karnataka is the eighth largest in terms of population, through 1, 91,791 sq. km. covering
5.83 per cent of the country's area; it is projected to stand at 67.56 million in 2020, and
has two main river systems. The Krishna and its tributaries in the north, and the Cauvery
and its tributaries in the south. With a large area of the state in the drought prone area,
the use of irrigation water is important as Karnataka has limited water resources (1,608
cubic metres/person/year overall and approximately 1,072 cubic metres/person/year in
eastward flowing rivers). Of the total water usage, approximately 26 per cent is from
groundwater. However, the groundwater sources are "overexploited" in 52 taluks across
15 districts, while it is "critical" in 10 taluks of eight districts and "semi-critical" in 35
taluks of 17 districts. "Groundwater is the dominant form of irrigation in the state, with
56 per cent of the area of irrigation in the state coming from ground water. According to
the department of Water Resources, “Karnataka is one of the country's most water-
stressed states, with 61 percent area drought-prone.56 percent of land in the state is
irrigated by groundwater.” Increasing population is increasing the pressure on water. The
relative importance of agriculture in the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) is
reducing quite quickly. The demand for water by allied sectors such as livestock,
fisheries, aquaculture, and non-agriculture sectors are increasing rapidly. The demand
from the industry is expected to almost double from 2020 to 2030.

Major challenges of water resources in Karnataka

The state of Karnataka enjoys a substantial amount of rainfall and has a significant
quantity of water resources but it is not enough to meet the ever-increasing water
requirement of the state.
1. Karnataka suffers from repetitive droughts. In spite of the availability of water from
the river systems and tanks, Karnataka faces the serious issue of 67 percent of its land
marked for irrigation falling under dry tracts.

2. Increasing population and living standards. With the rapidly increasing population and
increasing the living standards. The pressure on the water resources is constantly on the
rise. The per capita availability of water resources is reducing day by day.

3. Rainfall and water depute. The erratic behaviour of rainfall and the inter-state River
water disputes aggravate the problem. The impact of climate change on the water
resources also cannot be ignored.

4. Misuse and poor management. Siltation of water bodies, misuse of resources, poor
management of catchment area all add to the stressful water resource situation in the
state.

5. Decline of ground water resources. The ground water is the major sources of drinking
and irrigation in Karnataka. Over 90 percent of drinking water supply schemes in the
rural areas of the state are based on ground water. This over exploitation is causing the
fast decline of ground water resources in the state. The result is the scarcity of safe
drinking water across many parts of Karnataka.
1. Water Geographical Distribution

Karnataka is divided into different river basins, each with its own water availability and
challenges.

A. River Basins in Karnataka

Karnataka has seven major river basins:

1. Cauvery Basin – Covers southern Karnataka; major lifeline for Bengaluru,

Mysuru, and Mandya.
2. Krishna Basin – Covers northern Karnataka; vital for agriculture and drinking
water.
3. Godavari Basin – Covers parts of Bidar and Kalaburagi.
4. West Flowing Rivers Basin – Includes rivers like Sharavathi, Kali, and
Netravati, which drain into the Arabian Sea.
5. Tungabhadra Basin – A tributary of Krishna, crucial for irrigation in Ballari and
Raichur.
6. Palar Basin – Covers parts of Kolar and Chikkaballapur.
7. Pennar Basin – Covers Tumakuru and parts of Kolar and Chikkaballapur.

B. Rainfall Distribution

• Karnataka receives uneven rainfall due to its geographical diversity.

• The coastal region (Udupi, Mangaluru, Karwar) receives heavy rainfall (3000-
4000 mm annually).
• The Malnad region (Western Ghats) gets moderate to high rainfall (1000-2500
mm).
• The northern interior region (Vijayapura, Bagalkot, Kalaburagi) is drought-
prone with less than 600 mm rainfall annually.

C. Groundwater Distribution

• Groundwater is abundant in the coastal and Malnad regions but is depleting in

urban areas and dry regions.
• Over-extraction in Bengaluru, Kolar, Chikkaballapur, and parts of North
Karnataka has led to serious depletion.
 • Fluoride and nitrate contamination is common in Ballari, Raichur, and
Tumakuru.

D. Major Reservoirs and Dams

Karnataka has several reservoirs that store and regulate water supply:

• Krishna Raja Sagar (KRS) – On Cauvery River.

• Tungabhadra Dam – On Tungabhadra River.
• Almatti Dam – On Krishna River.
• Harangi Dam – On Harangi River.
• Linganamakki Dam – On Sharavathi River.

2. Water Quality in Karnataka

Water quality in Karnataka varies based on location and pollution levels.

A. Surface Water Quality (Rivers, Lakes, Reservoirs)

• Cauvery and Krishna rivers generally have good water quality in upper
stretches but deteriorate downstream due to pollution.
• Lakes in Bengaluru (like Bellandur and Varthur) are highly polluted with
industrial and domestic sewage.
• Arkavathi and Vrishabhavathi rivers are contaminated with heavy metals and
sewage.

B. Groundwater Quality

• Fluoride contamination: Found in Ballari, Raichur, Kolar, Chikkaballapur, and

parts of Tumakuru, leading to health issues like fluorosis.
• Nitrate contamination: Common in agricultural belts due to excessive fertilizer
use.
• Salinity issues: Found in some parts of North Karnataka due to over-extraction.

