Chapter

2
Cell: The Building
Block of Life

It is widely accepted amongst the scientific community that life

originated in water. Some researchers believe that life may have
originated in small water pools with changing environmental
Think It Over conditions rather than in the oceans. Hot springs are examples
of such environments. In India, the hot springs of Puga Valley in
y Where does a cell Ladakh maintain very high temperatures (nearly at the boiling
come from? point of water) even in a cold climate. These environmental
y How have conditions seem to be similar to those on the early Earth, about
technological 3.5 billion years ago. The organisms living in these hot springs
interventions are mostly heat-loving bacteria called thermophiles, which are
facilitated the
unicellular.
creation of new
knowledge in Scientists from the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences,
understanding the Lucknow, studied these hot springs and found that calcium carbonate
world beyond the formed rapidly around them. These deposits may have protected
naked eye? early organic molecules from harmful radiation and extreme
y How is the cell conditions, and they may have also helped in the formation of the
structural and first protective membrane — the barrier that defines a cell.
functional unit of
life? All living organisms are made up of cells. The cell represents the
basic level at which life exists. Some organisms, such as bacteria or
y How does a cell
multiply? yeast consist of only one cell (unicellular), while others like plants,
fish, birds or humans are made up of millions of cells (multicellular)
that work together. A group of similar cells performing similar
 Cell: The Building Block of Life 9

functions forms tissues. Different tissues

are organised to form an organ and several 1 km
organs work together to form organ systems.
Such as, nasal pores, nasal cavity, trachea
and lungs form respiratory system. 100 m

Even when cells are organised into Rocket

tissues, organs, and organ systems the cell
Neem Tree
remains the fundamental unit of structure 10 m
and function in all living organisms. This

Unaided eye
makes us wonder how such tiny cells
perform so many different activities. What Human height
1m
Great Indian Bustard
are the different components of a cell? How
do cells in our body communicate with each
other? Do cells live forever, or do they die? In 0.1 m
this chapter, we will explore the answers to Chicken egg
these questions as we enter the fascinating
world of cells!
1 cm

2.1 How to Study Cells?

What do we call the ability of the human Fish egg

eye to see two very close objects as separate 1 mm

and distinct? Imagine two tiny dots drawn Amoeba

on a piece of paper. As the dots are moved

Light microscope
closer, there comes a point at which they 100 µm
can no longer be seen as separate. When Most plant and
viewed from about 25 cm (the near point of animal cells
human eye), two points separated by about 10 µm
0.1 mm can be seen as distinct; otherwise, Nucleus
they appear as a single point. This is called Most bacteria
the limit of resolution of the human eye, Mitochondrion
1 µm
which is 0.1 mm.

Electron microscope
A cell is usually too small to be seen
Smallest bacteria
by the unaided eye (Fig. 2.1). This raises
100 nm
an important question — how have cell Viruses
biologists studied the structure and function
of cells that are much smaller than the limit Ribosomes
of resolution of the human eye? 10 nm
Proteins
You have learnt about Grade 8
convex lens. A convex lens or a Chapter 10
Curiosity Lipids
combination of lenses, i.e., an 1 nm
objective lens and an eyepiece are used for Small molecules
the magnification of an object (Fig. 2.1) to
C
make it appear larger. 0.1 nm Atoms
Robert Hooke was the first Grade 8
person to observe a cell in 1665 Curiosity Fig. 2.1: Size of the objects and its visibility through
Chapter 2 unaided to aided eye
using a self-designed microscope
(capable of about 200–300X magnification). While examining a thin slice
of cork, he observed small box-like compartments and named them ‘cells’.
In school laboratories, light microscopes are used to observe objects using
 Course adjustment Eye piece
different objective lenses (e.g., 10X, 40X) to achieve
knob
better magnification and resolution under visible
light. Explore different parts of a microscope
Body tube (Fig. 2.2) in your school laboratory and Grade 8
use it to observe fine structures of various Curiosity
Fine adjustment Objective Chapter 9
materials. Under the microscope, you
knob lens
will see a magnified image of an object. Can you
Handle estimate its actual size?
Stage

