Study Notes: Foundation Phase Mathematics

Unit 1: Understanding the Curriculum

Time Allocation
• Foundation Phase Mathematics is allocated 7 hours per week for Grades 1, 2,
and 3 (approximately 1 hour 24 minutes per day).
• In practice, schools often deliver less than 7 hours due to:
o Inflexible timetables
o Lack of stimulating teaching approaches
o Teacher anxiety about mathematics

Specific Aims (CAPS, p. 8)

The broad, long-term aims are for learners to:

• Develop awareness of mathematical relationships in social, environmental,

cultural, and economic contexts
• Build confidence to face mathematical challenges without fear
• Foster an inquiring mind and love for mathematics
• Acquire conceptual understanding that enhances perception of mathematics
• Acknowledge mathematics as part of daily life
• Possess knowledge and skills for application in mathematically related subjects
and further study

Specific Skills Learners Must Acquire

• Correct use of mathematical language
• Skills in listening, communicating, thinking, reasoning logically, and
applying mathematical knowledge
• Number concept, computation, and application skills

Understanding the Foundation Phase Learner

• Foundation Phase learners need opportunities to do, talk, and record their
cognitive thoughts (DOBE, 2011:10).
• They learn best through hands-on, practical activities using manipulatives.
• Learners construct knowledge by interacting with their environment
(constructivist approach).
• Social interaction is essential — learners build understanding through
discussion and collaboration with peers and teachers.
 • Young learners often believe what they see (lack of conservation); only
experience develops reasoning.
• Learners develop through three phases of basic fact mastery: counting
strategies → reasoning strategies → automatic recall.
• Understanding of place value develops gradually: learners first construct a
system of ones before understanding groups of tens.
• Do not rush learners; provide ample practical activities with large sets to
encourage grouping.

Counting and Mental Mathematical Activities (Grades 2 and 3)

Counting
• Counting connects oral names, written names, and quantity.
• It is essential for developing base-ten understanding.
• Three ways to count:
o By ones
o By groups and singles (e.g., 5 groups of ten and 3 singles)
o By tens and ones

Mental Mathematical Activities

• Whole Class Activity (~20 minutes): Includes grade-specific counting, number
intervals, and mental mathematics.
• Small Group Teaching: Teacher works orally and practically on counting,
concept development, and problem-solving.
• Reasoning strategies for mental maths:
o One-more-than and two-more-than (counting on)
o Doubles
o Combinations of 10
o Making 10
o Near-doubles
o Think-addition for subtraction

Progression (CAPS)
• Grade 2: Recognise place value to 99; identify value of each digit
• Grade 3: Recognise place value to 999; decompose into hundreds, tens, and
ones
Number Range and Resources

Number Range Progression (CAPS)

• Grade 1: Recognise place value of two-digit numbers to 20; decompose into tens
and ones
• Grade 2: Recognise place value to 99; identify value of each digit
• Grade 3: Recognise place value to 999; decompose into hundreds, tens, and
ones

Recommended Resources for Foundation Phase Mathematics Classroom

• Counters, dice, counting frame, height chart
• Number grid posters (1-100, 101-200)
• Number lines (vertical/horizontal)
• Flash cards, play money, calendar, analogue clock
• Balance scale, building blocks, modelling clay
• Boxes of different shapes, plastic bottles/containers
• Examples of 3-D shapes: sphere, rectangular prism, cube, cone, pyramid,
cylinder
• Plastic/cardboard 2-D shapes
• Mathematical games: Ludo, Snakes and Ladders, jigsaw puzzles, dominos,
tangrams
• For Grades R and 1: Sand and water play areas, climbing apparatus, playshop,
appropriate games

Base Ten Models (Key Resources for Place Value)

• Proportional models (groupable): Counters, stick bundles, cubes
• Proportional models (pre-grouped): Base-ten blocks, ten-frame cards, strips
and squares
• Non-proportional models: Linkable abacus, money, Cuisenaire rods (use only
after conceptual understanding)
• Place Value Cards (Flard/Spray Cards): Show expanded notation (e.g., for
243)
Five Content Areas and Weightings

The table below shows the percentage of teaching time allocated to each content area
per grade:

Content Area Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

Numbers,
operations and 65% 60% 58%
relationships
Patterns, functions
10% 10% 10%
and algebra
Space and shape 11% 13% 13%
Measurement 9% 12% 14%
Data handling 5% 5% 5%
• Weighting determines the amount of teaching and assessment time per content
area. Higher weighting = more time allocated.
• Teachers spend far more time on Numbers, operations and relationships than
on Data handling.

