INSTITUTE OF HEAVY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNOLOGY (IHET)

Institute Location: Science Kijitonyama, Bagamoyo road. [Link] 55079 Dar-es-salaam

Phone +255(0)222700745. Mobile: +255(0)754300200, +255(0)719348778.
E-mail: instituteihet@[Link] Website: [Link]

TRANING AND DEVELOPMENT

DEPARTMENT

INSTITUTE OF HEAVY EQUIPMENT AND

TECHNOLOGY

STUDENT MANUAL
REVISION 1
SEPTEMBER, 2025
 INSTITUTE OF HEAVY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNOLOGY (IHET)
Institute Location: Science Kijitonyama, Bagamoyo road. [Link] 55079 Dar-es-salaam
Phone +255(0)222700745. Mobile: +255(0)754300200, +255(0)719348778.
E-mail: instituteihet@[Link] Website: [Link]

Table of Contents
1. DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS ....................................................................................................... 3

2. DIESEL ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS COURSE OBJECTIVES .............................................................. 3

2.1 DIESEL ENGINE DEVELOPMENT AND HISTORY............................................................................................. 4

2.1.1 History of Diesel Engine - Early Years ................................................................................................... 4
2.2 GASOLINE VS DIESEL ENGINES .................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Diesel Engines Have Several Advantages Over Gasoline Engines: ....................................................... 5
2.2.2 Gasoline Engine Fuel System .................................................................................................................. 6
2.2.3 Diesel vs. Gasoline .................................................................................................................................. 7
2.2.4 Types of Diesel Fuel Injection ................................................................................................................. 7
2.3 TWO AND FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE DESIGNS ...................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines .................................................................................................................. 8
2.3.2 Diesel - 2 Cycle ....................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.3 Detroit Diesel – Views ............................................................................................................................ 9
2.3.4 World’s Largest Two Stroke Engine ..................................................................................................... 10
2.3.5 Operating Principles of 4-Cycle Engine ............................................................................................... 10
2.3.6 Intake & Compression Stroke ............................................................................................................... 11
2.3.7 Combustion and the Power Stroke ........................................................................................................ 11
2.3.8 Exhaust Stroke....................................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.9 Valve Overlap ....................................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.10 Valve Timing & “Volumetric Efficiency". ........................................................................................ 13
2.3.11 Valve Adjustments ............................................................................................................................. 14
2.4 WORK, POWER, HORSEPOWER AND TORQUE ............................................................................................. 14
2.4.1 Engine Performance – Work ................................................................................................................. 15
2.4.2 Torque and Transmitting Torque In An Engine .................................................................................... 15
2.4.3 Horsepower ........................................................................................................................................... 16
2.4.4 Torque Curve & Horsepower Curve ..................................................................................................... 17
2.4.5 Torque Relationship to Horsepower ..................................................................................................... 19
2.4.6 High Idle and Governor Overrun or Droop .......................................................................................... 20
2.4.7 Understanding Typical Engine Curves ................................................................................................. 21
2.5 DIESEL ENGINE DESIGNS ........................................................................................................................... 24
2.5.1 Direct vs. Indirection Injection ............................................................................................................. 25
2.5.2 Cylinder Head and Valve Designs ........................................................................................................ 25
2.5.3 Engine Speed ......................................................................................................................................... 26
2.6 DIESEL ENGINE COMBUSTION .................................................................................................................... 27
2.6.1 Diesel Engines and Sufficient Air.......................................................................................................... 27
2.6.2 Turbo charging – Increasing Volumetric Efficiency ............................................................................. 28
2.6.3 Compression Ratio ................................................................................................................................ 28
2.6.4 Factors That Affect Burning Fuel ......................................................................................................... 29
2.6.5 Injection Timing and Maximum Pressure in a Cylinder ....................................................................... 30
2.6.6 Compression of Air within a Cylinder ................................................................................................... 30
2.6.7 Bore and Stroke ..................................................................................................................................... 31
2.6.8 Cylinder Blowby .................................................................................................................................... 32
2.6.9 Cylinder Numbering and Companion Cylinders ................................................................................... 32
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Institute Location: Science Kijitonyama, Bagamoyo road. [Link] 55079 Dar-es-salaam
Phone +255(0)222700745. Mobile: +255(0)754300200, +255(0)719348778.
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2.6.10 2 and 3 Cylinder Engine Firing Orders ............................................................................................ 32

2.6.11 4, 6, Cylinder Engine Firing Orders ................................................................................................. 33
2.6.12 8 and 12 Cylinder Engine Firing Orders .......................................................................................... 33
2.6.13 Komatsu 12V 140Design Features ................................................................................................... 34
2.8 SAFETY IN THE SHOP WHEN WORKING WITH DIESEL ENGINES ................................................................. 34
2.8.1 Work Area and Personal Protection ..................................................................................................... 35
2.8.2 Danger of High Temperatures .............................................................................................................. 35
2.8.3 Lifting Practices .................................................................................................................................... 36
2.8.4 Chemical Hazards in the Work Place ................................................................................................... 36
2.8.5 Coolant / Antifreeze is toxic. ................................................................................................................. 37
2.8.6 Use Correct Tools and Fasteners .......................................................................................................... 37
2.8.7 Be Alert On the Job ............................................................................................................................... 38
2.8.8 Dispose of Used Oil Properly ............................................................................................................... 39
2.8.9 General Safety Practices ....................................................................................................................... 39

3. ENGINE COMPONENTS COURSE OBJECTIVES ............................................................................... 40

3.1 CYLINDER HEAD ........................................................................................................................................ 41

3.2 CYLINDER HEAD COMPONENTS - VALVES ................................................................................................. 42
3.3 CYLINDER BLOCK ...................................................................................................................................... 48
3.4 CYLINDER BLOCK COMPONENTS ............................................................................................................... 51

4. FUEL & SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................... 75

4.1 COURSE OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................. 76

4.1.1 Properties of Diesel Fuel ...................................................................................................................... 76
4.1.2 Low Pressure / Inlet Side of fuel system ................................................................................................ 82
4.1.3 Types of Fuel Systems ............................................................................................................................ 99
4.1.4 High Pressure System Fuel Flow .......................................................................................................... 101

1. Diesel Engine Fundamentals

This module covers the fundamentals of engines and is intended for those who have little knowledge
of engine mechanics.

2. Diesel Engine Fundamentals Course Objectives

The following topics are covered in this module:
1. Diesel Engine Development and History
2. Gasoline Engine Vs Diesel Engine
3. Four Stroke and Two Stroke Diesel Engine Designs
4. Work, Power, Horsepower and Torque
5. Engine Designs
6. Diesel Engine Combustion
7. Firing Order and Valve Timing
8. Safety in the Shop When Working With Diesel Engines
 INSTITUTE OF HEAVY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNOLOGY (IHET)
Institute Location: Science Kijitonyama, Bagamoyo road. [Link] 55079 Dar-es-salaam
Phone +255(0)222700745. Mobile: +255(0)754300200, +255(0)719348778.
E-mail: instituteihet@[Link] Website: [Link]

A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine which operates using the diesel cycle (named after
Dr. Rudolph Diesel). The defining feature of the diesel engine is the use of compression ignition to
burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber during the final stage of compression.
This is in contrast to a gasoline engine, which uses the Otto cycle, in which a fuel/air mixture is
ignited by a spark plug.
2.1 Diesel Engine Development and History

Rudolf Diesel, of German nationality, was born in 1858 in Paris. He was educated at Munich
Polytechnic where he graduated and was employed as a refrigerator engineer.
In 1893, he published a paper describing an engine with combustion within a cylinder, the internal
combustion engine. In 1894, he filed for a patent for his new invention, dubbed the diesel engine. His
engine was the first to prove that fuel could be ignited without a spark. He operated his first
successful engine in 1897.
In 1898, Diesel was granted U.S. Patent 608,845 for an "internal combustion engine".
At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10-foot
(3.0 m) iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. Diesel spent
two more years making improvements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with a theoretical
efficiency of 75 percent, in contrast to the 10 percent efficiency of the steam engine. By 1898, Diesel
had become a millionaire. His engines were used to power pipelines, electric and water plants,
automobiles and trucks, and marine craft. They were soon to be used in mines, oil fields, factories,
and transoceanic shipping.
2.1.1 History of Diesel Engine - Early Years
 INSTITUTE OF HEAVY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNOLOGY (IHET)
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The diesel engine continued to gain popularity over the years.

More recent advances include:
1986: Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) of Bosch with the BMW 524tD.
1991: European emission standards Euro 1 met with the truck diesel engine of Scania.
1993: Pump nozzle injection introduced in Volvo truck engines.
1994: Unit injector system by Bosch for diesel engines.
1997: First common rail in passenger car, Alfa Romeo 156.
2004: In Western Europe, the ratio of passenger cars with diesel engine exceeds 50%. Selective
catalytic reduction (SCR) system in Mercedes,
Euro 4 with EGR system and particle filters of MAN. Piezoelectric injector technology by Bosch.
2006: Euro 5 for all Iveco trucks.
2009: Volvo claims the world’s strongest truck with their FH16 700. An inline
6 cylinder, 16 liter 700 hp (522 kW) diesel engine producing 3,150 N·m
(2,320 lb ft) of torque and fully complying with Euro 5 emission standards.

2.2 Gasoline Vs Diesel Engines

The diesel engine has long been the workhorse of industry. Favored for their high torque output,
durability, exceptional fuel economy, and ability to provide power under a wide range of conditions,
diesels are dominant in such applications as trucking, construction, farming, and mining, and are used
extensively for stationary power generation and marine propulsion. The main advantage of a diesel
engine is its high thermal efficiency. Diesel engines can achieve thermal efficiencies in excess of
50%. The best gasoline engines are only about 30% to 33% efficient, and then only at wide throttle
openings. As a result, diesel engines have better fuel economy than gasoline engines.

2.2.1 Diesel Engines Have Several Advantages Over Gasoline Engines:

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They burn less fuel than a gasoline engine performing the same work, due to the engine's high
efficiency.
They have no high-tension electrical ignition system to attend to, resulting in high reliability and easy
adaptation to damp environments. The absence of coils, spark plug wires, etc., also eliminates a
source of radio frequency emissions.
They can deliver much more of their rated power on a continuous basis than a gasoline engine.
The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of a gasoline engine due to the
increased strength of parts used, also because diesel fuel has better lubrication properties than
gasoline.
Diesel fuel is considered safer than gasoline in many applications. Although diesel fuel will burn in
open air using a wick, it will not explode and does not release a large amount of flammable vapor.
For any given partial load the fuel efficiency (mass burned per energy produced) of a diesel engine
remains nearly constant, as opposed to gasoline and turbine engines which use proportionally more
fuel with partial power outputs.
They generate less waste heat in cooling and exhaust.
With a diesel, boost pressure is limited only by the strength of the engine components not pre-
detonation of the fuel charge as in gasoline engines.
The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal; therefore diesel engines are used in
underground mines.

2.2.2 Gasoline Engine Fuel System

 INSTITUTE OF HEAVY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNOLOGY (IHET)
Institute Location: Science Kijitonyama, Bagamoyo road. [Link] 55079 Dar-es-salaam
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The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto cycle by using a higher
compression of the air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug ("compression ignition" rather
than "spark ignition").
A gasoline engine compresses a mixture of gasoline and air. Since the compression ratio is lower than
in diesel engines, there is not sufficient heat generated to ignite the air-fuel mixture, so an electric
spark is introduced at the end of the compression stroke.
There are several differences between diesel and gasoline engines. Gasoline engines, in general, are
used in light work and high-speed applications. There are heavy work and low speed applications for
gasoline engines. However, because of the higher cost of gasoline as compared to diesel fuel, diesel
engines are dominant in the construction equipment industry.
A diesel engine draws air on its intake stroke and then compress the air so tightly that the air becomes
very hot. A fine spray of fuel is then injected and ignition occurs when the fuel contacts the hot air.
2.2.3 Diesel vs. Gasoline

Diesel engine has many advantages for use in heavy duty applications.

2.2.4 Types of Diesel Fuel Injection

Diesel engines in service today raise the fuel to extreme pressures by mechanical pumps and deliver it
to the combustion chamber by pressure-activated injectors without compressed air. With direct
injected diesels, injectors spray fuel through six or more small orifices in its nozzle.
Indirect injection
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An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the combustion chamber, called a
pre-chamber or ante-chamber, where combustion begins and then spreads into the main combustion
chamber, assisted by turbulence created in the chamber. This system allows for a smoother, quieter
running engine. Indirect injection engines are cheaper to build and it is easier to produce smooth,
quiet-running vehicles with a simple mechanical system.
Direct injection
Modern diesel engines make use of one of the following direct injection methods:
Direct injection injectors are mounted in the top of the combustion chamber. The problem with these
vehicles was the harsh noise that they made. Fuel consumption was about 15 to 20 percent lower than
indirect injection diesels, which for some buyers was enough to compensate for the extra noise.
Unit direct injection
Unit direct injection also injects fuel directly into the cylinder of the engine. In this system the
injector and the pump are combined into one unit positioned over each cylinder controlled by the
camshaft. Each cylinder has its own unit eliminating the high pressure fuel lines, achieving a more
consistent injection. This type of injection system, also developed by Bosch, is used major diesel
engine manufacturers in large commercial engines (Komatsu, CAT, Cummins, Detroit Diesel, and
Volvo). With recent advancements, the pump pressure has been raised to 2,400 bar (35261 psi),
allowing injection parameters similar to common rail systems.
Common rail direct injection
In common rail systems, the separate pulsing high pressure fuel line to each cylinder injector is also
eliminated. Instead, a high-pressure pump pressurizes fuel at up to 2,000 bar (200 MPa, 30000 psi), in
a "common rail". The common rail is a tube that supplies each computer-controlled injector
containing a precision-machined nozzle and a plunger driven by a solenoid or piezoelectric actuator.
2.3 Two and Four Stroke Diesel Engine Designs

2.3.1 Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines

2.3.2 Diesel - 2 Cycle

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Piston at top of travel and cylinder contains a charge of highly compressed air.
Diesel fuel sprayed into the cylinder by the injector immediately ignites due to heat and pressure
inside the cylinder.
Pressure created by combustion of fuel drives the piston downward. Power stroke. Piston nears the
bottom of stroke exhaust valves open and exhaust gases rush out of the cylinder, relieving the
pressure.
Piston bottoms out air intake ports uncovered and pressurized air fills the cylinder, forcing out
exhaust gases.
Exhaust valves close, piston travels upward Re-covering the intake ports & compressing fresh charge
of air. Compression stroke. Thus a diesel 2-stroke engine suffers none of the environmental problems
that plague a gasoline 2-stroke engine and a diesel 2-stroke engine must have a turbocharger or a
supercharger.

