BEC605: Wireless Communication

Module 2

Reference:
Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore
S Rappaport
Contents

2.1 Cellular Concept

2.2 Frequency reuse
2.3 Channel Assignment strategies
2.4 Handoff strategies
2.5 2.3 Co channel interference and system capacity
2.4 Adjacent channel interference
2.5 Improving Coverage and Capacity in cellular systems- Cell
splitting, Cell sectoring and Microcell Zone concept
2.1 Cellular Concept
• Early mobile radio systems used one high-power transmitter to cover a
very large area (tens of kilometers). Although this provided wide coverage,
it had several problems:
• Very limited number of simultaneous users
• No frequency reuse
• Spectrum congestion
• High transmission power required
• Early mobile systems in the 1970s could support only a few simultaneous
calls over a large region.
• To overcome this limitation, the cellular concept was introduced.
 Cellular Concept
• The cellular concept is a system-level
design approach in which, a large
geographic area is divided into smaller
regions called cells Instead of One high power transmitter → covering entire
region, We use: Many low power transmitters → each
• Each cell is served by a low-power base covering a small cell
station
• The available radio spectrum is divided Advantages:
•Higher system capacity
into channel groups •Reduced interference
• These channels are reused in different •Efficient spectrum utilization
cells separated by sufficient distance
• This approach increases capacity while
using limited spectrum efficiently.
Cellular Concept
Cellular System Architecture
A typical cellular system consists of:
1. Mobile Station (MS)
• User device such as a mobile phone
• Communicates with base station using radio signals
2. Base Station (BS)
Cell Representation
• Located at the center of each cell • In real life, cells have irregular shapes due to terrain and
• Handles communication within the cell buildings.
3. Mobile Switching Center (MSC) • However, for analysis and planning, cells are represented as
hexagons because:
• Connects base stations  Hexagons cover an area without gaps
• Controls call routing, switching, and mobility  Simplifies frequency reuse calculations
management
Cellular Concept
• In the cellular concept, the available radio frequencies are
limited. To serve many users, the same frequencies must be
reused in different cells. The idea of clusters and cluster size
is used to organize this reuse efficiently.

• A cluster is a group of neighboring cells in which the entire

set of available radio channels is used exactly once.

• Each cell in the cluster uses a different group of

frequencies.

• After the cluster is formed, the same frequency pattern is

repeated in other clusters throughout the network.
Cellular Concept
• The cluster size is the number of cells in a cluster. It is represented by N.
𝑁 = number of cells in a cluster
• Common cluster sizes:
N = 3, N = 4, N = 7, N = 12
• Among these, 7 is most commonly used in cellular system design.
• Clusters are used to reduce interference and increase system capacity.
• If the same frequency is used in nearby cells, it causes co-channel
interference.
• Clusters ensure that:
Adjacent cells use different frequencies
Same frequencies are reused only after sufficient distance.
Cellular Concept

•The cluster pattern is repeated over the entire service area

•Cells using the same frequencies are called co-channel cells
• In the cellular concept, the total available radio channels are divided among the cells in a cluster.
• The relationship between total channels, cluster size, and channels per cell is:
k = S/N
Where:
• S = Total number of available channels in the system
• N = Cluster size (number of cells per cluster)
• k = Number of channels assigned to each cell