Mirror Activity 2.1: Let us estimate the size of a cell

Base 1. Take a transparent ruler with millimetre (mm)
markings.
Fig. 2.2: Structure of a light microscope 2. Place the ruler on the stage of microscope, focus
on it using the adjustment knob and observe the
diameter of the circular field of view through
Ready to Go Beyond the eyepiece and measure it in mm.
3. Convert the diameter from mm to micrometre
(µm). Suppose the diameter of the visible field
is 5 mm, meaning 5 × 1000 = 5000 µm.
4. Remove the ruler and place an onion peel slide
on the stage of the microscope.
Fig. 2.3: An electron microscope 5. Focus on the slide and count the number of cells
present along the diameter of the field of view in
Apart from light microscopes, one straight line.
scientists also use powerful electron
microscopes that reveal the fine details 6. Estimate the real size of the cell using the
of a cell structure. These instruments formula:
use a beam of electrons instead of light
to produce highly magnified images,
allowing us to see cell structure at
Unit conversion:
the nanometre scale with remarkable
clarity (a nanometre is one-billionth of 1 millimetre (mm) = 1000 micrometre (µm)
a metre).

Diameter of the visible field in micrometre

Estimated size of the onion peel cell =
Number of cells along the diameter
Suppose, 25 cells are seen along the diameter. In that case, the size of one
onion cell would be 5000 µm/25 = 200 µm.
If the estimated size of an onion peel cell is 200 µm, how much does a
light microscope magnify this cell? The total magnification of a microscope
depends on its magnifying power of the eyepiece and the objective lens. If
both the eyepiece and the objective lens have the magnifying power of 10X,
then the total magnification will be 100X. This means that a cell with an
estimated size of 200 µm will appear 100 times larger.
Thus, a microscope allows us to see very small structures clearly and is an
essential tool for studying the cell structure. Over the years, scientists have
improved the microscope by improving its three main features — resolution
(measure of clarity), contrast (the difference in brightness between various

10 Exploration|Grade 9
 Cell: The Building Block of Life 11

parts of an object), and magnification. These improvements Stomata

have turned microscope into a powerful tool for studying
cells.
You can see a picture of the lower surface of Colocasia leaf
observed under a Scanning Electron Microscope (Fig. 2.4).

2.2 Structure of a Cell

You have learnt that cells are organised into specialised
Fig. 2.4: Electron micrograph of lower
tissues and organs, and collectively perform specific surface of a Colocasia leaf showing stomata
function. For these cells to function as units, they must
be able to interact with one another and with their surroundings. These
interactions occur at the cell boundary, where substances move between
the cells and their external environment. Even single-celled organisms
exchange materials and respond to their environment through cell
membrane.

2.2.1 Cell membrane — The universal feature of a cell

The cell membrane is a thin boundary that surrounds a cell and protects
its contents. It defines the individuality of a cell and is also called the plasma
membrane. The cell membrane is selectively permeable, which means it
allows some substances to pass through it while blocking others. You have Grade 7

learnt how oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the membranes of Curiosity
Chapter 9
alveoli in the lungs. How does the structure of the cell membrane in the
cells of alveoli control the movement of substances across it?
Activity 2.2: Let us experiment Experimental set-up