2 CYCLE = 2 STROKE
•AIR THRU SIDE PORTS NOT VALVES
•BLOWER or SUPER CHARGER
•EXHAUST AT SAME TIME
•COMPRESSION – UPSTROKE
•POWER – DOWNSTROKE
•OPEN EXHAUST VALUES NEAR BDC
2.3.3 Detroit Diesel – Views

More many years Detroit Diesel built 2 stroke engines. They were built with cylinder displacements
of 53, 71, 92, & 149 cubic inches. Due to increasing worldwide emission regulations, production of
these engines ended in 1998.
2 CYCLE – The Good & the Bad
TWICE AS MANY POWER STROKES
THEREFORE TWICE AS POWERFUL?
NOT TRUE
1.6 to 1.9 POWER OF COMPARABLE 4 STROKE BECAUSE:
SHORTER STROKE
POWER LOAD FOR BLOWER
POWER EVERY CYCLE
GOOD FLEXIBILITY
DIFFICULT TO MX IN TOP CONDITION
HIGH NOISE
GREATER FUEL CONSUMPTION
RPM LIMITED ~ 2100 RPM (LACK OF VALVE MECHANISM)
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SMALLER / LIGHTER
2.3.4 World’s Largest Two Stroke Engine

The Wartsila-Sulzer RTA96-C turbocharged two-stroke diesel engine is the most powerful and most
efficient prime-mover in the world today. The Aioi Works of Japan's Diesel United, Ltd built the first
engines and is where some of these pictures were taken. It is available in 6 through 14 cylinder
versions, all are inline engines. These engines were designed primarily for very large container ships.
The cylinder bore is just under 38" / 965 mm and the stroke is just over 98“/2489.2 mm. Each
cylinder displaces 111,143 cubic inches (1820 liters) and produces 7780 horsepower. Total
displacement comes out to 1,556,002 cubic inches (25,480 liters) for the fourteen cylinder version.
Even at its most efficient power setting, the 14 cylinder consumes 1,660 gallons /6200 liters of heavy
fuel oil per hour.
2.3.5 Operating Principles of 4-Cycle Engine

A four-cycle engine completes the four functions of intake, compression, expansion (power), and
exhaust during two upward and two downward strokes of the piston, or while the crankshaft turns
twice.
Intake stroke - When the intake valve is opened, the piston moves downward and new air is taken
into the cylinder through the intake valve.
Compression stroke - When the piston completes its downward movement, bottom dead center
(BDC), and the intake valve is closed and the piston starts to rise. During the pistons upward
movement the air that had been drawn in during the intake stroke is trapped in the cylinder and is now
compressed.
When the piston has fully risen, the temperature rises to about 400  to 500 C (752  to 932 F).
Expansion or Power stroke - The expansion stroke is often referred to as the power stroke. Just
before the piston reaches top dead center on the compression stroke, fuel is injected from the injector
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or injection nozzle. The fuel is mixed with the hot air and begins to burn at the instant the piston
passes top dead center and then, due to the expansion of gases caused by the burning of the fuel; the
combustion pressure rises This combustion pressure forces the piston down and causes the crankshaft
to rotate because of its connection to the piston by the connecting rod. There are several methods for
injecting the fuel that are presented in detail in the fuel system module.
Exhaust stroke - The exhaust valve opens just before the piston reaches bottom dead center. When
the piston passes bottom dead center and begins to rise, the combustion gas is forced out of the
cylinder. This continues during the upward movement of the piston until the exhaust valve closes.
When the preceding four strokes are complete the cycle is repeated.

2.3.6 Intake & Compression Stroke

The piston moves down by crankshaft action and doing so creates a partial vacuum at the top of the
cylinder. Air rushes in through open ports and fills up the space left by the descending piston. This is
the intake stroke.
A few degrees after the piston begins its upward movement, the intake valves close and a quantity of
clean air is trapped inside the cylinder.
As the piston continues its upward stroke, the space that confines the air gets progressively smaller
until the air occupies about 1/16 of its original volume. Compressing air into a small space raises its
temperature considerably and it is now ready to support combustion. This upward stroke of the piston
is called the compression stroke.
2.3.7 Combustion and the Power Stroke
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A few degrees before the piston reaches the very top of its stroke, fuel is injected into the hot
compressed air and after a very short delay period, it ignites. Fuel continues to be injected until the
piston travels to top center or a few degrees thereafter, depending on engine design, speed, and load.
At this point, the cylinder pressure is close to maximum for that particular cycle.
The force from the burning air and fuel mixture acts on all surfaces of the combustion chamber fairly
equally. But the force is able to move only the piston and the piston moves down at high velocity.
This is the 3rd stroke in the cycle and is called the expansion or power stroke.
Four Stroke Advantages
•EASIER MX
•LONGER TROUBLE FREE SERVICE
•LOWER FUEL CONSUMPTION
•LOWER NOISE
•LONGER EFFECTIVE STROKE – TORQUE
•HIGHER MANUFACTURE / INITIAL COST
•OPERATE AT HIGHER PRESSURE BUT SAME TEMP

2.3.8 Exhaust Stroke

When the piston has completed about 3/4 of its downward stroke, the exhaust valves open and
cylinder pressure begins to drop toward atmospheric pressure.
Because cylinder pressure has begun to equalize, the piston can more easily push out the rest of the
exhaust gas. In other words, there will be minimal excess pressure for the piston to work against on
its upstroke.
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The piston passes bottom center and starts its up- stroke-forcing the spent gas out the exhaust ports.
The exhaust valves are timed to close after the piston passes top center so that high exhaust pressure
does not backflow into the intake manifold. The exhaust stroke is the 4th stroke and completes the
cycle.
The piston approaches TDC the intake valve opens and at TDC the Intake stroke begins.
2.3.9 Valve Overlap

Before the piston reaches the top of its stroke, the intake valves open. The exact number of degrees
before top center depends on engine design. It is desirable for the intake valves to open at this time to
promote maximum air induction. This is especially so when the engine is at maximum rated RPM and
piston speeds are high. Since both sets of valves are open at the piston's top center position between
the exhaust and intake strokes, they are referred to as being overlapped.
Additionally, from a theoretical perspective, each of the strokes in the cycle complete at Top Dead
Centre (TDC) or Bottom Dead Centre (BDC), but in practicality, in order to overcome mechanical
valve delays and the inertia of the new charge air, and to take advantage of the momentum of the
exhaust gases, each of the strokes invariably begin and end outside the 0, 180, 360, 540 and 720 (0)
degree crank positions.
2.3.10 Valve Timing & “Volumetric Efficiency".

How well a 4-stroke engine is able to pack the cylinder with clean fresh air is called "volumetric
efficiency". For example, consider a cylinder able to hold 100 cubic inches of air at atmospheric
pressure when the piston is at bottom dead center with the engine shut down. If only 80 cubic inches
of air enters the cylinder at a certain engine speed, the volumetric efficiency is 80% at that particular
speed.
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Additionally, there are many variables which directly affect how efficiently the engine receives air.
Engine design has much to do with it. That is, the smoothness of internal air passages, the degree and
number of bends in a passage, and the size of the ports all have their effects.
Also, intake valves and ports are unduly heated when exhaust gas escapes in this way. These
abnormally hot surfaces will heat incoming air and the air will be less dense, which means that less
oxygen will be available to support combustion.
Also consider that early opening of the intake valve will tend to have the same effect.
2.3.11 Valve Adjustments

Any restriction to air flow where the air actually enters inlet piping through the air filter will also
reduce the cylinder air charge. For this reason, air cleaners should be serviced at periodic intervals
and quite frequently if the engine operating environment has high levels of air-borne dirt.
Another variable that will seriously affect power output concerns how well the cylinder is sealed.
Any leaks past the valves or rings will reduce cylinder output.
2.4 Work, Power, Horsepower and Torque

For commercial uses requiring towing, load carrying and other tracktive tasks, diesel engines tend to
have better torque characteristics. Diesel engines tend to have their torque peak quite low in their
speed range (usually between 1600–2000 rpm for a small-capacity unit, lower for a larger engine used
in a truck). This provides smoother control over heavy loads when starting from rest, and, crucially,
allows the diesel engine to be given higher loads at low speeds than a gasoline engine, making them
much more economical for these applications. This characteristic is not so desirable in private cars, so
most modern diesels used in such vehicles use electronic control, variable geometry turbochargers
and shorter piston strokes to achieve a wider spread of torque over the engine's speed range, typically
peaking at around 2500–3000 rpm.
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2.4.1 Engine Performance – Work

In engineering, work is defined as changing the position of an object against an opposing force.
A force (a push, a pull, a lift) applied to an object will move it over a distance.
For example, work is done on a weight if the weight is raised against the force of gravity. Providing
FORCE and DISTANCE are in the same direction, WORK may be expressed in the statement:

FORCE (kg) X DISTANCE (m).

WORK = FORCE (kg) x DISTANCE (m)

When a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement of the object, it is said that work was done
upon the object. There are three key ingredients to work - force, displacement, and cause. In order for
a force to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a displacement and the force must
cause the displacement. There are several good examples of work which can be observed in everyday
life - a horse pulling a plow through the field, a father pushing a grocery cart down the aisle of a
grocery store, a freshman lifting a backpack full of books upon her shoulder, a weightlifter lifting a
barbell above his head, an Olympian launching the shot-put, etc. In each case described here there is a
force exerted upon an object to cause that object to be displaced.
2.4.2 Torque and Transmitting Torque In An Engine

Torque is turning (or twisting) effort and it is measured in Ft/P or Kg/m. You are applying torque to
the wrench when loosening nuts. Pressure developed by gas burning a top a piston applies torque to
the crank. You should not confuse torque with work or with power. Remember, torque is the turning
effort an engine applies to driving wheels or sprockets through power train systems. Motion
(something moving) is indicated by both WORK and POWER. TORQUE is merely a turning effort
that may or may not cause motion. Torque does not suggest motion. When applying a pull of F (kg) at
a distance of L (m) from the center of turning.
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TORQUE is given by: TORQUE = F L kg/m

2.4.3 Horsepower

Horsepower is defined as work done over time. The exact definition of one horsepower is 33,000 lb-
ft. /minute. Put another way, if you were to lift 33,000 pounds one foot over a period of one minute,
you would have been working at the rate of one horsepower. In this case, you'd have expended one
horsepower minute of energy.

Horsepower & James Watt

The term Horsepower originated by James Watt, (1736-1819) the inventor of the steam engine and
the man whose name has been immortalized by the definition of Watt as a unit of power.
To help sell his steam engines, Watt needed a way of rating their capabilities. The engines were
replacing horses, the usual source of industrial power of the day.
The typical horse, attached to a mill that grinded corn or cut wood, walked a 24 foot diameter (about
75.4 feet circumference) circle. Watt calculated that the horse pulled with a force of 180 pounds,
although how he came up with the figure is not known. Watt observed that a horse typically made
144 trips around the circle in an hour, or about 2.4 per minute.
This meant that the horse traveled at a speed of 180.96 feet per minute. Watt rounded off the speed to
181 feet per minute and multiplied that by the 180 pounds of force the horse pulled (181 x 180) and
came up with 32,580 ft.- lbs./minute. That was rounded off to 33,000 ft.-lbs./minute, the figure we
use today.
There is a metric horsepower rating, although it is rarely used. The two methods are close, with one
SAE horsepower equal to 1.0138697 metric horsepower.
One mechanical horsepower also equals 745.699 watts or .746 kW (kilowatts) of electrical
horsepower.
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Engine Performance - Power & Horsepower

SAE Horsepower is defined as work done over time. The exact definition of one horsepower is
33,000 lb ft./minute. Put another way, if you were to lift 33,000 pounds one foot over a period of one
minute, Metric Horsepower or PS is the term used in the metric system for rating engine power. 1 PS
is the work done when one revolution is accomplished in one second at the torque of 75kg / m.
Today horsepower is the term used for rating engine power. More specifically, horsepower is the
work done when one engine revolution is accomplished in one second.
• 1 HP = 550 ft.-lbs./sec.
• 1 HP = 1.014 PS
• 1 PS = 75 kg-m/sec.
• 1 PS =. 986 HP
Also, engines convert up and down reciprocating motion into rotating (twisting or turning) force
called torque. Therefore, the larger the torque or the faster the speed, the more work that may be
done.
2.4.4 Torque Curve & Horsepower Curve

You can see that torque T and engine speed N are important factors to determine engine horsepower.
Thus, horsepower goes up when engine rpm continues to go up and torque remains high. If torque
becomes low, horsepower stops increasing and begins to drop.
Reduced torque due to a governor at higher rpm causes a drop in horsepower.
The maximum HP is called rated output and the rpm at the rated out-put is called the rated rpm.
Shown are the Curves for one particular engine. Torque, HP and fuel consumption ratio, all change
automatically according to the change of rpm. So, the engine performance curve is obtained by
plotting these values on a graph.
Torque begins to drop after a certain RPM is reached.
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Torque starts to decrease because the engine cannot breathe as well. Due to the speed, the cylinder
does not fill with air as well. Time for the fuel to burn is reduced as speed increases. Additionally
parasitic loads increase, water pump, oil pump, etc.
Power continue to increase after torque decreases?
Remember that the power is essentially the product of the RPM and the torque. At first, decrease in
torque is small and is not enough to offset the increasing RPM, so the overall product still increases.
Eventually the decrease in torque becomes large enough that it outweighs the increase in RPM and
we see the power start to drop. Because of this, the power peak will always be after the torque peak.
Example for SA6D140E-3 in a Komatsu WA500-3
Rated Horsepower is 315 horsepower at 2100 RPM
Peak Torque is 1010FT/LB at 1400 RPM

Torque, Horsepower, and Speed

Engine Performance – Torque & Torque Rise

As described before, torque is turning effort. This torque is applied to the engine crankshaft by the
piston moving down on the power stroke. Greater torque is applied when the push on the piston is
larger.
The torque developed by an engine varies with engine speed. It is higher during intermediate speeds
with higher combustion pressures developed, because of a fairly full charge of air.
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Engine torque is lower at higher speeds since there is less air taken into the cylinders, due to less time
being available. There will therefore be less fuel to burn, resulting in less push on the piston, which
causes lower engine torque.
TORQUE RISE is used as a value for indicating the lugging ability of an engine. When the torque
required for work is larger than the engine's maximum torque and the work is continued, engine rpm
drops lower and lower until the engine stops.
The higher the maximum torque above the torque at the rated output and the lower the rpm of the
engine at the maximum torque, the more time is available for the engine before stopping. This allows
the operator enough time for taking steps (either reducing the load or shifting transmission gears) to
prevent the engine from stopping when he notices that the engine rpm is dropping.
This is the advantage of an engine that has good lugging ability or high torque rise.
2.4.5 Torque Relationship to Horsepower

•Why does torque drop after a certain RPM?