Cluster Size Interference Capacity

Small N High interference High capacity
Large N Low interference Low capacity
Cellular Concept
• If cluster size decreases, the number of channels per cell increases.
Example Total channels S = 140
• Case 1: N = 7
𝑘 = 140/7 = 20; Each cell gets 20 channels.
• Case 2: N = 4
𝑘 = 140/4 = 35
• Each cell gets 35 channels.. So each cell can support more
simultaneous users.
2.2 Frequency Reuse
• Cellular radio systems rely on an intelligent allocation and reuse of
radio channels throughout a coverage region. Since the available
radio spectrum is limited, the same frequencies must be reused in
different geographic locations to increase system capacity.
• In a cellular system, the entire service area is divided into small
geographic regions called cells. Each cell is served by a base station
(BS) which provides radio coverage to mobile users within that cell.
• Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be
used within a small geographic area called a cell.
Frequency Reuse
• Base stations in adjacent cells are
assigned different channel groups so that
co-channel interference is avoided.
• The base station antennas are designed to
achieve the desired coverage within the
boundaries of a cell.
• By limiting the coverage area within the
cell boundary, the same group of
channels may be reused in other cells
that are sufficiently far apart.
• This allows the cellular system to support
a large number of users with limited
spectrum.
Frequency Reuse
• The process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all cellular base stations within
a system is called Frequency Reuse or Frequency Planning.
• The objective is to ensure that cells using the same frequency channels are separated
by large distances so that interference levels remain within tolerable limits.
• Consider a cellular system which has a total of S duplex channels available for use. If each
cell is allocated a group of k channels (k < S), and if the S channels are divided among N
cells into unique and disjoint channel groups which each have the same number of
channels, the total number of available radio channels can be expressed
S = kN
• The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is called a
cluster.
• If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of duplex channels,
C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given
C = MkN = MS
Frequency Reuse
• The capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a
cluster is replicated in a fixed service area. The factor N is called the cluster size
and is typically equal to 4, 7, or 12. If the cluster size N is reduced while the cell
size is kept constant, more clusters are required to cover a given area and hence
more capacity (a larger value of C) is achieved.
• A large cluster size indicates that distance between co-channel cells is large (Low
interference). Conversely, a small cluster size indicates that co-channel cells are
located much closer together (High Interference).
• The value for N is a function of how much interference a mobile or base station
can tolerate while maintaining a sufficient quality of communications. From a
design viewpoint, the smallest possible value of N is desirable in order to
maximize capacity over a given coverage area (i.e.. to maximize C).
• The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is given by I /N, since each cell
within a cluster is only assigned 1/N of the total available channels in the
system.
Frequency Reuse
• In order to establish the cells without gaps
between adjacent cells — the geometry of
hexagons is such that the number of cells per
cluster, N, can only have values which satisfy the
following equation.
𝑁 = 𝑖 2 + 𝑖𝑗 + 𝑗 2
where i and j are non-negative integers.
• To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a
particular cell, one must do the following:
(1) move i cells along any chain of hexagons and then
(2) turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j
cells. For N=19, i=3, j=2
Frequency Reuse
Problem:
A cellular telephone system is given 33 MHz of total bandwidth. The system uses
FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing) where two simplex channels of 25 kHz each
are used to make one full duplex channel. Out of the total 33 MHz, 1 MHz is
reserved for control channels, and the rest is used for voice channels.
1. Find the number of channels available per cell if the system uses the following
frequency reuse patterns:
• 4-cell reuse
• 7-cell reuse
• 12-cell reuse
2. Also determine how the voice channels and control channels should be fairly
distributed among the cells for each reuse system.
Frequency Reuse
Given:
• Total allocated spectrum = 33 MHz
• 1 MHz reserved for control channels
• So voice spectrum = 33 − 1 = 32 MHz
• Each full duplex channel uses two 25 kHz simplex channels
• Thus bandwidth per duplex channel:
25 𝑘𝐻𝑧 + 25 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 50 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Total number of channels
Voice channels
32 𝑀𝐻𝑧 32,000 𝑘𝐻𝑧
= = 640 voice channels
50 𝑘𝐻𝑧 50 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Control channels
1 𝑀𝐻𝑧 1000 𝑘𝐻𝑧
= = 20 control channels
50 𝑘𝐻𝑧 50 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Total channels in the system
640 + 20 = 660
Frequency reuse (b) 7-cell reuse system
Voice channels
a) 4-cell reuse system 640
≈ 91.4
7
Channels per cell: So distribute 91 or 92 channels.
Voice channels Control channels
640 20
≈ 2.86
= 160 7
4 So distribute 2 or 3 channels.
Control channels Typical equitable distribution
20 •6 cells → 91 voice
=5 •1 cell → 94 voice (to balance)
4 Control channels:
Per cell •6 cells → 3