Teaching Time, Lesson Planning, and Teaching Guidelines

• A successful mathematics lesson must be thoroughly planned.
• Foundation Phase learners need opportunities to do, talk, and record their
cognitive thoughts (DOBE, 2011:10).

Three Parts of a Mathematics Lesson

1. Whole Class Activities (~20 minutes):
a. Introduction of the lesson
b. Grade-specific counting and number intervals
c. Teacher outlines expectations for class and independent activities
d. Effective classroom management is key
2. Small Group Teaching:
a. Group of 8-12 learners with similar academic ability
 b. Teacher works closely using manipulatives and discussion
c. Promotes counting, estimation, concept development, problem-solving
d. Learners are encouraged to do, talk, demonstrate, and record
3. Independent Work:
a. Other learners work on written work, mathematical games, or practical
tasks without teacher guidance
b. Tasks must be at a level learners can complete independently

The Three-Phase Lesson Format (van de Walle et al.)

A problem-based lesson follows this structure:

• Before Phase:
o Activate prior knowledge: Connect to previous learning or life
experiences
o Ensure the task is understood without explaining how to solve it
o Establish clear expectations for student work and collaboration
• During Phase:
o Students explore the task individually or in groups
o Teacher notices students' mathematical thinking
o Provide appropriate support and worthwhile extensions
• After Phase:
o Whole-class discussion: students share, justify, challenge, and compare
solutions
o Teacher primes a mathematical question, listens actively, summarizes
main ideas
o Essential for learning — plan sufficient time (e.g., 20 minutes)

Process for Preparing a Problem-Based Lesson (8 steps)

1. Determine learning goals
2. Consider students' needs
3. Select, design, or adapt a worthwhile task
4. Design lesson assessments
5. Plan the before phase
6. Plan the during phase
7. Plan the after phase
8. Reflect and refine
Assessment Guidelines

Formal Assessment (Assessment of Learning)

• Documented for progression and merit
• Conducted in small ability groups (manageable size)
• All resources and manipulatives must be readily available
• Assess content in multiple ways: observation, oral, practical, written
• Must not be language-based or reading dependent — avoid assessing language
ability instead of mathematical ability

Informal Assessment (Assessment for Learning)

• Daily monitoring of learners' progress
• Includes observation checklists and rubrics (useful for measurement and
problem-solving)
• Takes place through observations, discussions, and practical demonstrations in
small groups

CAPS Exemplar Assessments (pages 488-512)

• Observation checklists for capacity/volume and mass
• Problem-solving rubrics for Grades 1, 2, and 3
• Example: Grade 1 problem — "A dog has 4 legs. How many legs do 12 dogs
have?" Rating 6 means the learner understood the problem and solved it
appropriately for Grade 1.

Assessment for Learning (van de Walle et al.)

Key Distinctions:

• Assessment of learning (summative): Evaluates at a given moment

• Assessment for learning (formative): Ongoing, informs instruction and
feedback
Assessment Methods:

1. Observations: Use focused checklists and rubrics; record anecdotal notes on

about 5 students per day
2. Questions: Ask probing questions to reveal reasoning (e.g., "Can you explain
what you did?" "Why do you think that?")
3. Interviews: One-on-one diagnostic interviews using manipulatives; flexible
starting point
4. Tasks: Performance tasks, open-ended problems, translation tasks
Translation Tasks:

• Students demonstrate connections between four representations: words, models,

numbers/equations, and word problems
Rubrics:

• Generic Four-Point Rubric:

o 4 (Excellent): Full accomplishment, minor errors
o 3 (Proficient): Substantial accomplishment, needs support
o 2 (Marginal): Partial accomplishment, not confident
o 1 (Unsatisfactory): Little accomplishment, fragmented
• Task-Specific Rubrics: Tailored to a particular task
Student Self-Assessment:

• Develops metacognition and ownership of learning

• Use journals or quick checks (e.g., thumbs up/down, exit tickets)
Tests:

• Maximize learning by analyzing mistakes, discussing faulty reasoning, and

allowing retakes
Grading and Shaping Instruction:

• Grade based on alignment with learning goals and progress over time
• Use assessment data to shape future instruction and capitalize on student
strengths

2018 Mathematics Teaching and Learning Framework

• Does not replace CAPS but extends teachers' understanding of teaching and
learning mathematics
• Focus on teaching mathematics for understanding
• Key reading: pages 8-10, 15-19, and 23-35 of the framework document

Unit 2: Learning Theories

What Does It Mean to Do and Learn Mathematics?