•Torque starts to decrease because the engine cannot breathe as well. Due to the speed, the cylinder
does not fill with air as well. Time for the fuel to burn is reduced as speed increases. Additionally
parasitic loads increase, water pump, oil pump, etc.
•Why does power continue to increase after torque decreases?
•Remember that the power is essentially the product of the RPM and the torque. At first, decrease in
torque is small and is not enough to offset the increasing RPM, so the overall product still increases.
Eventually the decrease in torque becomes large enough that it outweighs the increase in RPM and
we see the power start to drop. Because of this, the power peak will always be after the torque peak.

Relationship Between Torque, RPM & Engine Horsepower

Thus we get the familiar formula used today in calculating horsepower.

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What is torque at rated Horsepower?

790 ft/lb
What is Horsepower at peak torque?
1370 Nm = 1010 ft/lb
269 Hp

Engine Performance – Torque & Torque Rise

Engine Torque actually increases as the load is increased and RPMs are reduced.
2.4.6 High Idle and Governor Overrun or Droop

Assume an engine has a rating of 350 Hp at 2000 RPM and High Idle of 2200 RPM.
Droop would equal 200 RPM
200/2000= .1 or 10 percent
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2.4.7 Understanding Typical Engine Curves

Engine Types of Ratings or Duty Cycles

Engine manufactures apply Duty Cycles or rating types. Higher horsepower engines may be rated at a
peak or intermittent rating. The engine can produce the power but for a limited period of time. An
engine with a peak duty of 10 percent means that the engine can only be operated a peak power for 10
percent of the time. One hour in a ten hour period, exceeding the 10 percent rating would reduce
engine life.
Continuous usually indicates a 100 percent duty cycle. Parasitic load such as fans or accessories also
are factored in.

What is Useable Power and Limits Output

All internal combustion engines need oxygen. The engine must have the correct fuel to air (oxygen)
ratio. As altitude increases the air density is reduced, available oxygen is reduced. Therefore less fuel
can be burned and the result is less power. Altitude must be considered and power rating adjusted.
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Temperature also affects air density. Cold air is denser creating more power at lower air intake
temperatures. The opposite happens for hot air temperatures. Higher temperatures reduce available
oxygen.
If an engine is operated at high altitude in the same manner, as at a low altitude, it will result in
reduced engine output, black exhaust smoke, and higher exhaust temperature due to the lack of air.
Again, this is because, at high altitude, the excess air ratio will be reduced.
A drop in engine horsepower at high altitudes is unavoidable. Most naturally aspirated engines will
operate satisfactorily up to an elevation of about 1,000m (3,300 ft.). Operating these engines at higher
altitude will require adjustment of the fuel, but there will still be a loss of horsepower. To keep
normal engine output at high altitude the air should be forced into the cylinders by means of
supercharging. When done properly, supercharging provides the engine with the same amount of
oxygen molecules as at sea level, therefore making high altitude fuel adjustments unnecessary.

Engine Inlet Air Temperature

Have you ever wondered why a hat air balloon will fly? It will fly because the air inside has been
heated and in less dense. The hot air in the balloon actually weights less than the cooler air and it is in
fact floating in the cooler air. Just like a piece of wood floats on water.
The air that enters an engine’s air cleaner can vary in temperature a large amount. It can be as hot as
+ 50°C or as low as -40°C. Therefore the density of the air entering the engine varies with the
temperature.
To demonstrate these change two 45 liter plastic bags were filled with air. One was filled with 0°C air
on a cold day. The other was filled with air from air dryer with an output temperature of about 55°C.
Both bags were weighted on a very accurate digital scale. The warmer bag was about 2 grams lighter
than the cold bag. This demonstrates that hot air has less weight and is therefore less dense.
Changes in inlet air temperature will change an engines power output. SAE testing standard J1349
uses a standard air temperature of 77°F / 25°C.
For example, an inlet air temperature of 120°F / 49 °C will result in an engine output reduction of
about 3.5%. An engine rated at 300 horsepower will produce about 289 horse power with inlet air of
120°F / 49° C.
It should be understood that as altitude increases, air density also decreases. An engine operating at
higher altitudes will also produce reduced power. SAE standard J1349 also defines power change due
to altitude change.

Factors That Affect Burning Fuel – Air at High Altitudes

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There are fewer oxygen molecules in air at high altitude than at sea level. The higher the altitude the
lower the atmospheric pressure and the thinner the air density. The weight of one liter of air at sea
level is 1.2 grams and 0.77 grams at an altitude of 3,776m (12,389 ft.). A change in altitude means a
change in available air or oxygen. If an engine is operated at high altitude in the same manner, as at a
low altitude, it will result in reduced engine output, black exhaust smoke, and higher exhaust
temperature due to the lack of air. Again, this is because, at high altitude, the excess air ratio will be
reduced.
A drop in engine horsepower at high altitudes is unavoidable. Most naturally aspirated engines will
operate satisfactorily up to an elevation of about 1,000m (3,300 ft.). Operating these engines at higher
altitude will require adjustment of the fuel, but there will still be a loss of horsepower.
To keep normal engine output at high altitude the air should be forced into the cylinders by means of
Turbo charging. Even with Turbo charging changes in altitude will cause the changes in power
output.
Standard air pressure is 30.5 “Hg or 77.5 cm Hg. Reducing the air pressure to 24.0 “Hg or 61.0 cm
Hg will reduce power by 5.4 %.

SAE J1349

Ratings are based on SAE J1349 standard conditions of 100 kPa (29.61 in Hg) and 25°C (77°F).
These ratings also apply at ISO 30 46/1, DIN 6271 and BS 5514 standard conditions of 100 kPa
(29.61 in Hg), 27°C (81°F) and 60% relative humidity.
Fuel Rates are based on fuel oil of 35° API [16° C (60° F)] gravity having an LHV of 42780 kJ/kg
(18,390 Btu/lb) when used at 29° C (85 °F).

Engine Performance / Life Variables

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There are many other variables that affect or possible limit a diesel engine's performance. As service
people we have do not control all the variables. Engine design and operating conditions are two
variables service people have little control of.
Service people have the most control over the quantity and quality of service or maintenance an
engine or machine receives during its working life.
A well maintained engine or machine will give have a longer life at lower costs than one with poor
maintenance.
2.5 Diesel Engine Designs

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relationship.
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topic where it serves as a summary.
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2.5.1 Direct vs. Indirection Injection

Indirect injection
An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the combustion chamber, called a
pre-chamber or ante-chamber, where combustion begins and then spreads into the main combustion
chamber, assisted by turbulence created in the chamber. This system allows for a smoother, quieter
running engine, and because combustion is assisted by turbulence, injector pressures can be lower,
about 100 bar using a single orifice tapered jet injector. Mechanical injection systems allowed high
speed running suitable for road vehicles (typically up to speeds of around 4,000 rpm). The pre-
chamber had the disadvantage of increasing heat loss to the engine's cooling system, and restricting
the combustion burn, which reduced the efficiency by 5%–10%. Indirect injection engines were used
in small-capacity, high-speed diesel engines in automotive, marine and construction uses from the
1950s, until direct injection technology advanced in the 1980s. Indirect injection engines are cheaper
to build and it is easier to produce smooth, quiet-running vehicles with a simple mechanical system.
In general direct injection offers greater efficiency and better controlled emission levels of.
Direct injection
Direct injection injectors are mounted in the top of the combustion chamber. The problem with these
engines was the harsh noise that they made. Fuel consumption was about 15 to 20 percent lower than
indirect injection diesels, which for some buyers was enough to compensate for the extra noise.
Direct injection was transformed by electronic control of the injection pump, pioneered by the Bosch
in the late1980s. The injection pressure was still only around 300 bar (4350 psi), but the injection
timing, fuel quantity, EGR and turbo boost were all electronically controlled. This gave more precise
control of these parameters which made refinement more acceptable lowering noise and emissions.
2.5.2 Cylinder Head and Valve Designs

Early engine designs included the Side Valve, F-head design and the T-head type.
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The most common engine configuration is the Overhead Valve or OHV in which all of the valves are
located in the cylinder head and the camshaft is located in the cylinder block. The camshaft operates
the valves via lifters/cam follower’s pushrods and rocker arms.
The camshaft uses the lifters, push rods and rocker arms to activate its valves. As the camshaft
rotates, each off-center (eccentric) cam lobe pushes against a lifter or tappet. The upward motion of
the lifter transfers through the push rod to the rocker arm. This upward motion changes to downward
motion as the rocker arm pivots. The downward motion opens the valve. As the camshaft continues to
rotate, the lobe passes by the lifter and allows the valve to close. A spring (attached to the valve)
returns the valve to its seated position. Every cylinder in an internal-combustion engine contains
intake valve or Valves and exhaust valve or Valves. The valves open and close internal passages in
the cylinder head. The intake valve controls the flow of air into the combustion chamber. The exhaust
valve controls the flow of exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
2.5.3 Engine Speed

High-speed (approximately 1000 rpm and greater) engines are used to power trucks (lorries), buses,
tractors, cars, yachts, compressors, pumps and small electrical generators. As of 2008 most high
speed engines have indirect injection, although many modern engines, particularly in on-highway
applications, have common rail direct injection, which is not as reliable as mechanical injection, but
is cleaner burning.
Medium speed engines are used in large electrical generators, ship propulsion and mechanical drive
applications such as large compressors or pumps.
The ones used in electrical generators run at approximately 300 to 1000 rpm and are optimized to run
at a set synchronous speed depending on the generation frequency (50 or 60 Hertz). Typical cylinder
bore size for medium speed engines ranges from 20 cm to 50 cm, and engine configurations typically
are offered ranging from in-line 4 cylinder units to V 20 cylinder units. Medium speed diesel engines
operate on either diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil by direct injection in the same manner noted below for
low speed engines.
Low-speed engines Also known as "slow-speed", the largest diesel engines are primarily used to
power ships, although there are a few land-based power generation units as well. These extremely
large two-stroke engines have power outputs up to approximately 85 MW; operate in the range from
approximately 60 to 200 rpm weigh over 2000 tons. They typically use direct injection running on
cheap low-grade "heavy fuel", also known as "Bunker C" fuel, which requires heating in the ship for
tanking and before injection due to the fuel's high viscosity.
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2.6 Diesel Engine Combustion

The diesel engine is a source of power that harnesses the force of combustion to obtain useful rotary
motion.
In the diesel engine, only air is introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed
with a compression ratio typically between 15 and 22 resulting into a 40 bar (about 600 psi) pressure
compared to 14 bar (about 200 psi) in the gasoline engine. This high compression heats the air to 550
°C (about 1000 °F).
At this moment, fuel is injected directly into the compressed air. The fuel is ignited by the heat,
causing a rapid expansion of gases that drive the piston downward, supplying power to the
crankshaft.
As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate
ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine's efficiency. Increasing the
compression ratio in a spark ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder
is limited by the need to prevent damaging pre-ignition. Since only air is compressed in a diesel
engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead center (TDC),
premature detonation is not an issue and compression ratios are much higher.
2.6.1 Diesel Engines and Sufficient Air

Injecting more fuel by raising fuel manifold pressure or by metering more fuel will not result in more
force during the power stroke if there is not enough air to combine with it. Lack of sufficient air
results in power loss, smoke, excessive exhaust temperature and reduced engine life.
The number of molecules does not change unless there is some leakage. This means that the
molecules are more crowded in the compressed state, and that each molecule travels a shorter
distance to collide with another molecule or to strike against the wall of the cylinder. Molecules at or
near the cylinder walls bounce on the wall surface more frequently and more intensely, resulting in
greater total force, which is referred to as an increase in pressure.
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2.6.2 Turbo charging – Increasing Volumetric Efficiency