1. With the help of a kitchen knife, Beaker A Beaker B

carefully cut a potato into two pieces
of roughly equal size (Fig. 2.5).
2. Measure and record the initial weight
of both the pieces using a weighing
balance.
3. Put one piece of the potato in Beaker
A with plain water. (a) Initial (b)
4. Put the other piece of the potato in
Beaker B with 20 per cent salt or sugar
solution.
5. Leave them undisturbed for about
an hour or until you notice a visible
change in the size of the pieces.
6. Measure and record the final weight (a) Final (b)
of each piece.
7. Calculate the difference between the
initial and their final weights.
What do you observe? You may observe
that —
Beaker A — The potato piece swells. Fig. 2.5: Experimental set-up, and initial
and final states of potato pieces in (a) plain
Beaker B — The potato piece shrinks. water, and (b) 20 per cent salt solution
 What if ... What do you infer? What do you expect in terms of changes in their
weight? The weight of the potato piece in Beaker A has increased, while
mung bean the weight of the potato piece in Beaker B has decreased. This happens
seeds are
because the cell membrane allows water to move in and out of the cell
kept in a
but not the sugar or salt molecules. Water moves from an area with more
concentrated
solution after water and less solute (dilute solution) to an area with less water and more
soaking in solute (concentrated solution) until the concentrations in the two areas
water for 12 become equal. This movement of water through a selectively permeable
hours? What membrane is called osmosis. You have learnt in Activities 7.8 Grade 8
will happen (dye spreading in water) and 7.9 (fragrance spreading in air) in Chapter
Curiosity
7
to them? Grade 8 that particles of matter intermix, due to a difference in
their concentrations, also called a concentration gradient. Diffusion is the
net movement of particles from a higher to a lower concentration (which
occurs even without a membrane). Osmosis is the diffusion of water across
a selectively permeable membrane. In plants, water from the soil enters
root cells by this process of osmosis.

What if ...
a cell is kept in salt or sugar solutions of different concentrations?

Solute concentration of extracellular

medium = Solute concentration of intracellular Isotonic
medium — Isotonic solution
solution

Solute concentration of extracellular

medium < Solute concentration of intracellular Hypotonic
medium — Hypotonic solution
solution

Solute concentration of extracellular

medium > Solute concentration of intracellular Hypertonic
medium — Hypertonic solution
solution

Fig. 2.6: Effect of solutions of different concentrations on a cell

Structurally, the cell membrane is

Various types of extremely thin, about 7 to 10 nanometres
proteins (nm) thick (1 nanometre = 0.000001 mm). It
is made up of lipids (fats) and proteins. The
fluid-mosaic model explains its structure
(Fig. 2.7) :
Lipid
bilayer y The membrane has a lipid bilayer (two
layers of special fat molecules with
water attracting heads outwards and
Fig. 2.7: Structure of a cell membrane water repelling tails inwards) with
proteins embedded in them.
y The molecules can move sideways, flip and rotate within the membrane.
Hence, it is fluid.
y Proteins in the membrane act like gatekeepers in helping substances
pass through.
12 Exploration|Grade 9
 Cell: The Building Block of Life 13

y Since the molecules are arranged like tiles in a mosaic, it is called the
‘mosaic’ model.
All living cells communicate with their surroundings and their
neighbouring cells through the cell membrane. However, cells of plant,
fungi, and bacteria have an additional layer around the cell membrane,
called the cell wall. What do you think is the necessity of the cell wall in
these cells?
Activity 2.3: Let us investigate
1. Prepare temporary slides of a thin peel of an onion leaf or a Rhoeo
(Cradle lily) leaf and mount it with safranin using cover slip to observe
plant cells under a microscope. (a)
2. Similarly, prepare a temporary slide of cheek cells by gently scraping
the inner side of your cheek with a cotton swab or the blunt end of a
toothpick.
3. Spread the cheek cells on a clean glass slide.
4. Add a drop of water followed by a few drops of methylene blue stain and
carefully place a coverslip.
5. Observe both the slides under a microscope.
What do you observe? Onion peel cells (Fig. 2.8a) or Rhoeo leaf peel cells are
(b)
box-shaped and regularly arranged, whereas cheek cells are irregularly
arranged (Fig. 2.8b). Why do you think this difference exists? Fig. 2.8: (a) The
onion peel cells, and
Prepare two slides of a Rhoeo leaf peel and human cheek cells again, and (b) human cheek cells
put 20 per cent sugar solution on them. Observe them under a microscope
after half an hour. What do you observe? You must have observed that
the boundaries of the plant cells remain the same but their inner content
shrinks, and the space between the inner and outer boundaries increases
(Fig. 2.9a and b). You may observe that the cheek cells, on the other hand,
have shrunk considerably.