Voice channels = 160 •1 cell → 2
Approx per cell:
Control channels = 5
•Voice ≈ 91
Total = 165 •Control ≈ 3
Frequency reuse
(c) 12-cell reuse system
Voice channels
640
= 53.33; So 53 or 54 channels.
12
Control channels
20
= 1.67; So 1 or 2 channels.
12
Equitable distribution
• 8 cells → 53 voice
• 4 cells → 54 voice
Control channels:
• 8 cells → 2
• 4 cells → 1
Approx per cell:
• Voice ≈ 53
• Control ≈ 2
2.3 Channel Assignment Strategies
• Efficient utilization of the radio spectrum is a fundamental requirement in cellular
communication systems. To achieve high system capacity while minimizing interference,
frequency reuse is employed. However, frequency reuse alone is not sufficient; an
effective channel assignment strategy is required to manage how channels are
distributed among cells.
• The main objectives of channel assignment are:
Increasing system capacity
Minimizing co-channel interference
Improving quality of services
Reducing call blocking probability
Channel assignment strategies are broadly classified into:
• Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA)
• Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA)
Channel Assignment Strategies
1. Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA)
• In a fixed channel assignment strategy, each cell is allocated a predetermined set
of voice channels during system planning.
• These channels remain permanently assigned to that cell.
Operation:
When a mobile user initiates a call in a cell:
• The base station searches for an unused channel among its assigned channels.
• If a channel is available, the call is established.
• If all channels are occupied, the call request is blocked, and the subscriber does
not receive service.
• Thus, the blocking probability depends on the traffic intensity and the number of
channels assigned to that cell.
Channel Assignment Strategies
Channel Borrowing Strategy
• A variation of FCA is the channel borrowing strategy.
In this method:
• If a cell has no available channels, it may borrow channels from neighboring cells.
• The borrowed channel must not interfere with existing calls in the donor cell.
• The Mobile Switching Center (MSC) supervises this process.
Functions of MSC in borrowing strategy:
• Controls channel borrowing
• Ensures borrowed channels do not create interference
• Maintains system stability
• Although borrowing improves performance, it increases system complexity.
Channel Assignment Strategies
2. Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA)
• In a dynamic channel assignment strategy, voice channels are not
permanently assigned to specific cells.
• Instead, channels are allocated dynamically whenever a call request is
made.
Operation
When a call request occurs:
• The serving base station sends a request to the Mobile Switching Center
(MSC).
• The MSC selects a channel based on an allocation algorithm.
• The chosen channel is assigned to the requesting cell.
Channel Assignment Strategies
Channel Selection Criteria
The allocation algorithm considers several parameters:
• Probability of future blocking in the cell
• Reuse distance of the channel
• Frequency reuse constraints
• Current traffic distribution
• Cost functions related to interference and channel usage
• The MSC assigns a frequency only if that frequency is not currently used
within the minimum reuse distance to avoid co-channel interference.
 Channel Assignment Strategies
Advantages of Dynamic Assignment
• Dynamic channel assignment offers Disadvantages
•Continuous real-time monitoring
several benefits: •Tracking channel occupancy
•Monitoring traffic patterns
• Reduces call blocking probability •Measuring radio signal strength indications (RSSI)
• Improves trunking efficiency This increases:
•Computational load
• Allows all channels to be accessible to all •Storage requirements
cells •System complexity
Despite these challenges, DCA provides better spectrum
• Increases overall system capacity utilization compared to FCA.
2.4 Handoff Strategies
• When a mobile user moves from one cell to another while a call is in progress, the system must
transfer the call from the current base station to the new base station.
• This process is called handoff (or handover).
• The Mobile Switching Center (MSC) automatically transfers the call to a new channel associated
with the target base station.
Handoff Process: The handoff procedure involves:
• Identifying a new base station.
• Allocating a new channel associated with that base station.
• Transferring both voice signals and control signals to the new channel.
The process must be:
• Fast
• Seamless
• Imperceptible to the user
Handoff Strategies
Handoff Threshold
• Handoff decisions depend on signal strength levels.
• The minimum acceptable signal level for maintaining a call at the base station
receiver is usually between: −90 dBm to −100 dBm
• To ensure reliable handoff, a slightly higher signal level is used as the handoff
threshold.
• The handoff margin is given by:
ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑓𝑓
Δ = 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑃𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Where:
ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑓𝑓
• 𝑃𝑟 =received power at which handoff is initiated
• 𝑃𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 =minimum usable signal power
Handoff Strategies
Effect of Threshold Selection
If Δ is too large:
• Unnecessary handoffs occur
• MSC processing load increases
If Δ is too small:
• There may not be enough time to complete handoff
• Calls may be dropped
Thus, the threshold must be carefully selected.
 Handoff Strategies
Proper and Improper Handoff