Most all diesel engines produced today are turbocharged. Turbochargers, which are part of the air
system, are centrifugal blowers driven by exhaust gas. Thus they run on power that otherwise is
wasted. The purposes of a turbocharger are (1) to stuff more air into the cylinder so more fuel can be
burned thus boosting power or (2) to compensate for less air pressure at higher altitudes so the engine
doesn't lose power as quickly. The turbocharger substantially increases volumetric efficiency. There
should be an excess amount of air in the cylinder over and above that which is required for
combustion under ideal and controlled conditions.
This illustration shows the benefits Turbo charging. The larger containers represent the amount of air
getting into the cylinder and the smaller containers represent the amount of oxygen molecules
available for the burning of fuel.
The cylinders on the left represent a cylinder of a naturally aspirated engine at sea level and the
containers on the right represent the same size cylinder that has a turbo charger. There is an
abundance of air and oxygen.
Normally, the maximum percentage that horsepower can be increased in this way is 30%.
Note that turbochargers are not mechanically driven by the engine. Controls for Turbo charger speed,
air quantity, and pressure follow changes in engine speed and load conditions. Do not confuse turbo-
chargers with superchargers and scavenging blowers. Superchargers charge the cylinder with more air
but are mechanically driven and significantly increase the engine's parasitic load.
2.6.3 Compression Ratio

The compression ratio of an engine is the volume in one cylinder with the piston at bottom dead
center (displacement volume plus clearance volume) divided by the volume with the piston at top
dead center (clearance volume). This figure indicates the actual amount that the air drawn into the
cylinder will be compressed. For example, suppose that an engine cylinder has an air volume of 63
cubic inches with the piston at bottom dead center and a volume of 10 cubic inches with the piston at
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top dead center. This gives a compression ratio of 63 divided by 10 or 6.3:1. That is, the air is
compressed from 63 to 10 cubic inches, or to 1/6.3 of its original volume.
2.6.4 Factors That Affect Burning Fuel

Fuel - Fuel oil sprayed into ordinary atmosphere will not burn. Oxygen and high temperature are
needed to burn the oil. These two requirements are met by compressing a proper amount of air within
the engine cylinder. The process of burning the fuel may be viewed in three successive stages: 1)
mixture formation, fuel globules vaporize and mix with the air, 2) ignition, and 3) final combustion.
The very short interval from the moment the fuel oil is injected to the moment the fuel oil begins to
burn is a delay or hesitating period. With an easier to burn fuel or with finer globules of oil, this
period is shorter. Therefore, the finer the particle, the easier or faster the combustion.
To promote fuel oil vaporization, the total surface area of a given portion of fuel oil must be
increased. The surface of a droplet can be expanded hundreds of times by dividing it into finer
particles. This is the reason why an injection nozzle or injector is used to supply fuel oil to each
cylinder.
However, if the fuel being injected is excessively fine, vaporization might be completed in an
extremely short time and the entire fuel might explode rather than have controlled burning. This can
cause cracks in the cylinder liner and pistons.
On the other hand, large globules of fuel will burn slowly. Slow combustion does not develop the
high pressure (power), which the fuel is otherwise capable of. Some portion of the fuel may not burn
but instead turn into soot, which shows up as black exhaust smoke. Therefore, the proper atomization
of the fuel is very important for clean burning of fuel and maximum horsepower.
With a given injection nozzle, the higher the injection pressure the finer the globules produced by
injection. Injection pressure being, the pressure with which, the fuel is forced out through the orifice
in the nozzle. With a too low injection pressure, the fuel oil might spurt out straight without breaking
into finer globules. The nozzles and injectors used in Komatsu engines are designed to spray at a
constant pressure.
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2.6.5 Injection Timing and Maximum Pressure in a Cylinder

This slide shows a result of measuring the cylinder pressure in an engine in which the fuel injection
timing is changed at three stages.
The timing of fuel is very important, but adjustment of timing is usually not necessary unless one of
the following has occurred:
Coupling of the injection pump is excessively out of adjustment.
The timer, when built in the injection pump, is defective.
When the engine has been improperly assembled during overhaul.
If injection timing is advanced, exhaust color is good and there may be a slight increase in rpm's and
horsepower. However, in the advanced state, more heat and pressure are built up in the cylinder.
This can cause the following problems:
Overheating
Burnt inlet of a pre-combustion chamber
Burnt glow plug
Seizing of fuel nozzle or injector due to the high combustion gas being forced into nozzle
Fuel leaking from gasket
Knocking sound in engine
When the injection timing is retarded, cylinder pressure decreases, consequently there is some heat
loss and all the fuel may not burn.
This results in:
Black exhaust smoke
Loss of horsepower
2.6.6 Compression of Air within a Cylinder

Heat - The last element needed to burn the fuel in our combustion chamber is heat.
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Trapped air in a vessel has a physical property that if compressing it reduces the volume, an increase
in temperature and in pressure takes place. The speed of compressing the trapped air makes a
difference in the increase of the temperature and the pressure as the two following charts indicate.
When compressed slowly, the temperature remains relatively constant because the heat escapes
through the vessel wall but the pressure rises proportionally to the volume reduction. The
engineering term for this type of compression is “isothermal”.
When there is rapid compression, there is very little chance for air to escape and the increase in
temperature is great. This type of compression is called, “adiabatic.”
We have been assuming that a compressing device is perfectly sealed and free from leakage. In actual
engine operation, the compression of air by the piston may be somewhere between isothermal and
adiabatic. An engine running at high speed may be regarded as working on adiabatic compression.
For example, at 2,000 rpm each, compression is completed in 1.5/1000 second.
There is practically no time for the compressed air to leak. The heat of compression cannot escape
easily because the engine is generally hot when it is running fast.
2.6.7 Bore and Stroke

Piston displacement is the volume of space that the piston displaces as it moves from bottom dead
center to top dead center. The volume is figured by multiplying the length of the stroke by the area of
a circle having the diameter of the cylinder bore. Thus, a 95mm (3.74") diameter circle has an area of
70.88 sq. cm (10.98 sq. in.) and therefore, this time’s 11.5cm (4.52") (length of stroke) equals 815.12
cubic centimeters per cylinder. If the engine has four cylinders it would be a 3.26 l (199 cu. in.)
engine.
Volumetric efficiency - When the piston starts to move downward in the cylinder on the intake
stroke, it produces a vacuum in the cylinder. If both the intake and exhaust valves were closed, then
no substance could enter this vacuum. The cylinder would remain empty. However, at the time that
the piston starts to move down, the intake valve is opened. Atmospheric pressure pushes air past the
intake valve and into the cylinder. The cylinder therefore becomes filled with air (or with air-fuel
mixture in gasoline engines). It takes time for the air to flow through the intake manifold and past the
intake valve. If given enough time, enough air will enter to “fill it up.” The air is given very little time
to do this. For example, when the engine is running at 1,200 rpm, the intake stroke lasts only 0.025
second. In this very brief period, all the air that could enter does not have time to flow into the
cylinder. The intake stroke ends too quickly.
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2.6.8 Cylinder Blowby

2.6.9 Cylinder Numbering and Companion Cylinders

Cylinders are number from one end of the engine or the other. The most common is to call the
cylinder at the front pulley end number one, but there are some OEMs which call the cylinder next to
the flywheel number one. Always check the service literature to determine the correct method of
cylinder counting.
Companion cylinders are pairs of cylinders that travel together. In this example # 1
& 6# are companion cylinders. When #1 is traveling down from TDC to BDC on Power # 6 is
traveling down on Intake.
2.6.10 2 and 3 Cylinder Engine Firing Orders

When designing an engine it is important to arrange the firing order in such a way that the
reciprocating motion of the pistons and connecting rods are transformed into the rotary motion
required to transmit torque to the flywheel. Special care must be taken to regulate the firing order to
help balance the reciprocating and rotary forces. This will prevent excessive vibrations, which can
lead to premature engine failure. Severe vibration may cause the crankshaft to break.
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Komatsu uses engines with 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 12 cylinders, depending upon the horsepower
requirement of a piece of equipment. Since nearly all Komatsu engines are four-cycle types the
following firing order descriptions are for four cycle’s engines only.
2-cylinder firing orders - The firing order of a 2-cycle engine is quite simple. The pistons are on
planes directly opposite each other at a distance of 180
3-cylinder firing orders - The firing order of a 3-cylinder engine can be either 1-
3-2 or 3-1-2. The pistons are on plains that are set at a distance of 120 .
2.6.11 4, 6, Cylinder Engine Firing Orders

4-cylinder firing order - In the case of a 4-cylinder type, the 1st and 4th pistons are on the same
plane and the 2nd and 3rd pistons are on another plane that is exactly opposite at a distance of 180 .
6-cylinder firing orders - In a 6-cylinder type, the 1st and the 6th, the 3rd and the
4th, as well as the 2nd and the 5th pistons are in the same plane respectively at a distance of 120 .
There are two firing orders possible, 1-4-2-6-3-5 or 1-5-3-6-2-4.
At the time of this printing Komatsu 6-cylinder engines only use 1-5-3-6-2-4, which is the most
common.
2.6.12 8 and 12 Cylinder Engine Firing Orders

8-cylinder V-type engine firing order - Because there are two banks (a left and a right) you will
usually find the 8-cylinder engine firing order illustrated as shown below
12-cylinder V-type engine firing order - Today there is three firing order possibilities for 12-
cylinder engines found in Komatsu products.
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2.6.13 Komatsu 12V 140Design Features

50 Degree V (Typical 12 Cylinder = 60 Degrees)

Firing Order: 1R-1L-5R-5L-3R-3L-6R-6L-2R-2L-4R-4L
2.8 Safety in the Shop When Working With Diesel Engines

Engine Safety

Improper practices, carelessness, or ignoring safety warnings can cause burns, cuts, mutilation,
asphyxiation or personal injury or death. You are responsible for your safety and the safety of the
people you work with.
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2.8.1 Work Area and Personal Protection

Your work area and areas surrounding the product should be dry, well lit, ventilated, free from
clutter, loose tools, parts, ignition sources and hazardous substances.
Always be alert of hazardous conditions that may exist.
Always wear protective glasses and protective shoes and other required protection devises when
working.
Since, rotating parts can cause cuts, mutilation or strangulation. Do not wear loose-fitting or torn
clothing. Remove all jewelry when working.
To prevent accidental starting always disconnect the battery (negative [-] cable first) and discharge
any capacitors before beginning any repair work. Disconnect the air starting motor if equipped to
prevent accidental engine starting.
Put a "Do not operate" tag in the operator's compartment or on the controls.
2.8.2 Danger of High Temperatures

If an engine has been operating and the coolant or oil is hot. Be aware that hot oil or coolant can
cause dangerous burns.
There is a risk of burns from hot engine mechanical parts. To reduce the possibility of burns, be alert
for hot parts on products that have just been turned off, and hot fluids in lines, tubes, and
compartments.
In addition to being hot the coolant in the radiator is under pressure. Allow the engine to cool before
slowly loosening the radiator filler cap to relieve the pressure in the cooling system.
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2.8.3 Lifting Practices

Always use blocks or proper stands to support the product before performing any maintenance or
service work.
Do not work on anything that is supported ONLY by lifting jacks or a hoist.
To reduce the possibility of personal injury, use a hoist or get assistance when lifting components that
weigh 23 kg [50 lb] or more.
Make sure all lifting devices such as chains, hooks, or slings are in good condition and are of the
correct capacity. Make sure hooks are positioned correctly.
Always use a spreader bar when necessary. The lifting hooks must not be side loaded.
It is important to remember that when lifting heavy items it may be necessary to use an assistive
device or team lift. If this is not possible, the employee should be provided sufficient time to plan and
complete any difficult lift.
Always use Six Steps to Correct Lifting
1. Feet apart (shoulder width) one foot ahead of the other in the direction of the intended movement
2. Knees bent (not squat) - again most effective power from thigh muscles mid position the best
3. Back straight - not necessarily vertical (15-20 degrees) from vertical is all right. Centre of gravity
over the load
4. Arms close to the body - nearer the centre of gravity
5. Hands palms grasp - roots of the fingers + palm of the hand
6. Head chin out and up - otherwise round shoulders and curved spine

2.8.4 Chemical Hazards in the Work Place

Corrosion inhibitor, a component of coolant SCA and lubricating oil, contains alkali. Do not get the
substance in eyes. Avoid prolonged or repeated contact with skin. Do not swallow internally.
In case of contact, immediately wash skin with soap and water.
In case of contact with eyes, immediately flood eyes with large amounts of water for a minimum of
15 minutes.
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Some cleaning products may contain Naphtha and Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) which are flammable
materials and must be used with caution.
Follow the manufacturer's instructions to provide complete safety
Follow label recommendations for use and have MSDS/ product sheets available.
2.8.5 Coolant / Antifreeze is toxic.

If it is not reused, it must be disposed of properly or recycled in accordance with local environmental
regulations.
Beware animals will drink antifreeze because of its sweet taste. As little as ½ teaspoons or 3 milliliter
can result in illness or death.
2.8.6 Use Correct Tools and Fasteners

Always use recommended or correct tools that are in good condition. Make sure you understand how
to use the tools before performing any service work with them.
Use ONLY genuine Komatsu or Komatsu Reman® replacement parts.
Always use the same fastener part number (or equivalent) when replacing fasteners. Never use a
fastener of lesser quality. A fastener with a lower strength rating can fail unexpectedly causing injury,
or damage to the engine.

Lock-Out; Tag-Out
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Always attach the Do Not Operate warning tag to the work equipment control lever in the operator’s
cab to alert others that YOU are working on the machine
When this tag is not being used, keep it in the storage compartment. Still more when there is no
storage compartment; keep it in the operation manual case.
2.8.7 Be Alert On the Job

Be 100% Alert
Do attempt to perform any repair when fatigued or after consuming alcohol or drugs. These
substances can impair your judgment and functioning.
In addition, never attempt to operate a machine when fatigued or under the influence of drugs or
alcohol.
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2.8.8 Dispose of Used Oil Properly

Some medical researchers have determined that used engine oil can be carcinogenic and can cause
reproductive toxicity. Avoid inhalation of vapors, ingestion, and prolonged contact with used engine
oil.
Used oil should be recycled to prevent environmental pollution. In most countries it is a crime to
incorrectly dispose of used oil.
2.8.9 General Safety Practices

Relieve all pressure in the air, oil, fuel, and cooling systems before any lines, fittings, or related items
are removed or disconnected.
Be alert for possible pressure when disconnecting any device from a system that utilizes pressure.
Do not check for pressure leaks with your hand. High pressure oil or fuel can cause personal injury.
Use ONLY the proper engine barring techniques for manually rotating the engine.
Do not attempt to rotate the crankshaft by pulling or prying on the fan. This practice can cause serious
personal injury, property damage, or damage to the fan blades causing premature fan failure.

