KIDS KINGDOM SENIOR

SECONDARY SCHOOL

CONTINUITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY

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 SUBMITTED BY:
CLASS: XII
ROLL NO.:
SESSION: 2026-27
GUIDED BY:

This is to certify that the Mathematics Investigatory

Project report entitled “CONTINUITY &
DIFFERENTIABILITY” has been submitted by
…………………………Student of class XII -A
is original and has been completed under the
guidance of ............................................. (PGT
Mathematics) in partial fulfillment of the curriculum
of CENTRAL BOARD OF SEONDARY
EDUCATION (CBSE) leading to the award of
annual examination of the year 2026-27.

Teacher’s Signature Principal’s Signature

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I have taken efforts in this project.
However, it would not have been
possible without the kind support and
help of many individuals.

I would like to express my special thanks

of gratitude to my principal Mr.
…………………… and my Mathematics
Teacher…………………., who gave
me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project on the topic
CONTINUITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY,
which also helped me in doing a lot of research
and I came to know about so many new
things I am really thankful to her.
I would also like to thanks my parents for the
continues support and showing interest towards my
Project and at last but not the least I would like
to thank my friends and to our school lab
assistant who all appreciated me for my hard
work .

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S. Content Page
No. No.
1 CERTIFICATE 2
2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3
3 INTRODUCTION 5
4 CONTINUITY AT A 6
POINT
5 CONTINUITY IN INTERVAL 7
6 STANDARD RESULTS 11
OF LIMITS
7 ALGEBRA OF 12
CONTINUOUS
FUNCTION
8 DIFFERENTIATION 14
9 DIFFERENTIATION 17
FORMULAS
10 STANDARD 22
DERIVATIVES
11 ROLLE’S THEOREM 23
12 LAGRANGE’S MEAN 24
THEOREM
13 BIBLIOGRAPHY 25

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 CONTINUITY &
DIFFERENTIABILITY
CONTINUITY:
A continuous function is a function
is a function that does not have any abrupt
changes in value known as continuities. More
precisely, sufficiently small changes in the input of a
continuous function result in arbitrarily small changes
in its output. If not continuous, a function is said to
be discontinuities.

Continuity of a functions is one of the core concepts

of topology, which is treated in full generally below.
The introductory portion of this article focuses on the
special case where the inputs & outputs of functions
are real numbers.

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 Before we look at a formal definition of what
it means for a function to be continuous at a
point, let’s consider various functions that fail
to meet our intuitive notion of what it means
to be continuous at a point. We then create a
list of conditions that prevent such failures.
Our first function of interest is shown in Figure.
We see that the graph of f(x)f(x) has a hole at a.
In fact, f(a)f(a) is undefined. At the very least,
for f(x)f(x) to be continuous at a, we need the
following condition:
i. f(a)f(a) is defined.

Figure : The function f(x)f(x) is not continuous at a because f(a)f(a) is undefined.

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The feature of continuity can be seen on a day to
day basis. For instance, the human heart is
beating continuously even when the person is
sleeping. A continuous function is one which
can be drawn on a graph paper without lifting a
pen or pencil. In this article, students will learn
about Continuity in an interval.
In mathematical terms, the definition of
continuity is as follows.
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point
if the following conditions are met.
 The function at that point exists being finite.
 The left and right-hand limit of the function
is present.
Lim
 The limit x→a f(x) = f(a) where is the point

The function f (x) is declared to be continuous if

the above three conditions are satisfied for every
point on the interval. If any of the functions are
not satisfied, then the function is discontinuous
at that point.

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Basic Concepts on Continuity
The following are the basic concepts of
continuity:
Open And Closed Intervals
An interval is called open if it doesn’t include the
endpoints. It is denoted by ( ). For instance, (1, 2)
means greater than 1 and less than 2. A closed
interval is one which includes all the limit points.
It is denoted by [ ].
For example, [2, 5] means greater than or equal
to 2 and less than or equal to 5. An open interval
is termed as half-open interval if it consists of
one of its endpoints. It is written as ( ]. (0, 2]
means greater than 0 and less than or equal to 2
and [0, 2) is greater than or equal to 0 and less
than 2.
If a, b ∈ R and a < b, the following is a
representation of the open and closed intervals.
 Open interval is indicated by (a, b) = {x : a <
y < b}.
 Closed interval is indicated by [a, b] = {x : a
≤ x ≤ b}.
 [ a, b ) = {x : a ≤ x < b} is an open interval
from a to b, inclusive of a but excluding
 ( a, b ] = { x : a < x ≤ b } is an open interval
from a to b including b but excluding

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  The mandatory condition for continuity of
the function f at point x = a [considering a to
be finite] is that limx→a– f(x) and limx→a+ f(x)
should exist and be equal to f (a).
 The function f (x) is said to be continuous:
1. In an open interval: if it is continuous at
every point in the interval
2. In the closed interval: if
 f(x) is continuous in (a, b)

Lim
 x→a+ f (x) = f(a)

Lim
 x→a- f(x) = f(a)

Weierstrass Approximation Theorem

If f is a continuous real-valued function on [a,b]
and if any ϵ >0 is given, then there exists a
polynomial p on [a,b] such that
|f(x)-P(x)|< ϵ for all x in [a,b]
In other words, a continuous function on a
closed and bounded interval can be uniformly
approximated on that interval by polynomials
to any degree of accuracy.