Improper Handoff:

Improper handoff occurs when the signal drops below the

minimum usable level before the handoff process is completed.
This results in a dropped call.
Reasons include:
•Excessive delay at MSC
•High traffic load
•Unavailability of channels in neighboring cells

Proper Handoff
In a proper handoff:
•The handoff is initiated early enough.
•The call is transferred smoothly to the new base station.
•The user does not experience any interruption.
Handoff Strategies
Determining When to Initiate Handoff Dwell Time
• Signal strength may fluctuate due to The dwell time is defined as the time during which a call can
short-term fading. remain within a cell without requiring a handoff.
• Therefore, the system does not rely
on instantaneous signal Dwell time depends on several factors:
measurements.
Instead: •Distance between the mobile and base station
• The base station monitors the •Propagation characteristics
average signal strength over time. •Interference
• A running average is calculated. •Speed of the mobile user
• This prevents unnecessary handoffs
caused by temporary fading. For example:

•Highway users moving at high speed have short dwell times

•Pedestrians have long dwell times
Understanding dwell time statistics is important for designing
efficient handoff algorithms.
Handoff Strategies
First Generation Handoff Method
• In first-generation analog cellular systems, handoff decisions were made by the
network.
Characteristics:
• Base stations measured signal strength
• MSC monitored measurements
• Handoff decisions were network controlled
• Each base station monitored the signal strength of mobile users through reverse voice
channels.
• Additionally, a locator receiver was used to measure signals from mobiles in neighboring
cells.
• The MSC collected all signal strength measurements and decided whether handoff was
required.
 Handoff Strategies
Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
• In modern digital cellular systems, handoff decisions are mobile-assisted.
• This technique is called Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO).
Operation
• The mobile station measures signal strength from surrounding base stations.
• These measurements are reported to the serving base station.
• The network uses this information to decide whether a handoff should occur.
Advantages
• MAHO offers several benefits:
• Faster handoff decisions
• Reduced processing load on MSC
• Better suitability for microcellular systems
Handoff Strategies
Intersystem Handoff
• During an ongoing call, if a mobile user moves from one cellular system to
another controlled by a different MSC, an intersystem handoff occurs.
This situation may arise when:
• The user leaves the coverage area of one cellular system.
• The mobile becomes a roaming user in another system.
Challenges include:
• Compatibility between MSCs
• Billing adjustments
• Network coordination
Handoff Strategies
Prioritizing Handoffs
• From a user perspective, 1. Guard Channel Scheme
In this approach:
dropping an ongoing call is •A certain number of channels in each cell are reserved
more undesirable than blocking exclusively for handoff requests.
a new call request. • These channels cannot be used for new call initiations.
Advantage
• Therefore, cellular systems often •Reduces probability of forced termination.
give priority to handoff requests Disadvantage
over new call attempts. •Reduces the number of channels available for new calls.
• Two major methods are used. •May reduce overall traffic capacity.
However, when combined with dynamic channel assignment,
1. Guard Channel Scheme the number of guard channels required can be minimized.
2. Queuing of Handoff Requests
Handoff Strategies
2. Queuing of Handoff Requests
Instead of immediately dropping the call when no channel is available:
• The handoff request is placed in a queue.
• The call waits until a channel becomes available.
This method works because there is a finite time interval between:
• The moment when signal strength drops below the handoff threshold
• The moment when the signal becomes too weak to maintain the call
Limitations of Queuing
Queuing cannot guarantee zero forced termination because:

If the queue delay is too long, Signal strength may fall below
the minimum acceptable level, causing the call to drop.
Thus, queue size and delay must be carefully designed based
on traffic conditions.
Handoff Strategies
Problem:
A cellular system has the following parameters: Minimum usable signal level = −100
dBm, Handoff threshold = −90 dBm, Handoff processing delay = 2 seconds. A
mobile user moves away from the serving base station at a constant speed. The
received signal strength decreases at a rate of 3 dB per second.
Answer the following:
(a) Calculate the handoff margin Δ and explain its significance.
(b) Determine whether the handoff will complete successfully before the signal
drops below the minimum usable level.
(c )If the mobile speed increases and the signal strength decrease at 6 dB per
second, analyze how it affects the handoff success probability.
(d) Suggest two strategies that the cellular system can implement to reduce forced
call termination during handoff.
Handoff Strategies
(a) Handoff Margin Δ:
The handoff margin is
Δ = 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑓𝑓 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛
• Δ = −90 − −100
Δ = 10 𝑑𝐵
Significance
• The handoff margin provides a buffer region between the handoff initiation level and the minimum usable
signal level.
Purpose:
• Ensures enough time for handoff completion
• Prevents dropped calls
• Must be chosen carefully
• Too large → unnecessary handoffs
• Too small → call drops
Handoff Strategies
(b) Check if Handoff Completes Successfully
• Signal must drop from −90 dBm to −100 dBm
• Total drop:
10 𝑑𝐵
• Signal drop rate:
3 𝑑𝐵/𝑠
• Time for signal to drop 10 dB:
10
𝑡=
3
𝑡 = 3.33 𝑠
Available time before signal becomes unusable: 3.33s
• Handoff delay:
2𝑠
• Since
3.33 > 2
Handoff will complete successfully
This is a proper handoff situation.
Handoff Strategies
(c )
• If Signal Decreases at 6 dB/s
• New decay rate:
6 𝑑𝐵/𝑠
• Time for signal to drop 10 dB:
10
𝑡=
6
𝑡 = 1.67 𝑠
• Available time:
1.67 𝑠
• Handoff delay:
2𝑠
• Since
1.67 < 2
Handoff will not complete before signal reaches −100 dBm
Handoff Strategies
Strategies to Reduce Forced Call Termination
1. Increase Handoff Margin
• Initiate handoff earlier by increasing the threshold (for example −85 dBm instead
of −90 dBm).
• Effect: More time for handoff completion.

