CT SCAN (COMPUTED
TOMOGRAPHY)
Introduction
Computed Tomography (CT) is one of the
most important diagnostic imaging techniques in
modern medicine. It combines X-ray technology
with computer-based image reconstruction to
produce cross-sectional (slice) images of the
human body. CT provides more detailed
information than conventional X-ray.
Working / Procedure
Definition 1. Patient lies on the CT table
2. Table moves into the gantry
A CT Scan is a medical imaging procedure that
3. X-ray tube rotates 360° around the body
uses rotating X-ray beams and detectors,
4. Detectors collect attenuation data
processed by a computer, to generate 2D and 3D
5. Computer reconstructs images using
images of internal body structures.
algorithms
6. Images displayed in axial, coronal, sagittal
Principle of CT Scan views
CT scan works on the principle of X-ray Contrast agents (iodine/barium) may be
attenuation and tomographic reconstruction. used for better visualization.
X-ray beam passes through the body
Different tissues absorb X-rays differently
Detectors measure the transmitted X-rays
Computer converts data into grayscale
images
Instrumentation
Main Components
1. X-ray Tube – Produces high-energy X-
rays
2. Collimators – Shape and limit the X-ray
Types of CT Scan
beam 1. Conventional CT
3. Detectors – Convert X-rays into electrical 2. Spiral / Helical CT
signals 3. Multislice CT (MSCT)
4. Gantry – Circular rotating frame 4. CT Angiography (CTA)
5. Patient Table (Couch) – Moves patient 5. High-Resolution CT (HRCT)
precisely 6. Dual-Energy CT
6. Data Acquisition System (DAS)
7. Computer & Image Reconstruction
Clinical Applications
System Brain: stroke, hemorrhage, tumors
8. Display Monitor & Storage Chest: lung diseases, COVID-19, TB
Abdomen: liver, kidney, pancreas disorders Principle
Bone fractures & trauma
Cancer detection & staging A radioactive tracer (commonly
Image-guided biopsy Fluorine-18 labeled FDG – 18F-FDG) is
Radiotherapy planning injected into the body.
The tracer emits positrons.
Each positron combines with an electron,
Advantages producing annihilation.
Annihilation releases two gamma photons
High spatial resolution (511 keV) in opposite directions (180°
Fast scanning (emergency friendly) apart).
Excellent bone and soft tissue contrast PET detectors detect these photons
3D reconstruction possible simultaneously (coincidence detection).
A computer reconstructs images showing
Disadvantages metabolic activity.
High radiation dose Instrumentation (Components)
Not ideal for pregnant women
Contrast allergy risk 1. Radiotracer – 18F-FDG (glucose
Expensive equipment analogue)
2. Injection system – Intravenous
Radiation Safety & Precautions administration
3. Detector ring – Scintillation crystals
Use ALARA principle (BGO, LSO, LYSO)
Lead shielding when possible 4. Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) / Silicon
Pregnancy screening photomultipliers (SiPMs)
Proper contrast history 5. Coincidence processor – Identifies true
Fasting before contrast CT events
6. Computer system – Image reconstruction
Conclusion: and display
CT scan is a powerful diagnostic tool that plays a
crucial role in modern medicine, especially in
emergency diagnosis, oncology, and trauma
care
PET Scan (Positron Emission
Tomography)
Definition
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is a
nuclear medicine imaging technique that
provides functional and metabolic information
of tissues and organs by detecting gamma rays
emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting
radiotracer.
Procedure MRI Scan (Magnetic
1. Patient fasts for 4–6 hours before scan. Resonance Imaging)
2. Radiotracer injected intravenously.
3. Waiting period (30–60 minutes) for tracer Definition
uptake.
4. Patient lies on scanning table. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a
5. PET scanner detects gamma rays. non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique that
6. Images reconstructed and analyzed. uses a strong magnetic field, radiofrequency
(RF) waves, and computer processing to produce
Types of PET Scans detailed images of internal body structures,
especially soft tissues.
PET-CT – Combines PET metabolic data
with CT anatomical detail
Principle of MRI
PET-MRI – Combines PET with MRI for
better soft-tissue contrast
The human body contains a large amount of
Applications: hydrogen protons.