Final Comment
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3. Engine Components Course objectives

In this chapter, we will discuss the following engine components:

Cylinder Head
Cylinder Head Components
Cylinder Block
Cylinder Block Components
Exterior Components
Components belonging to an engine system, such as the fuel or cooling systems are discussed later in
their respective chapters.

Introduction

A cross-sectional view of a six-cylinder engine, Komatsu S6D1554, is shown above with principal
component parts named. Following articles supply the information of the structure and function of
each component from one to another in general.
When you have to work with any particular engine, you need to refer to the shop manual of the
engine you work with for the detailed information.

Cylinder Head and Components

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3.1 Cylinder Head

The cylinder head forms a part of the combustion chamber together with the piston and cylinder.
Regard-less of design differences, the functions of the cylinder heads are the same. In addition to
sealing the combustion chamber, they generally contain the parts necessary to route air into and
exhaust out of the engine. In most engines they also contain the fuel injection parts.
The cylinder head has passages for cooling water. It is made of cast iron for strength. The coolant
passages ensure the cooling of high heat and high load areas around the valves, the injectors or fuel
nozzles, and pre-combustion chamber if applicable.
Lubricating oil passages are provided to supply engine oil to moving parts such as the rocker arm
shaft.

The cylinder head forms part of the combustion chamber together with the piston and cylinder and
the intake and exhaust mechanism and the fuel injection mechanism are attached to it.
Passages for cooling water are provided for in the cylinder head. It is made of cast iron in order to
ensure cooling of the high heat load areas such as the valve areas and the pre-combustion chamber
area.
Sleeve (1), valve guide (2), cross head guide (3) (when there are two each intake and exhaust valves
for one cylinder), valve seats (4) are installed by force fitting and they are designed so that they can
be replaced in case of damage or wear.
A passage is provided for pressure delivery of the engine oil to the rocker arm shaft. There are two
types of cylinder heads divided type and unit type. One head for all the cylinders is called a unit type,
and one which has two or more heads is called a divided type.

Cylinder Head
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Left illustration: Cylinder head for direct injection, two-valve, nozzle type.
Right illustration: Cylinder head for pre-combustion injection, two-valve, nozzle type
1. Cylinder head
2. Intake valve
3. Exhaust valve
4. Valve seat
5. Valve guide
6. Valve spring
7. Nozzle holder and injector nozzle
8. Rocker arm shaft
9. Rocker arm
10. Pre-combustion chamber
11. Glow plug
3.2 Cylinder Head Components - Valves

Two-valve type cylinder head and four-valve type cylinder head - The two-valve type has one intake
and one exhaust valve. The four-valve type has two intakes and two exhaust valves. The four-valve
system, even though it is more costly to produce than a two-valve system, has a larger overall area
through which intake air can enter, so it is more efficient because of improved air-fuel fixture. Most
current production Komatsu Engines uses the four valve type cylinder heads.

Types of Cylinder Heads

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Cylinder heads are cast at temperatures of around 2,500 F (1,371 C) from molten iron alloyed with
carbon, silicon, and manganese. The carbon, silicon, and manganese are added to give the finished
casting increased toughness and machine ability, and to help prevent flaws in the casting, which
might occur if iron, alone were used.
The structure of cylinder heads varies with the engine combustion method, shape of head, etc.
Difference types of structure include:
•Direct injection type or pre-combustion type
•Two-valve or four-valve system
•Sectional type or solid type (single or multiple cylinders)
•Injection nozzle type or injector type

Valve Train Components / Parts

This Slide shows the components of the four valve system. It should be noted that the crosshead is
used to push the valves at the same time and adjustment is required.

Valve Nomenclature
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Valves open and close in time to feed fresh air into the cylinders and to exhaust combustion gases. To
move the valves, rotation of the camshaft is converted into vertical movement by the push rods.
Vertical movement is then transmitted through the rocker arms to the valves.
Because the valves are subjected to the greatest combustion heat in the engine and have rapid
movement, they must be made of a material having superior heat and wear resistant qualities.
The end of the valve stem is chamfered. The depth of the heat treatment is indicated by the height of
the chamfer. If the chamfer portion remains and the other parts of the valve are within limits, the
valve could be resurfaced and used again.
The valve and valve springs are held in place by retainer locks, sometimes called collets or keeper.

Valve Seat, Seat Angle and Contact Width

The valve seat insert is a heat and wear resistant ring, which fits into the valve opening of the cylinder
head. The valve seat is subject to repeated shock and is in contact with burning gases that strength
and wear and heat resistant properties (especially on the exhaust side) are required. When the valve
seat of the cylinder head is worn, in most Komatsu designs it is necessary only to replace the insert
and not the cylinder head.
Heat flows from the valve to the cylinder head through the valve seat. When the contact surface is too
narrow, the amount of escaping heat decreases and when it is too wide, carbon gets deposited,
causing burning of the valve (carbon is not a heat conductor). Therefore, it is necessary that the
contact surface be of a proper width.

The valve guide provides the sliding surface for the stem of the valve which moves up and down; it
must have lubrication properties as well as being air tight from the air intake and exhaust. Thus, along
with the valve, it is precision machined, however, a highly wean resistant material is used.
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When the sliding surface of the valve guide becomes worn, only the guide needs be replaced. For this
reason, almost all engines for construction machines are installed with Replaceable valve guides.
Valve guides serve several purposes:
• Guide the reciprocating motion of the valve stem.
• Hold an oil film to reduce friction.
• Pass combustion and friction heat to the head coolant passages.

Collect Act as Retainers for Valves and Valve Springs

The valve and valve springs are held in place by retainer locks, sometimes called collets or keepers.
Valve Keepers while small they can cause massive engine failure if they should fail and allow the
valve to drop in the cylinder.

1. Valve
2. Valve spring
3. Rocker arm shaft
4. Rocker arm bushing
5. Adjusting screw
6. Locknut
7. Rocker arm
8. Push rod
9. Crosshead
10. Adjusting screw
11. Locknut
12. Crosshead guide (shaft)
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A. Movement of push rod

B. Movement of Valve
C. Valve Clearance

Valve Crosshead & Adjustment

Crossheads - In engines that have four valves per cylinder, the rocker arm that activates the valves
does not bear directly on each valve. Instead, there are two crossheads for each cylinder. Each
crosshead contacts and operates two valves.
One crosshead links both intake valves, which must open and close at the same time. The other
crosshead contacts both exhaust valves and opens and closes them at the same time.
Some engine manufacturers also call the crosshead a bridge. The top of the crosshead is provided
with an added hard surface, where the rocker lever, which activates it, applies pressure. In addition,
those areas of the valves and crossheads, which are in contact, are hardened. Parts must be replaced
when wear has changed their relationship to one another.
The technician who maintains an engine must make adjustments to the crossheads that will ensure
that the sets of valves will open simultaneously.
Incorrect adjustment can mean that one of the intake valves will be open at a time when its mate is
seated.

Valve Crosshead Adjustment

The Crossheads require correct adjustment and lock nut torque. The illustration on the right shows a
cross head and shaft which failed as a result of poor maintenance procedures. As a result of the
crosshead failure the valves stopped opening, injected fuel could not burn and caused fuel dilution of
the engine oil.
Bearing damage occurred, main and rod bearings were replaced.
Adjust the crosshead according to the following procedure.
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1. Loosen the locknut and return the adjustment screw.

2. Holding the top of the crosshead lightly, tighten the adjustment screw.
3. After the adjustment screw touches the valve stem, tighten it further by 20°.
4. Tighten & torque the locknut at this point to specifications.

Valve Adjustment

Adjust the clearance between the crosshead and rocker arm to the following these methods. Valve
clearance adjustment should be preformed when the engine is cold.
1. Rotate the crankshaft and adjust the valve clearance of each cylinder in the firing order of 1 – 5 – 3
– 6 – 2 – 4. Rotate the crankshaft forward and match stamped line of “1.6 TOP” on vibration damper
while watching the movement of the valve.
2. Insert thickness gauge between rocker arm and the crosshead and tighten adjustment screw to the
degree that the thickness gauge can be moved lightly.
3. Tighten locknut to secure adjustment screw
4. Torque the Locknut to specifications.
5. After tightening the locknut, check the valve clearance again.
6. Adjust both Intake and exhaust rocker arms. The rotate the engine 120 degrees and adjust
following the firing order.

Cylinder head gasket - The cylinder head gasket seals the combustion chamber between the cylinder
block and cylinder head. It also seals coolant and lubricant passages between the head and block.
Because of its purpose, the head gasket must not only be made of materials that have pressure and
thermal resistant properties, but it must also be waterproof and oil proof.
The cylinder head gasket is usually made of a metal plate with an asbestos sheet sandwiched between.
It is quite common to have special machining around the
Circumference of the water and oil holes and around the cylinder bores. Old design head gaskets have
retainers, grommets, or ferrules sent with them for installation at oil or water passages. The newest
designs have seals at the water and oil ports that are built into the gasket making installation quicker
and easier.
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Cylinder Block and Components

The cylinder block is the largest part of a diesel engine. It's the basic part to which all other engine
components are assembled. The cylinder block is made of cast iron and has bores for the installation
of cylinder liners, a saddle for attaching the crankshaft, bores for installing the camshaft, and oil and
coolant passages.

Sometimes the cylinder block is called the Backbone of the engine. Almost all components are bolted
to the cylinder block. Additionally, all lubrication and coolant flows through passages in the block.
3.3 Cylinder Block

The cylinder block is the largest part of a diesel engine. It's the basic part to which all other engine
components are assembled. The cylinder block is made of cast iron and has bores for the installation
of cylinder liners, a saddle for attaching the crankshaft, bores for installing the camshaft, and oil and
coolant passages.
There are two major types of cylinder block design, the “In-line, and the V- type”.

Cylinder Block Cutaway

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Structurally, the cylinder block is the main body of the engine. Other principal component parts of the
engine are all attached to the cylinder block. The cylinder block has bores for the installation of the
cylinder liners, a saddle for the attachment of the crank shaft, jackets for water used for cooling and
passages for oil used for lubrication, bores for the installation of the camshaft bearings, etc.
The cylinder liner is installed in the cylinder block by press fitting, and are machined in consideration
of the following. The liner must be sealed to prevent coolant leakage.
1. In some constructions, as is shown in inset 2, the part of the cylinder block in contact with the
lower surface of the cylinder liner flange is slightly tapered. In this way, point (C) in inset 2, as
shown in inset 1, establish a line contact with the counter bore bottom surface of the cylinder block
and is therefore useful as a water seal.
2. The (A) and (B) surface, as shown in inset 3, are smoothly machine finished and is convenient for
putting on O-ring. The corner shown by R, have been finished at a smooth angle.
3. In some models, the oil-spit hole (D) shown in inset 4 does the same function as the piston nozzles.
These oil-spit holes are machined so that the oil lubricating the main journal spouts out to cool the
piston.

Cylinders and Cylinder Liners

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Small gasoline engine blocks have bores machined in them. They are the sliding surfaces for the
pistons to move up and down. These surfaces are subject to wear and therefore the block material
must have special alloys added.
Large horsepower diesel engines use replaceable cylinder liners in the piston bores. This reduces the
block manufacturing costs and allows the piston sliding area to be easily corrected by replacing the
liners. Komatsu diesel engines have either a wet or dry cylinder liner. These liners form a part of the
combustion chamber and therefore are exposed to high pressure and temperature. They are also
subjected to violent friction caused by their contact with the piston rings. To withstand such severe
conditions, cylinder liners must be made from materials, which provide high thermal resistance, high
wear resistance, and great strength.
In the wet type cylinder liner, cooling water directly touches the outer wall of the liner. To assure
high cooling efficiency, wall thicknesses of cylinder liners are thin (5 to 10mm).
The dry liner does not actually make contact with the coolant; therefore, no special seals are needed
between it and the block. However, the cooling efficiency is not as good as the wet type, so dry type
liners are only used in low horsepower engines. Also notice that dry type liners do not have a flange.
Since almost all diesel engines have wet type liners, the remainder of this discussion of liners will
apply to wet types only.

Cylinder Liner Surface Finishing

A replaceable wet sleeve type cylinder liner for greater heat dissipation, long life and lower rebuild
cost. The cylinder Liner is a lower pressed fit design with improved liner/ block interface eliminating
fretting at the counter bore.
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The liner material is centrifugal cast iron and is “TUFTRIDED”.

“TUFTRIDING” also known as “Nitride Treating” creates a durable surface for the rings to travel on,
reducing oil consumption, improving wear resistance (life to overhaul) and scuff resistance. The hard
surface on the outside of the liner is less prone to cavitation erosion. Finished liners are plateau honed
to one micron finish.
Plateau Honing - The current trend in the cylinder bore surface finishing has been directed by
demands to reduce oil consumption, increase the durability and increase the resistance against wear
and scuffing. To limit hydrocarbon emissions and particles by reducing the oil consumption, the
surface roughness of the cylinder liner has been reduced. This can be achieved with optimally honed
bore surfaces. There is a consensus for a surface texture of clean cut surfaces with smooth, flat
plateau and a regular, consistent arrangement of primary oil-retaining valleys. The surface finish of
the cylinder liner has an influence on the scuffing resistance. The rise in friction, which leads to the
scuffing, is associated with the polishing of the liner. Honing is applied for finishing the surface of
cast-iron cylinder liners. The cutting marks of the honing form a pattern of diagonal valleys on the
liner surface. The honing grooves, the volume and the direction of the valleys control the amount of
oil available, by keeping the oil on the liner surface and by improving the spreading of the oil. Since
the requirements of good sealing properties and optimal lubrication are contrary to each other, the
demands on the surface finish of the cylinder liner are exacting.
3.4 Cylinder Block Components

Wet liners need sealing. As can be seen a protrusion is in the top of many wet liners. This serves as a
compression gas seal because the head gasket when assembled seals it. The cylinder liner flange is
designed so that the liner protrudes a specified amount. This aids in making an airtight seal as well.
Of course, if this protrusion is excessive, oil and water leaks will appear. The cylinder liner is press fit
to the cylinder block.