2. Guard Channel Scheme

• Reserve some channels exclusively for handoff calls.
Effect:
• Reduces handoff blocking
• Prevents dropping ongoing calls
Co channel interference and System Capacity
• Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there are
several cells that use the same set of frequencies. These cells are
called co-channel cells, and the interference between signals from
these cells is called co-channel interference.
• Unlike thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing the signal-
to-noise ration (SNR), co-channel interference cannot be combated by
simply increasing the carrier power of a transmitter.
• This is because an increase in carrier transmit power increases the
interference to neighboring co-channel cells. To reduce co-channel
interference, co-channel cells must be physically separated by a
minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to propagation.
Co channel interference and System Capacity
• The co-channel interference ratio is independent of the transmitted
power and becomes a function of the radius of the cell (R) and the
distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells (D).
• By increasing the ratio of D/R, the spatial separation between co-
channel cells relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased
• Thus, interference is reduced from improved isolation of RF energy
from the co-channel cell. The parameter Q, called the cochannel
reuse ratio, is related to the cluster size.
• Q=D/R= 3N
Co channel interference and System Capacity
• A small value of Q provides larger capacity since the cluster
size N is small
• whereas a large value of Q improves the transmission quality,
due to a smaller level of co-channel interference.
• A trade-off must be made between these two objectives in
actual cellular design
Small Q → Larger Capacity
Large Q → Better Quality
Why? Why?
• Small 𝑄means: •Large 𝑄means:
• Smaller reuse distance 𝐷 • Larger distance between co-channel cells
• Smaller cluster size 𝑁
• Larger cluster size 𝑁
Since cluster size is small: Interfering cells are far away
• Frequencies are reused more frequently
• Each cell gets more channels Less interference → better S/I → better call quality
Co channel interference and System Capacity
• The signal-to-interference ratio for a mobile receiver on the forward link is given by
𝑆 𝑆
= 𝑖
𝐼 σ 0 𝐼𝑖
𝑖=1
• where𝑡ℎ
𝑆is the desired signal power from the serving base station and 𝐼𝑖 is the interference from
the 𝑖 co-channel interfering base station, with 𝑖0 being the total number of interferers.
• From propagation measurements in wireless channels, the received signal power decays with
distance according to the path loss model of Path Loss, which states that:

𝑃𝑟 𝑑 ∝ 𝑑 −𝑛
or in logarithmic form:
𝑑
𝑃𝑟 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝑃0 𝑑𝐵𝑚 − 10𝑛 log
𝑑0
where 𝑛 is the path loss exponent.
Co channel interference and System Capacity
• For a cellular system, the desired signal is received from the serving base station at a distance 𝑅, so
𝑆 ∝ 𝑅 −𝑛
• and the interference from the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ co-channel cell at distance 𝐷𝑖 is
𝐼𝑖 ∝ 𝐷𝑖−𝑛
• Substituting these into the S/I expression gives
𝑆 𝑅 −𝑛
=
𝐼 ෌𝑖0 𝐷 −𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑖
• If all interfering base stations are approximately at the same distance 𝐷, then
𝑖0

෍ 𝐼𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝐷 −𝑛
𝑖=1
and the expression simplifies to
𝑆 𝐷/𝑅 𝑛
=
𝐼 𝑖0
• This shows that the signal-to-interference ratio depends on the ratio of reuse distance to cell radius and the path loss exponent,
rather than on the transmitted power.
Co channel interference and System Capacity
𝐷
Substitute 𝑄 = :
𝑅
𝑆 𝑄𝑛
=
𝐼 𝑖0
Now substitute 𝑄 = 3𝑁:
𝑛
𝑆 3𝑁
=
𝐼 𝑖0
Co channel interference and System Capacity
Co channel interference and System Capacity
• For a 7-cell cluster, when the mobile is located at the cell boundary (worst
case), the distances to the six first-tier co-channel interfering cells are not
all equal. From the geometry:
• Two nearest interferers are at distance 𝐷 − 𝑅
• Two are approximately at distance 𝐷
• Two are at distance 𝐷 + 𝑅
• Using the path loss model 𝑃𝑟 ∝ 𝑑 −𝑛 with 𝑛 = 4, the signal power from the
serving base station at distance 𝑅is proportional to:
𝑆 ∝ 𝑅 −4
The total interference is the sum of powers from all six interferers:
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐼∝ 4
+ 4
+ 4+ 4+ 4
+
𝐷−𝑅 𝐷−𝑅 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷+𝑅 𝐷+𝑅 4
Co channel interference and System Capacity
Now define the co-channel reuse ratio:
Grouping terms: 𝐷
2 2 2 𝑄=
𝑅
𝐼∝ + + Substitute:
𝐷 − 𝑅 4 𝐷4 𝐷+𝑅 4
𝑅 1
Now S/I becomes: =
𝑆 𝑅−4 𝐷 𝑄
= 𝑅 1
𝐼 2 2 2 =
+ + 𝐷−𝑅 𝑄−1
𝐷 − 𝑅 4 𝐷4 𝐷+𝑅 4 𝑅 1
=
Multiply numerator and denominator by 𝑅4 : 𝐷+𝑅 𝑄+1
𝑆 1
=
𝐼 𝑅 4 𝑅 4 𝑅 4
2 +2 +2 Final Expression
𝐷−𝑅 𝐷 𝐷+𝑅 𝑆 1
= 4 4 4
𝐼 1 1 1
2 𝑄−1 +2 𝑄 +2 𝑄+1
Co channel interference and System Capacity
Numerical:

If a signal to interference ratio of 15 dB is required for satisfactory forward

channel performance of a cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor
and cluster size that should be used for maximum capacity if the path loss
exponent is (a) n= 4 , (b) n = 3? Assume that there are 6 co-channels cells in
the first tier, and all of them are at the same distance from the mobile. Use
suitable approximations.
Co channel interference and System Capacity
Given 𝑆/𝐼 = 15 𝑑𝐵, first convert it into linear
scale:
𝑆/𝐼 = 1015/10 = 31.62
Using the approximate relation
𝑆 𝑄𝑛 The nearest allowable cluster size is 𝑁 = 7,
=
𝐼 𝑖0 hence the frequency reuse factor is 1/7.
with 𝑖0 = 6,
(a) for 𝒏 = 𝟒: Only certain values are possible:
𝑄4 𝑁 = 1,3,7,9,12,13,16, …
= 31.62 ⇒ 𝑄4 = 189.72 ⇒ 𝑄 So:
6
= 189.72 1/4 ≈ 3.76 𝑁 = 4.7 not allowed
Using 𝑄 = 3𝑁: Nearest valid value → 7
2 2
14.14
3𝑁 = 𝑄 = 3.76 ≈ 14.14 ⇒ 𝑁 ≈
3
≈ 4.7
Co channel interference and System Capacity
(b) For 𝑛 = 3:
𝑄3
= 31.62 ⇒ 𝑄 3 = 189.72 ⇒ 𝑄 = 189.72 1/3 ≈ 5.75
6
Again using 𝑄 = 3𝑁:
2 2
33.06
3𝑁 = 𝑄 = 5.75 ≈ 33.06 ⇒ 𝑁 ≈ ≈ 11.02
3
The nearest allowable cluster size is 𝑁 = 12, hence the frequency
reuse factor is 1/12.
Thus, for a required S/I of 15 dB, the system should use cluster size 𝑵
= 𝟕 for 𝒏 = 𝟒
and 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟐 for 𝒏 = 𝟑
Adjacent channel interference
• Adjacent channel interference is caused by signals which are close in frequency to the desired signal. It
arises due to imperfect receiver filters that allow energy from nearby frequencies to leak into the passband.
This effect becomes severe when a strong interfering signal is very close to the receiver while the desired
signal is weak.
• This situation is known as the Near-Far Effect, where a nearby transmitter captures the receiver and masks
the desired signal. It may also occur at the base station when a strong nearby mobile transmitting on an
adjacent channel interferes with a weak mobile using a nearby frequency, making it difficult for the base
station to distinguish the desired signal.
• Adjacent channel interference can be reduced by proper filtering and intelligent channel assignment.
• Since each cell is assigned only a subset of the total available channels, it is not necessary to allocate
adjacent frequencies within the same cell.
• By maximizing the frequency separation between channels in a cell, interference can be significantly
reduced. Instead of assigning contiguous frequency bands to a single cell, channels are distributed such
that adjacent frequencies are assigned to different cells.
• In this way, the separation between adjacent channels within a cell can be increased up to 𝑁 channel
spacings, where 𝑁 is the cluster size. Additionally, interference can be further reduced by ensuring that
neighboring cells do not use adjacent frequency channels.
Adjacent channel interference
• If one mobile is 20 times closer to the base station than another, then using the path loss
model of Path Loss,
𝑃𝑟 ∝ 𝑑 −𝑛
But since the near user is the interferer and is much stronger, we take the inverse:
𝑆 𝑑 −4 1
= −4 =
𝐼 𝑑/20 160000

𝑆
≈ 6.25 × 10−6
𝐼
Converting to dB:
𝑆/𝐼 𝑑𝐵 = 10log 6.25 × 10−6 ≈ −52 𝑑𝐵
• This shows that the desired signal is extremely weak compared to interference, which is
the near-far effect.
Adjacent channel interference
• To overcome this, receiver filters must attenuate (reduce) the interfering
signal. A typical filter has a roll-off of 20 dB per octave, meaning:
• Every doubling of frequency separation → 20 dB attenuation
• To suppress −52 dB interference:
52
≈ 2.6 octaves
20
Since one octave = factor of 2 in frequency:
22.6 ≈ 6
So, the interfering signal must be about 6 times the channel bandwidth
away from the desired signal.
 Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
Techniques are:
• Cellular design techniques are needed to
1. Cell Splitting
provide more channels per unit coverage area
Divide a large cell into smaller cells
such as cell splitting, sectoring and coverage More cells → more frequency reuse → more capacity
zone approaches.
As the number of users increases:
2. Sectoring
• A single cell cannot handle all users (limited Use directional antennas to divide a cell into sectors (e.g., 120
channels) each)
Reduces interference
• So, we need techniques to increase capacity
Improves Frequency Reuse
without extra spectrum
• Helps extend coverage and reduce handoff
load 3. Coverage Zone (Microcell Zone Concept)
Divide coverage into zones connected to one base station
Help extend coverage and reduce handoff load
Cell splitting
• Cell splitting is a technique used in cellular
systems to increase capacity when a cell
becomes overloaded with users.
• A large cell (served by one base station) is
divided into smaller cells (microcells)
• Each new smaller cell gets its own base
station
• This allows more users (channels) in the same
geographic area
In the figure:
• Original base station A is overloaded
• It is surrounded by 6 new microcells
• The frequency reuse pattern is preserved, so
interference stays controlled
Cell Splitting
Smaller Cells → Lower Power
If path loss exponent 𝑛 = 4:
When you reduce the size of a cell:
𝑃𝑡1
• You must also reduce transmit power 𝑃𝑡2 =
16
• Otherwise, signals would interfere with neighboring In dB: Power reduction = 12 dB
cells