• Mathematics is about generating strategies for solving problems, applying
them, and checking if answers make sense.
• It goes beyond simply copying procedures or completing exercises.
• Classroom maths should model real-world maths: help learners connect
concepts to life outside.
 • This requires moving from traditional teacher-centred instruction to a learner-
centred, constructivist approach.

Traditional vs Constructivist Classrooms

Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom
Teacher tells learners how to do maths Learners actively build understanding
Learners memorise and repeat Learners explore, discuss, and problem-
procedures solve
Rote learning Deep, connected understanding
• Constructivism is rooted in Piaget's theory of cognitive development — learners
construct knowledge by interacting with their environment.

Relational Understanding

Understanding in Mathematics
• Understanding is the measure of the quality and quantity of connections that an
idea has with other concepts (van de Walle et al.).
• The more connections between concepts, the deeper the understanding.
• Understanding exists on a continuum, from superficial to deep.

Instrumental vs Relational Understanding

Instrumental Understanding Relational Understanding
Knowing what to do (rules and
Knowing what to do and why it works
procedures) but not why it works
The learner sees connections between
Rote learning
ideas
Example: Applying "what you do to the Example: Understanding that because
top, you do to the bottom" for equivalent the shaded area stays the same when the
fractions without understanding why whole is partitioned into more equal parts
Fragmented knowledge Network of connected ideas
• Relational understanding allows learners to create new ideas from existing
ones and activates prior knowledge.
• This is the goal of teaching.

Multiple Representations (Lesh, Cramer, Doerr, Post, Zawojewski)

• Using different representations of a mathematical concept strengthens
understanding.
 • Learners who cannot translate between representations have difficulty solving
problems and understanding computations.

Five Representations
Representation Description Example (Ratio)
Speaking about the "Three cats for every four
1. Oral Language
concept verbally dogs"
Drawing or illustrating the A diagram showing 3 cats
2. Pictures
concept and 4 dogs
Placing the concept in a A pet store with 3 cats and
3. Real-world Situations
meaningful context 4 dogs
Using mathematical
4. Written Symbols or
notation
5. Manipulatives and Using physical objects to Counters arranged in
Models represent the concept groups of 3 and 4
• Learners who can translate a concept between these representations have a
stronger, more connected understanding.
• The goal is to help learners move fluently between all five representations.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Key Concepts (Shared with Piaget)

• New knowledge is constructed from prior knowledge
• Learners' understandings will differ
• Making connections is essential

Key Concepts (Unique to Vygotsky)

1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The range of knowledge that is out of
reach for a learner alone but achievable with help from peers or a more capable
other (teacher or peer). Learning happens within this zone.
2. Semiotic Mediation: Language, diagrams, pictures, and other cultural tools are
used to convey meaning — these tools mediate learning.
3. Social Interaction: Essential for learning — information is exchanged between
people. Learning is a social process, not an isolated one.
Mathematical Proficiency (Five Strands) — Kilpatrick, Swafford, Findell

Benefits of Mathematical Proficiency

• Effective learning
• Having to remember less
• Increased retention and recall
• Enhanced problem-solving skills
• Improved attitude

Five Interwoven Strands

Strand Description
Network of connections and
1. Conceptual Understanding interpretations of mathematical concepts.
Contributes to relational understanding.
Flexibility in choosing suitable strategies
2. Procedural Fluency and skill in carrying out processes
precisely and efficiently.
Knowing the concept and knowing how to
solve the problem (combines conceptual
3. Productive Disposition understanding and procedural fluency).
Habitual inclination to see mathematics
as sensible and useful.
Ability to formulate, represent, and solve
4. Strategic Competence
mathematical problems.
Capacity for logical thought, reflection,
5. Adaptive Reasoning
explanation, and justification.
• These strands are interdependent — all five must develop together for true
mathematical proficiency.
• Teachers should aim to integrate all five strands in lessons.

Unit 3: Numbers, Operations and Relationships

Place Value

What Is Place Value?