The cylinder liner is press fit to the cylinder block and the pilot area A is used to hold the liner in
proper position.
The wet type liner is called an upper press fit (UPF) liner. A newer design is now used in some
Komatsu Engines called; lower press fit (LPF) liners. The counter bore for the cylinder liner is
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machined to exact tolerances. In some engines, the ledge on which the liner flange rests is slightly
tapered. This helps form a water seal.
At the bottom of the liners are grooves for the attachment of O-rings. These O rings prevent water
from leaking into the oil pan and prevent oil from leaking up behind the liner.
The liners are tapered at the bottom for easy installation into the block.

Removing and Installing Cylinder Liners

The Cylinder liner is pressed fit into the block. Therefore, special tools are required to remove and
install liners.

Piston

The piston forms the lower surface of the combustion chamber, compressing air as it moves upward.
It supports rings that tightly seal the combustion chamber.
When fuel is sprayed into the hot compressed air, pressure of combustion pushes against the top of
the piston. The piston receives the explosive thrust on its top surface when the fuel combusts and
converts the explosive force to mechanical force by moving up and down inside the cylinder liner.
There are recesses provided on the top of pistons so that there is no interference, when the piston is
near top dead center, with the intake and exhaust valves.
There are grooves to fit piston rings on the outside of piston. The rings are installed into grooves on
the piston to seat against the liner walls and seal the pressures above the piston for both compression
and combustion strokes.
Early engines used pistons made of aluminum alloys. These were light in weight, provided excellent
durability and a good conductor of the heat. Heat was rapidly transferred to the rings and out through
the liner to the coolant.
As engines began to develop more power and cylinder pressures were increased,
Komatsu introduced the single piece ductile cast iron piston. Fewer parts compared to other
manufacture’s articulated designs. This piston design maintains high strength at elevated
temperatures. Uses a Minimum Dead Volume
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Combustion Chamber (MDVCC) resulting in minimum top clearance at the top ring.
Remember the most important function of the piston is to transfer the pressure of combustion to the
crankshaft to turn the shaft. The piston is the first element of the power train.

The top of the piston combines with the cylinder head and cylinder liner to form the combustion
chamber. To improve mixing of fuel and intake air, various kinds of piston top faces have been
devised. The optimum type piston face depends upon the type fuel combustion system, type of nozzle
or injector, fuel injection angle and position, etc. Shown here is some of the piston tops found in
Komatsu engines over the years.
Because the direct-injection type engine has an injection nozzle generally in the center of the
combustion chamber, the form of the piston top is made symmetrical.
On the other hand, for pre-combustion chamber type engines, the pre-combustion chamber is at the
edge of the combustion chamber, and the piston top is unsymmetrical. Depending on the number of
injection holes and direction of the injection from the pre-combustion chamber, the form of the piston
top is made heart shape or clover-leaf shape.
Therefore, be careful when assembling the piston of an engine with a pre-combustion chamber
because the piston top will interfere with the pre-combustion chamber if assembled wrong when the
piston is near the top dead center.

Piston Heat Damage

The piston here is an example of what happens when cooling lubrication fail. The piston was
overheated, an excessive expansion and carbonization of the lubricant occurred. This may cause wear
and burning of the sliding surface or cracking and burning of the cylinder head.
Quick radiation of the heat from the piston is necessary. The aluminum alloy used to make the piston
conducts the heat roughly three times that of cast steel.

Piston Heat Radiation

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The quick radiation of the heat from the piston is necessary.

The heat of the piston passes as follows:
1. Heat is transmitted to the cylinder liner through the piston rings and cooled by the engine cooling
water.
2. Heat is radiated to the air in the crank case.
3. Heat is transmitted to the engine oil and carried away.
Until recently, pistons had been made light with thin walls, thus aiming at keeping the inertia of the
reciprocating motion small and as shown to the left in drawing above. However, in recent high heat
load engines, in order to quickly transmit heat to the skirt and rapidly radiate it, as shown to the right
above, the change in the wall thickness from the piston top to the bottom is made gentle. The latter
piston is termed a thermal flow piston.

Piston Cooling

Piston Cooling Nozzles - In many high performance diesel engines, positive cooling of the piston is
essential. Oil is injected into the inside of the piston in order to assist in removing heat from the
piston. Refer to images above.
Some engine designs target the piston cooling oil to a gallery in the top of the piston. Oil is circulated
in this gallery to cool the back side of the piston rings.
Piston cooling nozzles must first be removed when a piston requires removal.
Failure to remove the piston cooling nozzle could result in nozzle damage during piston removal and
installation. If this were to go unnoticed engine failure will result.

Piston Ring Sealing

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The piston rings are the engine parts, which maintain the air tightness between the piston and cylinder
liner wall. The upper ring is called the compression ring. As this name implies, it acts mainly to seal
compression and combustion gases. The middle ring, may serve as a secondary combustion ring, or
as a scraper ring to remove excess oil from the liner walls. The lower ring, called the oil ring, is used
to keep a smooth and evenly dispersed film of oil on the liner wall. This oil film helps the rings to
form an airtight seal and provides lubrication to reduce friction between the rings and liner wall. If the
piston rings fit too tightly, the rings wear rapidly which results in low engine power. On the other
hand, rings that fit too loosely make it difficult to maintain gas tightness so loss of power plus high
oil consumption will result.
Therefore, correct design of the rings is absolutely essential. Rings have to withstand very severe
conditions, so they are made of a special cast iron having high thermal resistance, high strength, and
wear proof properties. Many rings are coated with chrome plating on the outer circumference.
The “gap” designed into piston rings allow them to expand for installation on the piston and then be
compressed into the groove so that they will slip into the cylinder.

Piston Rings

The piston ring serves the purposes of sealing the combustion gas pressure in the cylinder, preserving
an appropriate oil film on the cylinder wall and transmitting heat to the liner. The compression rings
assembled at the top of the piston maintains the air tightness of the combustion gas and the oil ring
assembled at the bottom preserves the oil film.
The piston ring can be opened and expanded at the joint and is installed in the ring groove of the
piston. The rings, however, can be classified by the shape of the joint. The three types most
commonly used are shown in this slide.
As will be explained later, the piston ring is pressed strongly against the cylinder liner and because of
that it is important that it be free in the piston groove and maintaining a proper side clearance is
important. Because of these clearances, the piston ring moves around while the engine is running.
Piston Ring Groves and Ring Pressures
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It has been mentioned that the compression ring is used to maintain air tightness of the combustion
gas pressure in the cylinder. This function is due to the effect of the gas pressure at the top surface
and back surface of the piston ring. The pressure working on the top and back surfaces of the ring is
greatest with top ring and decreases with second ring and oil ring. The top ring must seal high
combustion pressure, however the high pressure press down on the top ring strongly thereby ensuring
the sealing performance.
Combustion gas pressure pressing down on back of and top of piston rings becomes less from top
rings to oil rings at bottom. In this example a cylinder pressure of 41 kg/cm2 creates a similar
pressure on the back side of the top compression ring. Since the high ring pressure is only present
during high cylinder pressures and reduced when pressure is lower, ring and liner wear is reduced.

Piston Ring Shapes

Shown above are a variety of piston ring shapes. Each shape is designed to satisfy certain
requirements such as maintenance of gas seal and effective scraping of excess oil from the cylinder
wall.

Ring Types

Barrel-Faced Type
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The surface in contact with the cylinder liner is shaped like a beer barrel and it is used as the top ring.
While the engine is running, the piston, piston ring, and liner, deform due to the vibrations caused by
the periodical changes in the pressure.
However, if the ring is in a barrel shape, the barrel surface always helps to form a linear seal no
matter what deforms occurs. Furthermore, it wears evenly and there is little resistance. Rather than
scraping off the oil from the inner surface of the liner we can consider that it skates on it.

Taper- Faced Type

The contact surface with the liner is tapered. It is located in the groove as shown in the figure and,
like the barrel type, forms a linear sealing with the cylinder liner.
It receives gas pressure on its back and is strongly pressed against the cylinder liner increasing the
sealing effect. It is applicable for the top or second ring.

Piston Ring Behavior

Twisted Ring
When installed inside the cylinder an unbalance is induced in the inner tension of the ring itself due to
the inner cut on the counter bore and it is twisted.
The lower corner of the ring bottom surface touches the liner. Because the contact is linear, it is
pushed against the liner with a strong force and close contact with the liner is ensured, improving the
function of scraping off the oil (during intake and exhaust stroke). During the strokes of compression
and power a high gas pressure acts on the back of the ring, putting the ring in full-face contact with
the liner and forming a seal.
Keystone Ring
The ring sides are tapered and when it moves in the groove, there is a related movement between the
grooves in the piston, assisting the removal of carbon. It is effective in not producing ring stick.
Another advantage is that the ring land can be made stronger.

Rectangular Regular Ring

This regular rectangular ring which has no particular advantages and is generally used in engines
other than Komatsu. With full-face contact, the ring is pushed against the surface of the cylinder.

Ring Assembly Direction Mark

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Ring Assembly Direction Mark

There are various designs of rings and in order to indicate the direction in which it should be put into
piston groove, there are markings such as 2R, RN, 2RN and are stamped on the joint ends. The ring
should be installed with these markings facing up.

Oil Ring

When there are three rings, the oil ring is at the bottom, and when there are four rings, the oil rings
are the lower two rings. Since the gas pressure on the back of the oil ring is small, a coil spring is
used to increase the contact pressure against the cylinder liner or an expander is used.
A Teflon tube is sometimes placed over the coil ring and is positioned at the joint of the ring when
assembled to the piston. The coil ring itself is jointed at one place on the circumference and is
positioned right opposite to the joint (a Teflon tube) when the coil spring is assembled into the oil
ring.

Blow By and the pumping Action of Piston Rings

The compression and combustion gas in the cylinder leak through the rings and enters the crank case.
The gas passes through the gaps at the ring joints or the gas trapped at the back of the rings moves in
the direction of the crank case when the piston moves up and down.
By the opposite process of the action described above, oil enters the combustion chamber above the
piston. This is known as the oil pumping action of the ring.
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Taking into account the blow by and oil pumping action, pistons and rings are designed so that the
engine will run smoothly maintaining the proper oil film.

Connecting Rod

The connecting rods make up the second element of the power train inside an engine. They connect
the piston to the crankshaft and transform the reciprocating, or up-and-down, motion of the piston to
the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
• The connecting rod through the piston pin transmits the thrust of the piston to the crankshaft as
rotating force.
• The connecting rod repeatedly receives thrust from the combustion pressure and tensile and bending
load caused by the inertia force of the piston and connecting rod it due to high speed operation. It
must be able to sufficiently withstand them.
• Because of this, the connecting rod uses special stamped forged steel which is strong and especially
of a fatigue resistant strength.
* Because the connecting rod is subjected to a strong and complex alternate load and the scratches
and dents even small ones are liable to progress to damage of serious type if any that it is
manufactured flow less.
The rod is attached to the piston by means of a piston pin. The opening in the pin end of the rod is fit-
ted with a replaceable bushing, as this is a wear area. An inexpensive replacement allows re-use of
the expensive rod.
A drilled hole in the center of the connecting rod allows the flow of the pressurized oil from the crank
pin to the piston pin. This is for lubricating the piston pin and bushing.

Fracture Split Connecting Rod

The Komatsu 6D107-1 engine uses a fracture split connecting rod. The mating surfaces between the
cap and connecting rod are not machine. The rod is laser etched to creating a parting line. Then the
cap is fractured (broken) away.
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Points to remember for engines using a fracture split connecting rod:

•Still angle split rod
•The surface between the connecting rod and the cap is no longer machined
•Unique mating surface on every connecting rod and cap
•Mating surface must be protected when rod is disassembled
•Improper mating will cause rod damage.

Crankshaft

The crankshaft converts up and down movement of the pistons into a rotary motion and serves to tie
together the thrusts of all the pistons into a single rotary force. The principal names of the parts of the
crankshaft are shown above. The main journals are arranged along the center line of the crankshaft
and are used to install the crankshaft in the cylinder block. "Journal" means the part of the shaft
rotating inside the bearing. The counterweights are parts of crankshaft or separate pieces installed by
bolts to improve the balance of the crankshaft during engine running.
Note: Crankshafts should be stored in the vertical position.

There are drilled holes machined in the crankshaft to direct the oil lubricating oil to the main journals
to crank pins and then to the piston pin.
Plugs are used to cap and seal the drilled holes, they should be removed during disassembly and the
inside of the drilled holes should be cleaned.

Proper Fillet Form

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When wear or damage occurs to the crankshaft. The repair is to regrind the bearing surfaces an
undersized. The typical sizes are 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00 mm.
When repairing by grinding it is extremely important to be sure with the strength of the R portion of
the crankshaft fillet. This grinding repair work is usually left to an outside specialist or a company
machining specialist. When the repairs are being made, refer to the Shop Manual and be sure to
correctly machine so that the fillet is in the original form. Examples of properly and improperly
machined fillets are given above for your reference.
Be careful, because details of the fillet form differ different engine to engine.

Attaching Connecting Rod to Crankshaft

Each connecting rod has a specially fitted and marked rod cap, which is used to attach the rod to the
crankshaft journal. Half-circle bearings are fitted into the rod surface and into the cap surface to
permit replacement.
Failure to install the correct matching rod cap will result in engine failure.