Power Relationship Derivation

The path loss exponent (usually written as 𝑛) is a number
Received power depends on distance: that tells you how fast a wireless signal weakens as it travels
• At old boundary: through space.
𝑃𝑟 ∝ 𝑃𝑡1 𝑅 −𝑛
• At new boundary (radius = 𝑅/2): Environment Path Loss Exponent ( n )
𝑃𝑟 ∝ 𝑃𝑡2 𝑅/2 −𝑛
Free space (no obstacles) 2
• To maintain the same signal quality:
𝑃𝑡1 𝑅 −𝑛 = 𝑃𝑡2 𝑅/2 −𝑛 Urban area 3 to 4
• Solving: Indoor (walls, obstacles) 4 to 6
𝑃𝑡1
𝑃𝑡2 = 𝑛
2 Dense city / buildings up to 6
Cell Splitting
Practical Implications
1. Mixed Cell Sizes 3. Traffic Handling Strategy
• Not all cells are split at once • Large cells → high-speed users (fewer handoffs)
• We get a mix of: • Small cells → low-speed / dense users
• Large cells (macrocells)
• Small cells (microcells)

2. Channel Assignment Becomes Complex 4. Gradual Deployment

We cannot: • Initially: few microcells
• Use high power everywhere (causes interference) • Over time: more microcells added
• Use low power everywhere (coverage gaps) • Eventually: entire system becomes smaller cells
Solution:
• Split channels into:
• High-power group → large cells 5. Antenna Downtilting
• Low-power group → microcells • Antennas are tilted downward
• Keeps coverage localized
• This limits signal range and Reduces interference
Cell Splitting
Numerical:
A cellular system uses cells of radius R = 4 km. Due to increased traffic,
the system applies cell splitting, reducing the cell radius to R/2 = 2 km.
Assume: Path loss exponent 𝑛 = 4
Find:
1. The increase in number of cells
2. The increase in capacity
3. The new transmit power relative to the old transmit power
Cell Splitting
Increase in Number of Cells
New Transmit Power
• Area of a cell ∝ 𝑅2 Using path loss relation:
• Old area = 𝜋𝑅2 = 𝜋 4 2
= 16𝜋 𝑃𝑟 ∝ 𝑃𝑡 𝑅−𝑛
2 To maintain same received power:
• New area = 𝜋 2 = 4𝜋 𝑃𝑡1
16𝜋 𝑃𝑡2 = 𝑛
• Number of new cells = =4 2
4𝜋 𝑃𝑡1 𝑃𝑡1
𝑃𝑡2 = 4 =
Cells increase by 4 times 2 16
New transmit power = 1/16 of original power
Increase in Capacity
• Each cell has same number of channels
• Number of cells increases by 4
Capacity increases by 4 times
Cell Splitting
Problem:
Consider the following figure, Assume
each base station uses 60 channels,
regardless of cell size. If each original cell
has a radius of 1 km and each microcell
has a radius of 0.5 km, find the number of
channels contained in a 3 km by 3 km
square centered around A, (a) without the
use of microcells, (b) when the lettered
microcells as shown in Figure are used,
and (c) if all the original base stations are
replaced by microcells. Assume cells on
the edge of the square to be contained
within the square.
Cell Splitting

(a) Without microcells (R = 1 km)

• From the figure, only 5 base stations fall inside the square:
• Center cell A and Four neighbors (B, C, E,F)
• So:
𝑁=5
• Each has 60 channels:
• Total = 5 × 60 = 300 channels
Cell Splitting
(b) With microcell:
The central cell A is split into microcells . Around A, there are 6 microcells
• The other 4 macrocells remain unchanged
• So total base stations= 5 original macrocells + 6 added microcells
• Total cells = 5 + 6 = 11
• Total channels = 11 × 60 = 660
✔Capacity increase:
660
• = 2.2 times
300
Cell Splitting
(c )All base stations replaced by microcells
From the figure:
• Original macrocells = 5
• Total microcells that now fit in the square = 12 additional
• Total base stations = 5 + 12 = 17
• Total channels = 17 × 60 = 1020 channels
• Capacity increase:
1020
= 3.4 times
300
Cell Sectoring
Sectoring means:
• Replace one omni-directional antenna with multiple
directional antennas
• Each antenna covers only a sector (portion) of the cell
➤ 120° Sectoring
•Keep cell size same. No change in cell radius •Cell divided into 3 sectors
•Reduce interference → allow smaller cluster size (N) •Each sector = 120°
✔ Increases frequency reuse → more capacity •Uses 3 directional antennas
➤ 60° Sectoring
•Cell divided into 6 sectors
Common types:
•Each sector = 60°
• 3 sectors → 120° each •Uses 6 directional antennas
• 6 sectors → 60° each
Cell Sectoring
How Sectoring Reduces Interference?
• Directional antennas limit transmission and reception to a
specific direction
• A sector does NOT receive signals from all co-channel cells
Example (120° sectoring):
• Total co-channel interferers = 6
• Effective interferers = only 2
Because:
• Only 2 co-channel cells have antennas pointing toward the
sector
• Others are directionally isolated