• Place value means the same digit can represent different values based on its
position in a number.
• Example: The digit 5 has value 5 in 65, value 50 in 53, and value 500 in 532.
Three Components of Place Value
1. Conceptual knowledge: Grouping by tens and counting manipulatives
2. Procedural knowledge (oral): Using number names
3. Procedural knowledge (written): Writing numerals

Number Concept Development

• Learners first construct a system of ones (e.g., 55 as fifty-five ones).
• Understanding 55 as 50 and 5 requires constructing a system of tens.
• Do not rush learners — provide ample practical activities with large sets to
encourage grouping.

Counting and Grouping

• Three ways to count:
o By ones
o By groups and singles (e.g., 5 groups of ten and 3 singles)
o By tens and ones
• Use what learners know from counting by ones, then integrate grouping by ten.
• Ask: "What will happen if we count these by tens and ones?" — let learners
discover the relationship.
• Readiness for tens groupings: If learners count bars of ten cubes as individual
cubes (not as tens), they are not ready.

Base Ten Models

Type Examples When to Use
Early development —
Counters, stick bundles,
Proportional — Groupable learners physically group
cubes
units into tens
After groupable —
Proportional — Pre- Base-ten blocks, ten-frame
"trading" is key (ten ones
grouped cards, strips and squares
for one ten)
Only after conceptual
Linkable abacus, money,
Non-proportional understanding is
Cuisenaire rods
established
• Trading is crucial: ten ones can be traded for one group of ten, and vice versa —
this is the basis for "carrying" and "borrowing".

Place Value Cards (Flard/Spray Cards)

• Show expanded notation (e.g., for 243)
 • Activity sequence:
o Start with 1-10
o Then teens
o Then multiples of 10 (10-90)
o Then two-digit numbers (e.g., 47)
o Then three-digit numbers (100-900)
• Always combine with ten-frames to show quantity ("how manyness")
• Learners hold cards correctly: one on top of the other in the top right-hand corner

Progression in CAPS
• Grade 1: Recognise place value of two-digit numbers to 20; decompose into tens
and ones
• Grade 2: Recognise place value to 99; identify value of each digit
• Grade 3: Recognise place value to 999; decompose into hundreds, tens, and
ones

Mastering Basic Facts

Three Developmental Phases

Phase Description
Phase 1: Counting Strategies Using objects, fingers, or verbal counting
Using known information to derive
Phase 2: Reasoning Strategies
unknown facts
Efficient, automatic response within 3
Phase 3: Mastery
seconds
• Basic fact: Addition/multiplication where both addends/factors are less than 10;
corresponding subtraction/division facts.

Approaches to Teaching Basic Facts

Approach Description Effectiveness

 Skipping Phase 2, drilling
Memorization Ineffective
facts
Teacher explains
Explicit Strategy Instruction strategies, students Effective
practice
Teacher sets tasks where
Guided Invention students discover number Effective
relationships

Strategies for Addition

Reasoning Strategies for Addition Facts

• One-more-than and two-more-than (counting on)
• Adding zero
• Doubles (, )
• Combinations of 10 (, )
• Making 10 ( as )
• Using 5 as an anchor
• Near-doubles ( as double 6 plus 1)
• Think-addition: For , think "8 plus what makes 13?"

Strategies for Subtraction

Reasoning Strategies for Subtraction Facts

• Down under 10: For , subtract to 10 (4), then subtract the rest (4 more), answer
6
• Take from 10: For , decompose 15 as , subtract , add 5 back:
Strategies for Multiplication and Division

Reasoning Strategies for Multiplication Facts

• Foundational facts: 2s (doubles), 5s (clock facts), 10s, 0s, 1s
• Nines: Derived from tens (); pattern of digits summing to 9
• Derived strategies:
o Break apart: as
o Adding a group: as
o Doubling/doubling again: as double 6 (12), double again (24)
Reasoning Strategies for Division Facts
• Think multiplication (missing factor): — "4 times what is 36?"
• Practice near-division facts (e.g., , remainder 2)

Reinforcing Mastery
• Use games and activities (not drills) that focus on reasoning strategies
• Example: Strive to Derive (using arrays) — helps students decompose unknown
facts into known ones

Invented Strategies for Addition and Subtraction Computation

Three Types of Computational Strategies

Type Description
Counting by ones with manipulatives or
1. Direct Modelling
drawings
Mental methods (no counting by ones) —
2. Student-Invented Strategies
powerful for number sense
Teacher-taught paper-and-pencil
3. Standard Algorithms methods — introduce only after invented
strategies