Connecting Rod Side Clearance

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One more important item of the crankshaft is the thrust surface (Connecting Rod side clearance)
which is shown here. Roughness, cranks or nicks on this surface should be removed by grinding, but
this grinding should be made to a minimum since it affects the space A between the friction surfaces.
When assembling the connecting rod into the engine, the proper clearance B and C must be
maintained.
The clearance C influences the endwise movement of the connecting rod. If the thrust surface of the
crank pin is reground too much, a small end of the connecting rod tends to interfere with the piston
boss.
If this continues, uneven wear will take place on the piston, the amount of oil consumption will
increase and there will be damage to the connecting rod bearing and piston.

Main Bearing

The main bearing holds the revolving crankshaft in the proper position so that it can rotate, and
functions to protect the crankshaft bearing surface (journal) from scratches by holding foreign
materials such as burnt gas dirt carried in along with lubricant.
There are two types of bearings, trimetai and aluminum metal used in Komatsu engines. The
construction of the tri-metal, as shown above, includes a 0.2 -
0.4mm thickness of kellmet (copper alloy) is deposited on a steel backing. Then layer of a lead alloy.
The top is a (white metal) of a thickness of about 0.015 — 0.025mm is plated, making it a trimetai.
(On the surface there is tinplating of about 0.001mm thickness.) Generally, this type of bearing is
called "Precision insert bearing". Furthermore, for the reground crankshaft there are undersized
bearings (sizes of -0.25, -0.50, -0.75, -1.00mm). Trimetai lining materials have the following
characteristics:
(1) KelImet (High lead bronze) - Consisting of copper (75%) with a large percentage of lead (25%), it
has good anticorrosive qualities and fit to be used as a bearing for crankshaft rotating at high speeds.
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(2) Tin lead plating (Overlay)

Used to provide the run-in which kellmet lacks (Prevents harm to the crankshaft caused by the
kellmet during initial running.)
(3) Steel backing metal
Supports soft alloys ((1), (2)), (increases mechanical strength), and shell to transfer the heat caused by
friction from the crankshaft to the crankcase.
The oil films reduce the metal-to-metal contact, minimizes friction and wear between the turning
surfaces, and allows longer service life for the metal parts.

Connecting Rod Bearings

As power and cylinder pressures have gone up, engine manufactures have looked for ways to increase
rod bearing strength. One of the methods used is sometimes called a “Hard Bearing” for the top rod
bearing. This type of bearing is a bi-metal bearing; the soft metal top surface is not used. Therefore
these bearings do not wear as much as the top layer is harder than the tri-metal, but they lack the
ability to imbed particles of contamination.
Wear characteristics will be different do not wear as much because the top layer is harder than the tri-
metal. The photo on the left shows the new bearing (4U) is old style (5U) from an engine that had
coolant contamination to the engine oil.
Since bearing thickness can vary. Checking the specification for the connecting rod bearing size is
required, since visual inspection is more difficult with this type new bearing material.

Main and Connecting Rod Bearings

There is a lip on the backside of main and connecting rod bearings which, when properly installed,
aligns with a matching lip slot provided in the caps. This locking lip holds the bearing in position.
The end of the bearing is made so that it protrudes slightly from the mounting seat. (Figure 2.42 - left
side) When the bearing cap and bearing are assembled and the cap screws are properly torqued, this
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slight protrusion is “crushed.” This causes the outer diameter of the backing metal to be pushed
against the inner diameter of the bore. This prevents the bearing from moving while the engine is
running.

Thrust Bearings

The crankshaft transmits the power of the engine from the rear end by flywheel and the crankshaft
receives axial force back and forth (thrust load). Because of this, thrust bearing is assembled into both
ends of one main journal on the crankshaft usually towards the rear end or the central bearing to take
up the thrust load.
There are two types:
•One type is known as the ring or split ring type, a ring divided into two halves an upper and lower
portion is put into both sides of the bearing
•The second type is the flange type bearing. This type has a flange intergraded into one or the main
bearing which works as a thrust bearing.
After installing new bearings the crank shaft end play should always be checked using a dial
indicator.

Before Installing Crankshaft

1. Check connecting rod housing bores for taper, roundness and size, using a bore gauge or inside
micrometer. Check for parallelism between the large and small ends of the rod. Check all bolts for
damage, being especially careful to inspect the condition of the bolts threads. Thread damage can
cause incorrect bolt torquing. Also check for stretched bolts.
2. Check main bearing bores for alignment, taper, roundness and size. Also checking condition of
bolts and threads.
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3. Make sure that engine block and crankshaft are clean, checking oil passageways for hidden dirt and
debris. Hot water and detergent work best for cleaning. Remember a small amount of debris left in an
oil passage can move block oil to a main or rod bearing causing a major failure.

Installing Crankshaft

1. With engine block upside down, install the upper main halves. Make sure that the bearing backs
and bearing bores are clean and dry. Constant contact between the bearing back and the bearing bore
will insure good heat transfer from the bearing to the block.
2. Check bearing oil hole alignment with oil passages in the block to insure proper 0il flow. A
blocked lubrication hole will cause bearing failure.
3. Lubricate all bearings and seal lip surfaces quality engine oil. In most cases engine oil is suitable
for assembly. Some assembly lube may require a special assembly lube; always check the engine
manufacture's publications
4. Place the crankshaft squarely into the main bearings and assemble lower main bearings and caps.
Check to insure proper position.

1. With the Crankshaft squarely in main bearings and assemble lower main bearings and caps in
place. Torque the main bearing bolts to specification. Check to insure proper position.
2. Use a ring compressing tool for easy piston installation. If required use a piece of hose or Bolt
Boots to protect crankshaft journals and cylinder walls from damage during assembly.
3. After the piston is in the cylinder and the upper bearing is in contact with the rod journal. Assemble
the connecting rod cap to the rod. Make sure caps match correct rods, and torque bolts to proper
specifications.

Installing Crankshaft
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1. After the connecting rod is torqued check the connecting rod side clearance using a feeler gauge of
proper thickness. Compare to engine manufacture specifications.
2. Always prime engine oiling system before starting engine to assure operation of oil pump and
lubrication system immediately upon start-up. Priming is required to prevent dry bearing during first
start up.

Flywheel and Flywheel Housing

A flywheel has a large inertia, enabling it to absorb the uneven rotation force of the engine and serves
to smooth the transmitting power. The flywheel is attached to the crankshaft by reamer bolts and
provides a mounting to install a main clutch, torque converter, damper etc.
The ring gear is shrunk fitted or tightened with bolts on the outer rim of the flywheel and, when the
engine start switch is turned on it engages with the pinion gear of the starting motor, driving the
engine.
The flywheel housing is attached on the rear of the cylinder block. The engine rear support is attached
to the flywheel housing or manufactured as a piece with the rear support and the engine is attached in
the machine body. Additionally the rear oil seal is installed in the flywheel housing. The inner surface
rides on the crankshaft to prevent oil from leaking from the rear of the crankshaft.
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The flywheel serves three purposes:

•Carries the ring gear by which the engine can be cranked.
•Permits the attachment of the first part in the driveline of the vehicle or power unit, such as a clutch
or torque converter.
•Absorbs unevenness of torque and makes power transmission smooth.
The flywheel is able to reduce torque variation in the following way.
As the cylinders fire the piston is forced down by the expanding combustion gases. The downward
thrust is transferred from the pistons to the connecting rods and crankshaft, which changes vertical
downward pressure into rotary motion (torque).
The highest pressure against the crankshaft, and thus the greatest torque, is produced at the height of
combustion.
If one cylinder is producing its peak pressure and another is still producing pressure, though
somewhat reduced, and the pistons are in various parts of their strokes, the crankshaft might be
turning with 800 pound feet of torque.
Then, as the pressure in one cylinder decreases (piston is moving down toward the bottom of its
stroke), and the other piston is traveling up, the crankshaft might be producing only 400 pound feet of
torque until another cylinder fires and reaches peak pressure.
A high variation in torque will create a noticeable variation in engine performance.
The weight of the large heavy flywheel serves to prevent too rapid transfer of torque and consequent
cyclic operation. The flywheel weight holds some of the
800 pound feet of torque back so that instead of 400 pound feet during the low torque, the crankshaft
can average about 600 pound feet. So, the large inertia of the flywheel absorbs the unevenness of
torque and makes power transmission smooth.
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Institute Location: Science Kijitonyama, Bagamoyo road. [Link] 55079 Dar-es-salaam
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E-mail: instituteihet@[Link] Website: [Link]

The Power Take-Off (PTO) gearing is provided for taking power from the engine, required for
driving accessories and working equipment.
The PTO gearing is usually installed in the flywheel housing at the rear of the engine. The main
accessories driven by PTO gearing in Komatsu products are the hydraulic oil pump, steering oil
pump, and transmission oil pump.
To lubricate the PTO gear system, some of the oil flowing in the transmission or torque converter oil
circuits is sent to the flywheel housing where it is distributed as necessary to PTO gears and their
bearings.

Crankshaft Oil Seal and Wear Ring

The main part of the crankshaft is housed in the cylinder block to receive driving power. Both ends of
the crankshaft are protruding outside the block to deliver power to the external units. To seal both
ends from the main inside part of the engine, front and rear seals are used.
Illustration Detail:
1. Cylinder Block
2. Flywheel Housing
3. Rear Seal
4. Wear Ring
5. Main Bearing
6. Crankshaft
These crankshaft seals are subjected to severe sliding friction, caused by the crankshaft rotation, and
must hold the oil inside the engine. To meet these requirements, front and rear seal lips are made of
thermal resistant, oil-proof rubber material having considerable tautness. Since the seal-contacting
surface of the crankshaft is subject to friction during the high-speed rotation of the shaft, it may
become worn after extended engine operation. Therefore, many diesel engine crankshafts have wear
rings, which are press, fit on the seal-contacting surface of the crankshaft. Wear can be corrected by
replacing the wear ring rather than having to replace the more expensive crankshaft.
There are two types of seals used a single lip type and a double lip type,

Vibration Damper
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Vibration Damper - In order to decrease the torsional vibration set up in the crankshaft, a vibration
damper is installed at front end of the crankshaft. Even though the crankshaft is made of steel, it has
elasticity like a rubber. Since the flywheel can only be placed at the rear end of the long crankshaft,
each time that combustion occurs inside of the cylinders and rotating force is transferred to the
crankshaft, the crankshaft twists in the direction of the rotation. The crankshaft untwists from this
twisted position into the original position (due to the elasticity of the crankshaft mentioned above).
Since this twisting and untwisting always works on the crankshaft, a condition called the torsional
vibration of the crankshaft is established. A viscous damper or a rubber damper is attached to the
front end of the crankshaft in order to counteract these torsional vibrations.
As mention above there are two types of dampers used on Komatsu engines.
There is a rubber type which is used on smaller and low horsepower engines.
Larger and high horsepower engines use the viscous type.

Damper Failure

Because the crankshaft is always twisting and untwisting the damper does not last forever and should
be replaced as recommended by engine manufacturer. If an engine is operated with a failed damper
the torsional vibration of the crankshaft can at some point cause crankshaft failure.
Rubber dampers should be inspected for signs of age. Always check to be certain that the outer metal
ring is not turning on the inner metal hub.
Viscous damper should be inspected for signs of leakage or surface distortion.

Camshafts
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The regular camshaft has a cam gear to drive the camshaft journals and cams to open and close the
intake and exhaust valves. At the proper timing of the engine during intake - compression –
combustion - exhaust stroke it opens and closes the intake and exhaust valves.
Some engine designs have an injector lobe on the camshaft. This lobe is used to generate the force
required for fuel injection. The Komatsu Tier 2 HPI 6D170 uses this design.
The cam gear is fitted on the camshaft and engages with the crank gear either directly or through the
idler gear.
The speed of rotation of the camshaft is one half the speed of rotation of the crankshaft. Another way
of saying this for example the camshaft turns 360 degrees (1 turn) for each 720 degrees (2 turns) of
the crankshaft.
The thrust bearing is assembled between the cam gear and the No. 1 journal and takes up the load of
the thrust direction.
There are holes in the camshaft bushings assembled to the cylinder block to align oil holes in the
cylinder block. Oil is supplied to these holes from the main gallery for lubrication.

Centerline - The Centerline of a Cam is the actual position or phasing of the cam in relation to the
Crankshaft. Meaning the position of the center line of the #1
INTAKE lobe of the cam in relation to the position of the #1 piston measured in crankshaft degrees
of rotation AFTER TDC.
Lobe Separation - This is the PHYSICAL configuration of the cam in relation to the actual spacing of
the intake and exhaust lobes from each other. Lobe separation is ground into the camshaft. You
CANNOT change it (Unless you regrind the cam). You CAN change the Centerline by degreeing.
These two terms are often confused with each other.
Lobe lift - A six cylinder camshaft features 12 eccentrics, or lobes, that are based on a circle (thus its
name, "base circle"). The height of the lobe above this radius constitutes the cam's lobe lift.
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Overlap - Overlap is the amount of time, measured in crankshaft degrees, that both the intake valve
and the exhaust valve are open. This situation happens at the end of the exhaust stroke and the
beginning of the intake stroke. Increasing duration or decreasing lobe-separation angle--or doing
both--increases overlap. A cam with an exhaust closing point of 4 degrees ATDC and an intake
opening point of 8 degrees BTDC has 12 degrees of overlap.
Valve Lift - This measurement refers to the distance, measured in thousandths of an inch, that the
valve is lifted off its seat at the cam lobe's highest point.
Remember, the cam's rotary motion is converted to linear motion through a lifter, pushrod, and finally
a rocker arm. Therefore, valve lift equals lobe lift multiplied by the rocker-arm ratio.

The camshaft is located within the cylinder block. It extends the full length of the block, to serve all
the cylinders. Camshaft location varies from block to block, depending upon the model or series of
engine. However, all camshafts perform the same function; controlling the timing of the engine.
Camshaft journals ride in a series of block bores, each of which is fitted with a replaceable bushing.
Pressurized lubrication is supplied to the rotating journals through block drillings and small holes in
the bushings. Special care must be taken when installing camshaft bushings to ensure that the
lubrication holes are properly aligned.