2.2.2 Cell wall — The outer covering of cells

In general, plants cannot move from place to place, so they need a rigid
structure to withstand environmental stresses like wind and rain.
Therefore, plant cells have an additional covering outside the cell membrane
(a)
called a cell wall. The cell wall also helps leaves and flowers remain firm,
and maintain their shapes and help plants stay upright. Although rigid the
cell wall is permeable, which means water and some dissolved minerals
can pass through it. Along with the selective permeability of the cell
membrane, the permeability of the cell wall helps plant roots absorb water
and nutrients from the soil.
When we place a Rhoeo leaf or an onion peel in a concentrated sugar
solution the plant cells lose water due to osmosis. However, the cells do not
shrink in size because their rigid cell wall maintains their shape. The inner
content of a cell shrinks as the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall. (b)
This shows that the cell wall helps plant cells remain firm in their original Fig. 2.9: Cradle lily leaf
shape. peel cells (a) in water, and
Animal cells, such as cheek cells do not have a cell wall. Therefore, (b) in 20 per cent sugar
solution
when placed in a concentrated sugar solution, they lose water and shrink.
 Without a rigid cell wall, animal cells can change shape easily. This cellular
flexibility supports the overall movement and functioning of animal tissues.
The plant cell wall is primarily made of cellulose, a type of carbohydrate
formed by many glucose units linked together. Cellulose in our diet acts
as roughage, helping in digestion. Some microorganisms, like fungi and
bacteria also have a cell wall to provide protection and structural support
to their cells.

Pause and Ponder

1. What argument would you give for the necessity of a cell wall in plants
usually fixed in one place versus in animals usually moving from one
place to the other?
2. What consequences would you predict for a plant cell if its cell wall were
to become as flexible as a cell membrane?
3. Why is it important to cut the two potato pieces in roughly equal size and
measure their initial weight before placing them in different liquids?

2.3 The Cell Interior — A Coordinated Working System

You have learnt that most cells have three basic parts: Grade 7
Curiosity
y a selectively permeable membrane called the plasma Chapter 9
membrane,
y a semi-fluid, jelly-like substance called the cytoplasm, and
y a prominent nucleus.
In addition to the nucleus, the cytoplasm contains several sub-cellular
components called organelles, along with other substances present in it,
most of which are only visible with an electron microscope.
Activity 2.4: Let us study
Vacuole Lysosome
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Vacuole
Nucleolus
Chloroplast Endoplasmic
reticulum

Cell wall
Mitochondria
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
Nucleoid Ribosome
Appendage for (Genetic material) Ribosome
locomotion Ribosome
Golgi body
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.10: (a) A typical bacterial cell, (b) a typical plant cell, and (c) a typical animal cell
1. Study the given diagrams of a bacterial cell, a plant cell, and an animal
cell (Fig. 2.10a, b and c).
2. Observe the different structures present in each of them.
3. Record your observations in Table 2.1.
A bacterial cell lacks a well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles (organelles surrounded by their own membranes). Such cells
are called prokaryotic cells (pro means primitive and karyon means
14 Exploration|Grade 9
 Cell: The Building Block of Life 15