If omni-directional antennas were used at each base station,

all 6 co-channel cells would interfere with the center cell.
Cell Sectoring
How Cell sectoring effect on S/I ratio?
𝑛
𝑆 𝐷/𝑅 Number of interferers:
=
𝐼 𝑖0 𝑖0 = 6
𝑆 4.58 4
=
𝐼 6
4
4.58 ≈ 441
For a cellular system: 𝑆 441
= ≈ 73.5
𝐷 𝐼 6
= 3𝑁 Convert to dB:
𝑅 𝑆/𝐼dB = 10 log 10 73.5
For cluster size 𝑁 = 7: ≈ 17 dB
𝐷
= 21 ≈ 4.58
𝑅
Cell Sectoring

With 120° Sectoring

• Sectoring does NOT change 𝐷/𝑅
• Interferers reduce: • It reduces number of interferers 𝑖0 :From 6 → 2
𝑖0 = 2 • Since interference is in denominator → S/I increases
• Because interference is reduced: Cells can be placed closer
in frequency reuse pattern . D can be decreased. Q can be
𝑆 441 decreased. N can be decreased. Thus C/N will increase .
= = 220.5 Hence Capacity increases.
𝐼 2
Convert to dB:
𝑆/𝐼dB
= 10 log 10 220.5
≈ 24.2 dB
Microcell Zone
The microcell zone concept is a cellular system design technique used to improve capacity, reduce
interference, and reduce handoff load compared to traditional sectoring or omni-cell systems. It is
especially useful in dense urban areas and along highways.
Why microcell zones were introduced?
Traditional cellular systems had two main problems:
(a) High co-channel interference
• High-power base stations radiate over a large area
• This increases interference to neighboring cells
• Forces larger reuse distance → lower capacity
(b) Too many handoffs in sectoring
• Sectoring splits a cell into directional antennas
• As a user moves between sectors:
• frequent handoffs occur
• heavy load on MSC (Mobile Switching Center)
Microcell Zone
Instead of one base station antenna per cell, we use:
✔ Multiple “zones” per cell
• A cell is divided into 2–3 or more zones
• Each zone has:
• a low-power antenna (Tx/Rx unit)
✔ One central base station
• All zones connect to a single base station
• Connection via:
• fiber optics
• coaxial cable
• microwave links
Many small antennas (zones) + one base station = one cell
Microcell Zone
Structure of a zone cell
A typical structure:
• A hexagonal cell
• Divided into 3 edge-mounted zones
• Each zone covers a portion of the
cell boundary
• The base station controls all zones
Each zone behaves like:
• a mini transmitter/receiver
• placed near the cell edge (not
center)
Microcell Zone

How communication works?

Step 1: Mobile user enters a cell

The system detects signal strength from all zones
Step 2: Best zone selection
The mobile is assigned to the zone with strongest received signal
Step 3: Movement within the cell
If the user moves: the connection is switched between zones BUT channel remains the same
Microcell Zone
This switching happens inside the base station, NOT the MSC

Advantages:
• Reduced handoff burden
• Traditional sectoring: Moving between sectors → MSC handoff required
• Zone system:
• Moving between zones in same cell:
• NO MSC handoff
• only internal base station switching
• significantly reduced signaling load
• faster switching
• better system stability
Microcell Zone

Interference reduction mechanism

Microcell zones reduce interference in two ways:
(a) Lower transmit power
• Each zone antenna transmits less power than a full base station
(b) Localized radiation
• Only the active zone transmits the channel
• Other zones remain silent for that channel
• less signal leakage into other cells
• reduced co-channel interference
Microcell Zone
• Because interference is reduced: Cells can be placed closer in frequency
reuse pattern . D can be decreased. Q can be decreased. N can be
decreased. Thus C/N will increase . Hence Capacity increases.
• Smaller reuse cluster size is possible
Result:
Conventional system: N = 7
Zone microcell system: N = 3
Since capacity ∝ 1/N:
Capacity increases by:
7
≈ 2.33
3