C. Urban Water Pollution

• Bengaluru, Mysuru, and Hubballi-Dharwad face serious water pollution issues

due to untreated sewage and industrial waste.
• Lack of proper sewage treatment plants (STPs) leads to contamination of surface
and groundwater.
D. Coastal Water Quality

• Generally good but faces industrial pollution in Mangaluru and Karwar.

• Oil spills and chemical discharge are growing concerns.

3. Major Water Quality Issues & Solutions

A. Issues

• Industrial and sewage pollution affecting rivers and lakes.

• Groundwater contamination (fluoride, nitrates, heavy metals).
• Over-extraction of groundwater leading to depletion.
• Dying lakes and wetlands due to urbanization.

B. Solutions

• Restoration of lakes and rivers through desilting and wastewater treatment.

• Strict enforcement of pollution control measures on industries.
• Rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge to prevent depletion.
• Expansion of sewage treatment plants (STPs) in urban areas.

Influence of Human Activity on the Water Cycle

Human activities have significantly altered the natural water cycle, affecting water
availability, quality, and distribution. The key ways humans impact the water cycle
include deforestation, urbanization, pollution, groundwater depletion, and climate
change. Below is a detailed breakdown of how human activities influence different
stages of the water cycle.

1. Changes in Evaporation and Transpiration

A. Deforestation and Agriculture

• Deforestation reduces transpiration, which is the process by which plants

release water into the atmosphere.
• Less vegetation leads to lower humidity and rainfall, disrupting local climate
patterns.
• Large-scale agriculture (like paddy fields) can increase evaporation from
irrigation systems but may reduce transpiration if natural forests are cleared.
B. Urbanization

• The replacement of natural landscapes with concrete and asphalt reduces

water absorption and increases surface temperatures, enhancing evaporation
from artificial surfaces.
• This can contribute to the urban heat island effect, causing higher local
temperatures and altered rainfall patterns.

2. Impact on Precipitation Patterns

A. Climate Change and Global Warming

• Human-induced climate change (due to greenhouse gas emissions) is altering

rainfall patterns worldwide.
• Some regions experience more intense rainfall leading to floods, while others face
reduced precipitation, causing droughts.
• Warmer temperatures increase evaporation, leading to extreme weather events.

B. Air Pollution and Cloud Formation

• Air pollution (from industries and vehicles) releases aerosols, which can affect
cloud formation and precipitation patterns.
• Some pollutants (like sulphur dioxide) can cause acid rain, which damages
ecosystems and reduces soil fertility.

3. Changes in Runoff and Infiltration

A. Urbanization and Impervious Surfaces

• Concrete roads, buildings, and pavements prevent water from soaking into the
ground.
• This increases surface runoff, leading to flash floods and waterlogging in cities.
• Reduced infiltration lowers groundwater recharge, worsening water scarcity.

B. Dam Construction and River Diversions

• Large dams (such as the Krishna Raja Sagar and Almatti dams in Karnataka) alter
natural river flow and water storage.
• Canal irrigation diverts river water, reducing flow to downstream areas and
affecting ecosystems.
 • Artificial reservoirs increase surface evaporation, leading to water loss.

4. Groundwater Depletion

A. Over-extraction for Agriculture

• In many parts of Karnataka (e.g., Kolar, Chikkaballapur, and Ballari),

groundwater is heavily extracted for irrigation.
• This leads to a decline in the water table, causing wells and borewells to dry up.
• Excessive groundwater extraction can also cause land subsidence (sinking of
land).

B. Industrial and Domestic Overuse

• Industries and cities overuse groundwater, reducing availability for rural areas.
• Bengaluru relies heavily on borewells, causing long-term depletion.

5. Water Pollution

A. Industrial and Domestic Waste

• Factories release toxic chemicals and heavy metals (like lead and mercury) into
rivers and lakes.
• Uncontrolled sewage discharge contaminates water bodies, making them unsafe
for drinking and agriculture.
• Polluted rivers (e.g., Arkavathi and Vrishabhavathi in Bengaluru) affect
ecosystems and human health.

B. Agricultural Pollution

• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides leads to nitrate contamination

of groundwater.
• Pesticide runoff from farms pollutes lakes and rivers, harming aquatic life.

6. Influence on Water Storage

A. Destruction of Lakes and Wetlands

• Encroachment and land reclamation for urban expansion reduce natural water
storage.
 • Bengaluru, once known as the "City of Lakes," has lost many of its lakes due to
urbanization.
• Loss of wetlands leads to flooding and reduced groundwater recharge.

B. Artificial Water Storage

• Large reservoirs and dams store water but cause evaporation losses.
• Artificial structures disrupt natural sediment flow, affecting river ecosystems.

7. Climate Change and Extreme Events

• Increased global temperatures cause glaciers to melt, affecting river flow (e.g.,
Ganga and Brahmaputra in India).
• More frequent droughts and floods disrupt agriculture, drinking water supply,
and ecosystems.
• Cyclones and hurricanes increase, leading to storm surges and freshwater
contamination.

Human activities are significantly altering the water cycle, leading to water shortages,
pollution, flooding, and climate change effects. Sustainable water management
practices like rainwater harvesting, afforestation, wastewater treatment, and
groundwater conservation are necessary to restore balance to the water cycle.