nucleus). In prokaryotic cells, most cellular activities take place directly

in the cytoplasm. In contrast, plant and animal cells have a well-defined
nucleus and several membrane-bound organelles. Such cells are called
eukaryotic cells (eu means true, and karyon means nucleus). More
details of the characterstics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is given
in Table 2.2.
Ready to Go
Table 2.1: Comparison of different kinds of cells based on their structure Beyond
Bacterial Plant Animal Viruses, viroids,
S. No. Cell structures
cell cell cell and prions are
acellular (no
1. Cell membrane
cells) infectious
agents that
2. Cell wall
are too small
to be seen
3. Cytoplasm
under a light
Well-defined nucleus (genetic microscope.
4. Viruses are
material enclosed by a membrane)
composed of
Primitive nucleus or nucleoid (genetic some genetic
5.
material without membrane around it) material with
a protein coat.
6. Membrane-bound organelles Viroids lack
protein coat
around its
Table 2.2: Comparison between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
genetic material,
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell while prions
Characteristics
are misfolded
proteins which
Primitive nucleus Present Absent lack genetic
material.
Diameter of a typical cell 1 to 10 µm 10 to 100 µm

Can be unicellular
Number of cells in an organism Usually unicellular
or multicellular

Membrane-bound organelles Absent Present

Membrane-bound nucleus Absent Present

Which of the cells given in Fig. 2.10 fall under the categories of prokayotic
and eukaryotic cells?

Ready to Go Beyond
In eukaryotic cells, a network of fine fibres forms the cytoskeleton, which
provides structural support, maintains cell shape, and enables cell movement
and internal transport. It is visible only under an electron microscope as
a separate entity. The cytoplasm may also store starch (in plant cells), or
crystals of calcium oxalate or silica (in some plant cells). These are known
as cell inclusions.
 2.3.1 Why do eukaryotic cells need these organelles?
Eukaryotic cells carry out various life processes in different cell organelles
independently at the same time.
Cell organelles help in building new materials, removing waste, and
providing energy to the cell. They work together to perform all functions of
a cell. In other words, a cell is like a tiny living factory, with each of its part
doing a specific job.
Let us explore these specialised structures present inside a cell.
Nucleus
Double-layered Nucleus — House of coded
nuclear membrane Nucleolus instructions
Nuclear pore The nucleus has a double-layered
covering called the nuclear membrane,
Nucleus

Chromatin
which has pores that allow the transfer
of material between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm. The nucleolus is the
dense round body in the nucleus, where
synthesis of ribosomal subunits take
Chromatin place. These subunits then exit the
nucleus to cytoplasm where one large
Chromosome and one small subunits assemble to
Fig. 2.11: Structure of a nucleus form ribosome (Fig. 2.11).
The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped
structures only when the cell is about to divide. Chromosomes contain
information for inheritance of characters from parents to the next
generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules.
Chromosomes are composed of DNA and specific proteins. DNA molecules
contain the genetic information. The functional segments of DNA are called
genes. In a non-dividing cell, this DNA is present as part of chromatin
DNA material. Chromatin material is visible as an entangled mass of thread-like
structures. Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material
Fig. 2.12: From cell
gets organised into chromosomes (Fig. 2.12).
to DNA

Threads of Curiosity
Some cells are specialised to perform specific functions. For example, mature Red
Blood Cells (RBCs) in humans do not have a nucleus (enucleate). The absence of
a nucleus provides more space for haemoglobin, allowing it to transport a larger
amount of oxygen to all cells of the body. Since they lack a nucleus, they cannot
repair or divide themselves. As a result, their lifespan is short and they survive
approximately for 120 days. Do you know any other cells without nucleus?

Prokaryotic cells do not have a well-defined nucleus. Their DNA is

present as a single circular molecule associated with specific proteins. The
region containing this genetic material is called the nucleoid.

16 Exploration|Grade 9
 Cell: The Building Block of Life 17

Ribosomes — The protein factories

These are tiny structures may be present
either freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are the sites of
protein synthesis. Smooth
endoplasmic
Endoplasmic Reticulum reticulum Rough
(ER) — Manufacturing factory endoplasmic
reticulum
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a large organelle
Ribosome
that spreads like a network within the cytoplasm of the
cell. The ER is continuous with the outer membrane
of nuclear envelop. The ER plays a key role in the
synthesis and transport of proteins, fats (lipids), and