Student-Invented Strategies
• Split Strategy: Breaking numbers into tens and ones. Example:
• Jump Strategy: Counting on tens, then ones on a number line. Example: —
jump 20 to 65, then 3 to 68
• Shortcut (Compensation): Round to nearest ten, then adjust. Example: as

Benefits of Invented Strategies

• Fewer errors
• Less remediation needed
• Greater number sense
• Foundation for mental computation
Standard Algorithms for Addition and Subtraction

Key Principles
• Three parts: Certainty of procedure, understanding reasons, knowing when
to use
• Must be understood, not just followed
• Delay introduction until after invented strategies are well developed

When to Introduce
• Only after learners have a solid foundation with invented strategies
• Only if the learner understands why the algorithm works

Money

CAPS Requirements
• Grade 2: Recognise coins (5c-R5) and notes (R10, R20, R50); solve problems
— totals and change to R99 and cents to 50c
• Grade 3: Recognise all coins and notes; solve totals and change; convert
between rands and cents

Key Activities
1. Sorting coins by value/colour; identification by feel
2. One-to-one correspondence: Match coin to picture
3. Counting money: Use counting strips; ask total cost
4. Ordering coins by value
5. Equivalence: Use play coins to show different groupings for same value
6. Classroom shops for real-life practice

Fractions

Key Concepts
• A fraction is a part of a whole; shares must be equal
• A whole can be a single object or a set of objects
• Unitary fraction: Numerator 1 (e.g., , )
• Non-unitary fraction: Numerator other than 1 (e.g., , )
CAPS Progression
• Grade 2: Equal sharing with unitary fractions
• Grade 3: Equal sharing with unitary and non-unitary fractions

Fraction Language
• Key vocabulary: half, quarter, third, equal parts, whole, share, fair
• Start with real-life experiences (sharing food, paper folding)
• Progress to concrete examples (geoboard, counters)
• Then verbal language
• Then diagrams
• Finally written symbols

Early Fraction Ideas

Early Fraction Activities:

1. Sharing: Divide a "chocolate" equally among 2, 3, or 4 children; emphasise "fair"

and "equal"
2. Paper folding: Fold squares into halves, thirds, quarters
3. Stories: Use context (e.g., "The mouse and the cheese") to introduce fraction
names
4. Geoboard fractions: Divide shapes into equal parts using rubber bands
5. Comparing fractions: Use fraction strips to see which is larger (e.g., vs )
Multiple Representations for Fractions:

• Start with real-life experiences, then concrete examples, then verbal language,
then diagrams, finally written symbols

Fraction Constructs: Part-Whole and Measurement

Three Models for Fractions:

Model Description Examples

Partitioning a region into Pie pieces, paper folding,
1. Area Model
equal parts pattern blocks, rectangles
2. Length/Measurement Partitioning a length into Fraction strips, number
Model equal parts lines, folded paper strips
Counters arranged in
Partitioning a set of objects
3. Set Model rows/columns, a dozen
into equal groups
eggs
• Part-Whole Construct: A fraction represents a part of a whole (single object or
set). The whole is divided into equal parts.
 • Measurement Construct: A fraction represents a distance or length along a
number line. Fractions are points on a continuum.

Fractions and Time

• Telling time on an analogue clock involves understanding fractions of an hour:
o hour = 30 minutes
o hour = 15 minutes
o hour = 45 minutes
• The clock face is an area model (divided into 12 equal parts) and a
measurement model (time as a continuous quantity).
• Learners can use paper folding to create clocks and explore fractional parts of an
hour.

Unit 4: Measurement

What Is Measurement?
• Measurement is a practical way in which Mathematics is used in real life.
• It involves comparing an attribute of an object or situation with a unit that has the
same attribute.
Definition: Measurement is the process of describing a continuous quantity with a
numerical value. A measurement is a number that indicates a comparison between the
attribute of the object being measured and the same attribute of a given unit of
measure.

Three Steps of Measuring

1. Decide on the attribute to be measured (length, mass, capacity, time, area,
volume, etc.)
2. Select a unit that has that same attribute
3. Compare the units — by filling, covering, matching, or other method with the
attribute being measured. The number of units required is the measure.