Medical Applications When placed in a strong magnetic field,
Oncology – Cancer detection, staging, these protons align with the field.
monitoring therapy Radiofrequency (RF) pulses disturb this
Neurology – Alzheimer’s disease, alignment.
epilepsy, brain tumors When RF is turned off, protons return to
Cardiology – Myocardial viability, blood their original state and release energy.
flow
This released energy is detected and
Research Applications
Brain function studies converted into images.
Drug development Image contrast depends on T1 and T2
relaxation times.
Advantages
Instrumentation
Detects disease at early metabolic stage
High sensitivity 1. Main Magnet – Produces a strong
Functional imaging capability magnetic field (1.5T, 3T)
Whole-body imaging
2. Gradient Coils – Spatial localization of
signals
Limitations
3. RF Coils – Transmit and receive RF signals
High cost 4. Computer System – Image reconstruction
Limited availability and display
Lower spatial resolution compared to 5. Cryogenic System – Uses liquid helium to
CT/MRI cool the magnet
Radiation exposure 6. Patient Table – Moves patient into the
scanner
Risks and Safety
Exposure to ionizing radiation (low dose)
Not recommended during pregnancy
Allergic reactions are rare
Limitations
High cost
Long scanning time
Not suitable for patients with pacemakers
or metal implants
Claustrophobia issues
Risks and Precautions
Avoid metal objects
Not recommended for patients with
ferromagnetic implants
Caution in pregnant women (especially first
Procedure trimester)
Loud noise – ear protection required
1. Patient is screened for metal objects.
2. Patient lies on a movable table. EEG (Electroencephalography)
3. Table slides into the MRI scanner.
4. RF pulses are applied.
5. Signals emitted from tissues are detected.
Definition
6. Images are reconstructed and displayed.
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a
Types of MRI non-invasive diagnostic technique used to record
the electrical activity of the brain through
Structural MRI – Brain, spine, joints electrodes placed on the scalp. The recorded
Functional MRI (fMRI) – Brain activity signals represent the summed activity of neurons in
Diffusion MRI (DWI) – Stroke detection the cerebral cortex.
Magnetic Resonance Angiography
(MRA) – Blood vessels
Cardiac MRI – Heart imaging Principle of EEG
Neurons in the brain generate electrical
Applications
impulses due to movement of ions across
Medical Applications cell membranes.
These electrical potentials are transmitted
Neurology – Brain tumors, stroke, multiple to the scalp.
sclerosis Electrodes placed on the scalp detect
Orthopedics – Ligament, joint, spine voltage fluctuations.
disorders
Cardiology – Heart structure and function
Oncology – Tumor detection and staging
Advantages
Excellent soft tissue contrast
No ionizing radiation
Multiplanar imaging capability
Safe for repeated use
The signals are amplified, filtered, and Procedure
recorded as EEG waveforms.
1. Patient sits or lies comfortably.
Instrumentation (Components of EEG) 2. Scalp cleaned and electrodes attached.
3. EEG signals recorded at rest or during
tasks.
1. Electrodes – Silver-silver chloride
4. Activation methods: hyperventilation,
(Ag/AgCl) electrodes photic stimulation, sleep.
2. Electrode cap / placement system – 10– 5. Data analyzed and interpreted.
20 international system
3. Amplifier – Increases weak brain signals Applications
4. Filters – Remove noise and artifacts
5. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) Epilepsy diagnosis and monitoring
6. Computer / Display unit – Waveform Sleep disorders (insomnia, narcolepsy)
Brain tumors and infections
recording and analysis
Coma and brain death assessment
Research in neuroscience
Electrode Placement (10–20 System)
Advantages
Electrodes placed at standardized positions
(Fp, F, C, T, P, O) Safe and painless
Ensures uniform and reproducible No radiation exposure
recordings High temporal resolution
Even numbers → right side, Odd numbers Cost-effective
→ left side
Limitations
Types of EEG Waves
Poor spatial resolution
Wave Frequency Brain State Sensitive to artifacts (eye movement,
Delta 0.5–4 Hz Deep sleep muscle activity)
Theta 4–8 Hz Drowsiness Limited deep brain information
Alpha 8–13 Hz Relaxed, awake
Beta 13–30 Hz Active thinking EMG (Electromyography)
Gamma >30 Hz Higher mental activity
Definition
Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic
technique used to record and analyze the electrical
activity produced by skeletal muscles. It helps in
assessing the health of muscles and the motor
neurons that control them.