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Limits Continuity and Differentiability
Differentiation
Functions
Continuity In Interval Examples
Example 1: If the function
f(x)={kcos⁡xπ−2x,when x≠π23, when x=π2
be continuous at x = π / 2, then find the values
of k.
Solution:
f (π / 2) = 3.
Since f(x) is continuous at x = π / 2
⇒lim (k cosx / π − 2x) = f (π / 2)
x→π/2
⇒k / 2 = 3
⇒k = 6

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Algebra of continuous functions is defined for
the four arithmetic operations:
 Addition of continuous functions
 Subtraction of continuous functions
 Multiplication of continuous functions
 Division of continuous functions
Addition of Continuous Functions
Theorem: Let us say, f and g are two real functions that are continuous at a point ‘a’,
where ‘a’ is a real number. Then the addition of the two functions f and g is also
continuous at ‘a’.

f(x) + g(x) is continuous at x = a

Subtraction of Continuous Functions

Theorem: Let us say, f and g are two real functions that are continuous at a point ‘a’,
where ‘a’ is a real number. Then the subtraction of the two functions f and g is also
continuous at ‘a’.

f(x) – g(x) is continuous at x = a

Multiplication of Continuous Functions

Theorem: If f and g are two real functions that are continuous at a point ‘a’, where ‘a’ is
a real number. Then the product of the two functions f and g is also continuous at ‘a’.

f(x) . g(x) is continuous at x = a

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Division of Continuous Function
Theorem: Suppose, f and g are two real functions that are continuous at a point ‘a’,
where ‘a’ is a real number. Then the division of the two functions f and g will remain
continuous at ‘a’.

f(x) ÷ g(x) is continuous at x = a

Algebra of Composite Functions

Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that (f o g) is defined at a. If g is
continuous at a and if f is continuous at g (a), then (f o g) is continuous at a.
This theorem states that:

f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) are continuous at x = a

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In calculus, differentiation is one of the two
important concepts apart from integration.
Differentiation is a method of finding
the derivative of a function. Differentiation is a
process, in Maths, where we find the
instantaneous rate of change in function based
on one of its variables. The most common
example is the rate change of displacement with
respect to time, called velocity. The opposite of
finding a derivative is anti-differentiation.
If x is a variable and y is another variable, then
the rate of change of x with respect to y is given
by dy/dx. This is the general expression of
derivative of a function and is represented as f'(x)
= dy/dx, where y = f(x) is any function.
What is Differentiation in Maths
In Mathematics, Differentiation can be defined as a
derivative of a function with respect to an independent
variable. Differentiation, in calculus, can be applied to
measure the function per unit change in the
independent variable.
Let y = f(x) be a function of x. Then, the rate of
change of “y” per unit change in “x” is given by:
dy / dx

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If the function f(x) undergoes an infinitesimal change
of ‘h’ near to any point ‘x’, then the derivative of the
function is defined as
Lim f(x+h)–f(x)h
h→0

Derivative of Function As Limits

If we are given with real valued function (f) and x is a point
in its domain of definition, then the derivative of function, f,
is given by:
f'(a) = lim [f(x + h) – f(x)]/h
h→0
provided this limit exists.
Let us see an example here for better understanding.
Example: Find the derivative of f(x) = 2x, at x =3.
Solution: By using the above formulas, we can find,
f'(3) = lim [f(3 + h) – f(3)]/h = limh→0[2(3 + h) – 2(3)]/h
h→0
f'(3) = lim [6 + 2h – 6]/h
h→0
f'(3) = lim 2h/h
h→0
f'(3) =lim 2 = 2
h→0
Also, check Continuity And Differentiability to understand
the above expression.

Notations
When a function is denoted as y = f(x), the derivative is
indicated by the following notations.

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 1. D(y) or D[f(x)] is called Euler’s notation.
2. dy/dx is called Leibniz’s notation.
3. F’(x) is called Lagrange’s notation.

The meaning of differentiation is the process of determining

the derivative of a function at any point.

Linear and Non-Linear Functions

Functions are generally classified into two categories under
Calculus, namely:
(i) Linear functions
(ii) Non-linear functions
A linear function varies at a constant rate through its domain.
Therefore, the overall rate of change of the function is the
same as the rate of change of a function at any point.
However, the rate of change of function varies from point to
point in the case of non-linear functions. The nature of
variation is based on the nature of the function.
The rate of change of a function at a particular point is
defined as a derivative of that particular function.