Real-Life Applications of Measurement

• Commerce — assessing profit, pricing goods
• Construction — measuring materials, duration of projects
• Transportation — weighing loads, measuring distances
• Scientific research — precise data collection
• Art — proportions, dimensions
• Home — cooking, telling time, measuring spaces
Developing Measurement Concepts and Skills

Three Levels of Measurement Concept Development

Level Description
Comparing objects directly and
1. Direct Comparison Experiences
developing vocabulary about attributes
Using non-standard units (body parts,
2. Arbitrary Units of Measurement
paper clips, blocks)
3. Metric Units of Measurement Introducing standard units (kg, m, l, etc.)
Sequence of Instruction:

Step Understanding Activity

Make comparisons based
on the attribute
1 Understand the attribute
(longer/shorter,
heavier/lighter)
Use physical models of
Understand how
measuring units (begin
2 filling/covering with units
with nonstandard, progress
produces a number
to standard)
Make measuring tools and
3 Use measuring tools compare them with unit
models

Conservation
• Conservation is the understanding that liquids and solids can be transformed in
shape without any change in their volume, mass, length, etc.
• Young children believe what they see — only experience develops reasoning
that lets them understand conservation.

Estimation
•An estimate requires thinking and contemplation (not a guess)
•Always estimate against a known measurement (anchor or benchmark)
•Estimates cannot be "wrong" — practice helps learners reach closer
approximations
Estimation helps learners:

• Understand the attributes of objects

 • Understand the process of measuring
• Develop awareness of sizes and units

Arbitrary Units
• Arbitrary units are any objects used as units of measurement (tubs, blocks,
stones, hand spans, paper clips)
• Purpose:
o Understanding units as a set of identical objects
o Investigating how units are used
o Understanding that measurement is not always exact
o Realizing that arbitrary units differ between people — creating need for
standard units

Measuring Length

Definition
• Length is the measurement of an object or distance, from beginning to end, in
regular units or intervals.
• Length is an attribute found by locating two endpoints and examining how far it is
between those points.
• Standard units: centimetre (cm), metre (m), kilometre (km)

Real-Life Examples of Length Measurement

• Making clothes
• Buying carpet, curtains, wallpaper
• Construction (painters, joiners, plumbers, architects, engineers)

Key Steps in Learning About Length

1. Direct Comparison:
a. Develop vocabulary: long, short, longer, shorter, taller, taller than, shorter
than, longest, shortest, wide, narrow
b. Activities:
i. Compare objects by placing them next to each other
ii. Sort objects into "long" and "short" groups
iii. Use language to describe comparisons: "This pencil is longer than
my finger"
2. Four Principles of Iterating Length Units: Units must be:
a. Equal in length — or you cannot iterate them by counting
 b. Aligned with the length being measured
c. Placed without gaps — or a part is not measured
d. Placed without overlaps — or portions are measured more than once
3. Using Body Parts (Non-Uniform, Non-Standard Units):
a. Hand span, pace, foot length, finger width
b. Helps learners realise that different people get different results → need for
standard units
4. Using Arbitrary Units:
a. Examples: paper clips, pencil lengths, straws, connecting cubes,
Cuisenaire rods
b. Activity example: Measure the same object with units of different sizes to
understand that smaller units produce larger numeric measures
(inverse relationship)
5. Introducing Standard Units:
a. Metre (m): Children experience what a metre feels like using metre sticks
or 1-metre ropes; find objects that are the same length as, longer than, or
shorter than 1 metre; relate to body measures: how many hand spans
make a metre?
b. Centimetre (cm): Use rulers to measure shorter lengths; understand that
the spaces on rulers (not tick marks) represent the units; first estimate,
then measure
6. Making and Using Rulers:
a. Students should make their own rulers by gluing units (e.g., 5-cm strips)
onto card stock
b. This helps them understand:
i. Numbers on rulers count the units, not the tick marks
ii. The zero mark must align with the start of the object
iii. Rulers group multiple units so you don't have to iterate a single unit
Common Ruler Error: Aligning the object with 1 cm instead of zero — or reading the
last tick mark rather than counting spaces.

Measuring Curved Lines

• Place a piece of string along the curved line
• Mark the endpoints
• Straighten the string against a ruler to read the measurement

Progression of Length in Foundation Phase (CAPS)

Grade Expectations
 Compare and order length; estimate,
measure, compare, order using non-
Grade 1
standard measures (hand spans, paces,
pencil lengths)
Continue non-standard measures;
Grade 2
introduce metre as standard unit
Continue non-standard and metre;
Grade 3 introduce centimetres using a ruler (no
conversions between m and cm required)