Principle of EMG
Muscle fibers generate electrical
potentials when they contract.
These action potentials are produced due to
ion movement across muscle cell
membranes.
EMG detects these electrical signals using
surface or needle electrodes.
The signals are amplified, filtered, and 5. Data analyzed for amplitude and frequency.
displayed as EMG waveforms.
Types of EMG RESULT OF EMG WAVES
1. Surface EMG (sEMG)
o Electrodes placed on the skin
surface
o Non-invasive
o Used for functional studies
2. Needle EMG
o Fine needle electrodes inserted into
muscle
o Invasive but more accurate
o Used for clinical diagnosis
Instrumentation (Components of EMG)
1. Electrodes – Surface or needle electrodes
2. Differential Amplifier – Amplifies weak
muscle signals
EMG Signal Characteristics
3. Filters – Remove noise and artifacts
4. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) Amplitude: 50 µV – 5 mV
Frequency range: 10 – 500 Hz
5. Display / Recording Unit – Monitor and
Signal strength increases with muscle
store signals contraction
6. Computer System – Signal analysis
Applications
Diagnosis of neuromuscular disorders
Muscle weakness evaluation
Peripheral nerve injury detection
Myopathy and neuropathy differentiation
Research in biomechanics and kinesiology
Advantages
Provides direct information about muscle
Procedure activity
Useful for early detection of neuromuscular
1. Patient is positioned comfortably. diseases
Can differentiate nerve vs muscle disorders
2. Skin is cleaned and electrodes are placed.
Limitations
3. Patient asked to relax and then contract the
Needle EMG is invasive and uncomfortable
muscle.
Requires skilled operator
4. Electrical activity is recorded. Sensitive to noise and motion artifacts
ECG (Electrocardiography)
Definition
Electrocardiography (ECG) is a
non-invasive diagnostic technique used to record
the electrical activity of the heart over a period of
time using electrodes placed on the skin. The
recorded waveform is called an
electrocardiogram.
Principle of ECG
The heart muscle generates electrical
impulses during depolarization and ECG Waveform Components
repolarization.
These electrical signals spread through P wave – Atrial depolarization
body tissues to the skin surface. QRS complex – Ventricular depolarization
Electrodes placed on the body detect these T wave – Ventricular repolarization
PR interval – Atrial to ventricular
voltage changes.
conduction time
The signals are amplified, filtered, and QT interval – Total ventricular activity
recorded as ECG waveforms.
Instrumentation (Components of ECG)
1. Electrodes – Limb electrodes and chest
(precordial) electrodes
2. Lead system – Records electrical activity
from different angles
3. Differential amplifier – Amplifies weak
cardiac signals
4. Filters – Remove noise and baseline drift
5. Recording system – Paper or digital
display
6. Power supply – Operates the ECG
machine
Procedure
ECG Lead System
1. Patient lies in supine position.
Limb Leads 2. Skin is cleaned and electrodes are attached.
3. ECG machine is switched on.
Bipolar leads: Lead I, II, III 4. Electrical signals are recorded.
5. ECG tracing is analyzed by physician.
Unipolar leads: aVR, aVL, aVF
Applications
Chest (Precordial) Leads
Diagnosis of arrhythmias
V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6
Detection of myocardial infarction (heart
attack)
Monitoring heart rate and rhythm
Evaluation of electrolyte imbalance
Pre-operative cardiac assessment
Advantages
Simple and painless procedure
Non-invasive
Quick and cost-effective
Provides real-time heart activity
Limitations
Cannot show structural heart defects clearly
Motion and muscle artifacts may affect
recording
Provides limited information without
clinical correlation