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The important Differentiation formulas are given below in
the table. Here, let us consider f(x) as a function and f'(x) is
the derivative of the function.

1. If f(x) = tan (x), then f'(x) = sec2x

2. If f(x) = cos (x), then f'(x) = -sin x
3. If f(x) = sin (x), then f'(x) = cos x
4. If f(x) = ln(x), then f'(x) = 1/x
5. If f(x) = ex, then f'(x) = ex
6. If f(x) = xn, where n is any fraction or
integer, then f'(x) = nxn-1
7. If f(x) = k, where k is a constant, then f'(x) =
0

Differentiation Rules
The basic differentiation rules that need to be followed are as
follows:

Sum and Difference Rule

 Product Rule

 Quotient Rule

 Chain Rule

Let us discuss all these rules here.

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Sum or Difference Rule
If the function is the sum or difference of two functions, the
derivative of the functions is the sum or difference of the
individual functions, i.e.,
If f(x) = u(x) ± v(x)
then, f'(x) = u'(x) ± v'(x)
Product Rule
As per the product rule, if the function f(x) is product of two
functions u(x) and v(x), the derivative of the function is,
If
f(x)=u(x)×v(x)
then,
f′(x)=u′(x)×v(x)+u(x)×v′(x)

Quotient rule
If the function f(x) is in the form of two functions
[u(x)]/[v(x)], the derivative of the function is
If,
f(x)=u(x)v(x)
then,
f’(x)=u′(x)×v(x)–u(x)×v′(x)(v(x))2

Chain Rule
If a function y = f(x) = g(u) and if u = h(x), then the chain
rule for differentiation is defined as,
dy/dx=dy/du×du/dx
This plays a major role in the method of substitution that
helps to perform differentiation of composite functions.

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Real-Life Applications of
Differentiation
With the help of differentiation, we are able to find the rate
of change of one quantity with respect to another. Some of
the examples are:

 Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity with respect to

time
 To calculate the highest and lowest point of the curve in
a graph or to know its turning point, the derivative
function is used
 To find tangent and normal to a curve

Second Order Derivative Definition

and Representation
The second-order derivative is nothing but the derivative of
the first derivative of the given function. So, the variation in
speed of the car can be found out by finding out the second
derivative, i.e. the rate of change of speed with respect to
time (the second derivative of distance travelled with respect
to the time).
Graphically the first derivative represents the slope of the
function at a point, and the second derivative describes how
the slope changes over the independent variable in the graph.
For a function having a variable slope, the second derivative
explains the curvature of the given graph.

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In this graph, the blue line indicates the slope, i.e. the
first derivative of the given function. And the second
derivative is used to define the nature of the given
function. For example, we use the second derivative
test to determine the maximum, minimum or the
point of inflexion.
Mathematically, if
y=f(x)
Then
dy/dx = f'(x)

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Now if f'(x) is differentiable, then differentiating
dy/dx
again w.r.t. x we get 2nd order derivative, i.e.
d/dx(dy/dx)
= d2y/dx2 = f”(x)
Similarly, higher order derivatives can also be defined
in the same way like
d3y/dx3
represents a third order derivative,
d4y/dx4
represents a fourth order derivative and so on.
Usually, the second derivative of a given function
corresponds to the curvature or concavity of the graph.
If the second-order derivative value is positive, then
the graph of a function is upwardly concave. If the
second-order derivative value is negative, then the
graph of a function is downward open.
As it is already stated that the second derivative of a
function determines the local maximum or minimum,
inflexion point values. These can be identified with
the help of below conditions:
 If f”(x) < 0, then the function f(x) has a local
maximum at x.
 If f”(x) > 0, then the function f(x) has a local
minimum at x.
 If f”(x) = 0, then it is not possible to conclude
anything about the point x, a possible inflexion
point.

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Rolle’s Theorem is a particular case
of the mean value theorem which
satisfies certain conditions. At the
same time, Lagrange’s mean value
theorem is the mean value theorem
itself or the first mean value
theorem. In general, one can
understand mean as the average of
the given values. But in the case of
integrals, the process of finding the
mean value of two different functions
is different. Let us learn Rolle’s
theorem and the mean value of such
functions and their geometrical
interpretation.

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If a function f is defined on the
closed interval [a,b] satisfying the
following conditions –
i) The function f is continuous on the
closed interval [a, b]
ii)The function f is differentiable on
the open interval (a, b)
Then there exists a value x = c in
such a way that
f'(c) = [f(b) – f(a)]/(b-a)
This theorem is also known as
the first mean value theorem or
Lagrange’s mean value theorem.

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  [Link]
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 [Link]/ALLINVESTIGATORYP
ROJECTS

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