apparatus
some hormones in some of the specialised cell. The

Golgi
structure of the ER in a cell varies depending on its
function. There are two types of ER: Plasma
membrane
y Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): It looks
rough under an electron microscope because Vesicles
it has ribosomes attached to its surface, and is
mainly involved in protein synthesis and protein
secretion (for example, in gland cells, such as Fig. 2.13: Endoplasmic reticulum and
pancreatic cells). Golgi apparatus — pathway for protein
processing and secretion
y Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): It does
not have ribosomes on its surface, and therefore,
looks smooth. It is involved in the synthesis, and Meet a Scientist
storage of fats and hormones (Fig. 2.13).
The Golgi
Golgi apparatus — The packaging and apparatus was
shipping centres first observed in
1898 by an Italian
If you carefully look at the diagram of a cell scientist, Camillo
(Fig. 2.10b and c), you will notice stacks of flattened, Golgi, in the nerve
sac-like structures. Together, these stacks form the cells of a barn
Golgi apparatus (Fig. 2.13). It is functionally linked owl. Using special
to the ER, the cell membrane and the other cell staining techniques, he observed
organelles. The Golgi apparatus acts like the cell’s a thread-like network. Early
microscopes could not resolve it
post office. It modifies, sorts, and packages proteins
clearly, therefore, many doubted
and/or lipids into vesicles for transport, secretion, its existence. However, electron
or lysosome formation. microscope observations
confirmed it decades later.
Lysosomes — The clean-up system
When the structure was
Cells produce waste materials and damaged, clearly seen and confirmed, it
worn-out organelles during their activities. was named the ‘Golgi apparatus’
How does the cell prevent these wastes from in his honour.
accumulating inside it?
Lysosomes are single membrane-bound sacs
filled with enzymes, which can break down
unwanted proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and even
 damaged parts of the cell, keeping it clean and healthy. The products
formed by the breakdown are released into the cytoplasm, where they may
be reused in other cellular processes.

Threads of Curiosity

Human sperm cells contain lysosomal enzymes. When a sperm meets an egg, these
enzymes help break down the outer layer of the egg, allowing fertilisation to take
place. You will learn about the human sperm cells later in Chapter 11.

Ribosomes
Mitochondria — The powerhouse of the
cell
DNA
Mitochondria are often called the ‘powerhouses of
Intermembrane
the cell’ because they supply the energy needed for
space most cellular activities. Each mitochondrion (Fig.
2.14) is surrounded by two membranes :
Grade 7

Cristae
y The outer membrane is smooth and Curiosity
Chapter 9
porous.
Inner
membrane y The inner membrane is folded into finger-like
projections called cristae, which increase
Outer the surface area for chemical reactions and
membrane facilitate energy production.
In mitochondria, the glucose and other
Fig. 2.14: Structure of a mitochondrion
molecules are broken down to release energy
during a process called cellular respiration. You have already studied about
it. The energy released is stored in the form of a molecule called Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP), which acts as the energy currency and is used for most
of the cellular activities.

Plastids — Centre for food synthesis in the plant cells

and beyond
You have learnt that mitochondria provide energy to the cell that comes
from food. Animals can obtain food from their surroundings, however,
plants synthesise food in the presence of sunlight. But where do plants
synthesise their food and obtain energy for cellular
activities? Plants use special organelles called
plastids for food synthesis and storage.
Inner
membrane As you have learnt, plants prepare their Grade 7
food by the process of photosynthesis in the Chapter
Curiosity
9

Outer
presence of sunlight. A green pigment called
membrane chlorophyll, which is present in the chloroplast
(a type of plastid) absorbs sunlight. Chloroplasts
Stroma
DNA are double-membrane-bound organelles, like
mitochondria. Inside the chloroplast (Fig. 2.15) there
Ribosomes is a semi-fluid substance called the stroma. Within
the stroma are disc-shaped membrane structures
Fig. 2.15: Structure of a chloroplast
that contain chlorophyll. Light energy is absorbed

18 Exploration|Grade 9