Tappet and cam follower - The tappet, which moves up and down following the profile of the cam,
transmits the lift to the push rod and is usually arranged as shown. If the cam lobe of a camshaft were
to always contact the same area, the tappet would wear rapidly. Because of this, the tappet is set off-
center from the cam lobe so that a rotating force is produced to keep the tappet rotating. This causes
the bottom surface to wear uniformly.

Camshaft Tappets
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Smaller engines use a tappet which rides on the cam lobe and moves up and down following the
profile of the cam. The tappet transmits the lift to the push rod and then to the rocker arm to open and
close the valve.
There are three types of lifters used – Flat, Mushroom, and Roller. The Flat and mushroom are
similar in design, except the mushroom has a smaller diameter which reduces the mass of the valve
train. It should be noted that the mushroom lifter must be removed from the bottom of the lifter bore
after the cam is removed.
Both the Flat and mushroom may have the lifter centerline offset from the cam lobe centerline. This
offset helps to turn the lifter as the cam rotates under the lifter. If the cam lobe of a camshaft were to
always contact the same area, the tappet would wear rapidly. Because of this offset tappet rotates
causing the bottom surface to wear uniformly
The roller design uses a roller to ride on the cam lobe. This reduces the rotational friction required to
turn the cam shaft. Additionally, cam wear is reduced.

Roller Cam Follower

Larger engines have a greater load on their camshaft lobes; so many manufacturers fit their engines
with cam followers instead of tappets. Cam followers have rollers at the camshaft lobe contact
surface, which spread the load over a larger area. Cam followers last about 70% longer than tappets,
but are more expensive to manufacture and incorporate into an engine. So in smaller, less expensive
engines, tappets are still widely used.

12V140 Camshafts and Drive Gears

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E-mail: instituteihet@[Link] Website: [Link]

There are two camshafts located high in the cylinder block supported by seven replaceable camshaft
bushings. The drive train for the cams is more complex than a 6 cylinder engine.
Note: Left and Right are determined from the back of the engine.

The timing gear is a term used for the gear train which transmits drive from the crankshaft to the
accessories. The number and locations of the gears used differ with the type of engine. The idler gear
is held by the idler gear shaft which is fixed to the cylinder block. The cam shaft gear, idler gear (s)
and other gears which receive the thrust are assembled with the thrust plates. Because the cam shaft
gear and the injection pump gear decide the valve timing and fuel injection timing, there are markings
stamped on each of the gears. In this example the marks A to A time the crankshaft to the idler gear.
The marks B to B time the idler to the cam gear. Marks C to C time the cam gear to the fuel pump.
When reassembling, be careful to assemble the gears matching the timing marks.
Note: Typically water pump and oil pump gears are not timed. If the engine uses balance shafts then
the balancer shaft gears need to be timed.
Rear Gear Trains
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Recent engine designs have incorporated rear gear train drive systems. This design reduces noise and
crankshaft torsional vibration. While the Cam may be rear drive, the engine may use a front gear train
for accessory drive.

Valve Timing -Example

Valve timing - Valve timing indicates the optimum times, expressed by angle of the crankshaft (or
piston position), at which the intake and exhaust valves are to be opened or closed.
Faulty installation of the timing gear or valves, which are out of adjustment, will cause improper
valve timing and possibly excessive wear of valve train components. Worn timing gear, camshaft
lobes, tappets or cam followers, and bent push rods will cause deviation from the optimum valve
timing. This in turn results in poor engine performance.

Balancer Shaft

Balancer Shaft - All engines have vibrations.

These vibrations are caused by the inertia of the rotating parts of the engine and the thrust of the
pistons and rods on their power strokes.
In four cylinder engines there is a particular vibration called secondary vibration.
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E-mail: instituteihet@[Link] Website: [Link]

You will recall that a four cylinder engine has a power stroke every 180°degrees of crankshaft
rotation. This unbalance is of a completely different character from the torsional vibration previously
described. In order to reduce this vibration, a gear driven balancer is used which rotate in the opposite
direction at twice engine speed. The balancer shaft is a long shaft extending from the front end to the
rear end of the crank case.
The drive gears of the balancer shafts have to be assembled in correct relationship to each other. For
this reason, timing markings are provided on the related gears.
A section view of unbalanced shaft is shown in the inset. The center of the shaft is provided with an
oil hole from the front end to the rear end. Bearings to support the balancer shaft are provided in five
places. The oil which enters the oil hole of the No. 1 bearing under pressure flows through the center
oil Passage to the No. 2 to No. 5 bearings.

Turning Shaft of an Engine

The camshaft gear, balancer shaft gears, and other gears, which receive thrust, are assembled with
thrust plates. These thrust plates are very important.
The turning shaft of an engine must have some freedom of movement. As it rotates a shaft must be
able to lift up from its position of rest, on the lower bearing surface. It must float, with little or no
metal contact, in the pressurized oil film, which surrounds its journal.
If there is no oil film, or if the space for the oil film is inadequate, the rotating shaft, heated by
friction, will soon wear out its bearing and journal surfaces. Therefore, the journals for the crankshaft,
camshaft, and other rotating shafts, are fitted loosely enough in their bores to rotate and actually float
in the oil film between the journal and the bearings or bushings.
As the shaft rotation accelerates from start-up, the journal lifts off the bottom bearing or bushing
surface. As it slows down during deceleration, it tends to settle again into its resting position. When
this movement occurs, the shaft will tend to move forward and backward. This movement is called
thrust.
If the thrust is too greatly restricted, stress is imposed on the shaft; wear and failure will soon follow.
On the other hand, if the forward and backward movement were unrestricted the shaft could move out
of its bore. Camshaft lobes would move out of alignment with tappets, and connecting rods would
receive excessive stress. For these reasons thrust plates, thrust washers, or end plates with adjustable
shim packs are used at the ends of the shafts to obtain the correct amount of endplay.

4. Fuel & Systems

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The fuel injection system is sometimes described as the heart of the diesel engine. It must inject fuel
at the right time, in the right amount, fully atomized, and in the proper spray pattern. The injection
system must be effective and dependable under all speed and load conditions.
4.1 Course objectives

The fuel system of any diesel engine has five primary functions: supply, control, metering, timing of
injection, and injection of fuel.
Supply - Fuel is supplied from tanks, through lines and filters, and a fuel transfer pump creates initial
flow.
Control - an electric solenoid, and/or the throttle linkage and a governor regulate fuel flow, which is
usually included in the fuel pump.
Metering - Measuring the amount of fuel to inject.
Timing of Injection - The method used to ensure that fuel will be injected while all valves are closed
and the piston is approaching top dead center (TDC) of the compression stroke.
Injection - The method of getting atomized fuel into the cylinder, to ensure complete combustion of
the fuel, and consequently maximum power exerted on the piston and crankshaft.
4.1.1 Properties of Diesel Fuel

Over the life of the fuel will be one of the largest expenses for operating a machine. Several studies
suggest that fuel may be as high as 2/3 the total expenders over a machine’s life. Since fuel is such a
large expense it is important to understand fuel properties and specifications.

Burning of Diesel Fuel

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As fuel burns within the cylinders of a diesel engine, about 1/3 of the fuel's heat energy is used in
actually doing work on the pistons. The rest of the heat that is generated either goes out the exhaust
system or is transferred to a liquid or air medium and then to the atmosphere. In other words if an
engine consumes 100 liters of fuel. Approximately, 66 liters was lost to heat and only about 34 liters
were used for work.

Recommended Fuel

Use only diesel fuel in Komatsu engines.

Newer Komatsu Tier 2 and Tier 3 engines employ electronic control and a high pressure fuel
injection device to obtain good fuel consumption and good exhaust gas characteristics. For this
reason, it requires high precision for the parts and good lubrication.
If kerosene or other fuel with low lubricating ability is used fuel system durability may be reduced.

Ambient Temperature and the Correct Fuel

Be sure to use fluid fuel specified in Operation and Maintenance Manual.

The Komatsu engine may not conform to the emissions regulations if fuel other than those
recommended is used.
The use of fuel other than those recommended may have a damaging effect on the engine.
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E-mail: instituteihet@[Link] Website: [Link]

Operating the engine in cold weather may require a lower Viscosity fuel; also know as Diesel number
1.
Remember, proper viscosity provides adequate pumping and lubricating characteristics to fuel system
components.

Diesel Fuel Properties - Cetane Number

The readiness of a fuel to ignite when injected into the engine cylinder is indicated by its cetane
number; the higher the number, the easier it is to ignite.
The minimum cetane number of diesel fuels is 40 in the U.S. and 45 in Japan and
Germany. Even higher cetane numbers of around 50 are desirable for optimum operation of modern
engines (quiet operation, low particulate emissions). High proportion of paraffin increases the fuel
cetane number. High proportion of aromatics of the types found in cracked fuel components may
reduce the ignition quality and lower the cetane number.

Diesel Fuel Properties - Cold Weather and Behavior Cloud Point

Most diesel fuels include a significant proportion of paraffin components, which include waxes. At
low temperatures, the precipitation of paraffin crystals (wax) can cause clogging of the fuel filter and
an interruption in fuel supply. Depending on the fuel properties, the start of paraffin precipitation can
be as early as 0°C.
Consequently, winter diesel fuels must be specially selected, or treated, in order to ensure problem-
free operation in cold weather.

Diesel Fuel Properties – Viscosity

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Viscosity of diesel fuel is important for the operation of fuel injection equipment which has to
accurately measure the small quantities of fuel to be injected.
A high viscosity at low temperature could reduce the flow of fuel and result in incomplete filling of
the metering chamber. If the fuel is very viscous, there is a possibility of pump distortion due to the
heat generated by the shearing action in the small clearances.
A low viscosity fuel can significantly increase leakage from the pumping elements, particularly at
low speeds. Such a situation can arise when attempting a hot restart after a brief engine shut down,
following a period of operation at high load. The temperature of the already hot fuel injection
equipment is further increased by heat soak-back from the engine, reducing the fuel viscosity to the
point that leakage may make restarting impossible until the fuel system cools down.

Diesel Fuel Properties - Flash Point

The flash point is the temperature at which a combustible liquid gives off just enough vapor to
produce a vapor/air mixture that will ignite when a flame is applied. The importance of flash point is
primarily related to safe handling of the product. If the flash point is too low, there could be a fire
hazard. For this reason mandatory minimum limits on flash point have been set by government
agencies and insurance companies. Typical minimum values for automotive diesel fuels range from
38°C in the U.S. to 56°C in some European countries.
The flash point of a diesel fuel is not significant for the engine performance.
Variations in flash point do not influence auto ignition temperature or other combustion
characteristics.

Diesel Fuel Properties – Lubricity

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Lubricating properties of diesel fuel are very important for the fuel injection equipment. Many
injection pumps and injectors rely on the lubricity of the fuel to protect their components from
excessive wear.
In the 1980’s, when fuel manufactures began reducing sulfur in diesel fuel there were few lubricity
standards, specifications and testing methods.
Fuel suppliers soon became more knowledgeable and treated their low sulfur fuels with lubricity
additives and other regions in the world avoided more equipment failures. Fuel injection
manufacturers have also incorporated design changes allowing for lower lubricity fuels. However, as
fuels of lowered sulfur and aromatics content are introduced, fuel lubricity will become more
important. Reduce clearances between components that may be needed to provide higher injection
pressures are also likely to require higher lubricity. As a result, future diesel fuels will increasingly
rely on lubricity additives to protect fuel injection equipment.
Excessive levels of lubricity additives may cause sediment and gum formation and other harmful
effects.

Diesel Fuel Properties - Sulfur and Engine Oil Change Interval

Diesel fuels contain chemically bound sulfur. The amount of sulfur depends on the crude oil quality
and the components used in blending the fuel. Refineries can reduce the sulfur content of diesel fuel
by treatment with hydrogen. Sulfur increases the lubricating properties of diesel fuels. Therefore,
fuels of low sulfur levels typically require lubricity additives to avoid potential damage to fuel
injection equipment.
Diesel fuels contain varying amounts of various sulfur compounds. Fuel sulfur contributes to acid
formation and exhaust particulates. Reduced sulfur is required to meet particulate emissions and to
avoid poisoning after-treatment devices.
High sulfur content increases wear in injectors, piston rings, and bearings.
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Use of fuels with sulfur content above 0.5 mass-percent requires the use of higher total base number
(TBN) lubricants (TBN greater than 10) and shorter oil drain intervals. Higher sulfur fuel also needs
higher total base number (TBN) lubricants to compensate for acid corrosion.

General Warnings

•Under no circumstances should gasoline or alcohol be used to dilute diesel fuel.

This practice creates an extreme fire hazard and under certain circumstances an explosive hazard.
Gasoline dilution is not an effective way to lower cloud point
(20 volume-percent gasoline only lowers cloud point 4°C [7°F] and it lowers the fuel viscosity,
cetane number, and flash-point). Alcohol dilution will actually increase the cloud point.
•Do not idle the engine for excessively long periods of time. Long periods of idling (more than 10
minutes) can damage an engine because combustion chamber temperatures drop so low the fuel
cannot burn completely. This will cause carbon to form in the injector spray holes and on the piston
rings and can result in stuck valves
•Due to the precise tolerances of the new diesel injection system, it is extremely important that the
fuel be kept clean and free of dirt or water.
•Dirt or water in the fuel system will cause severe damage to both the fuel pump and injectors.

Perspectives on Biodiesel

Over the last several years, interest in biodiesel has been driven by a variety of concerns including
environmental quality, reducing reliance on imported oil and using renewable “home-grown” energy
sources.
Biodiesel fuels are derived from a variety of biomass sources through a chemical process called
transesterification, where glycerin is separated from methyl esters derived from fat or oil. The methyl
ester product is what is known as biodiesel and must meet the standards set forth by the American
Society of Testing and
Materials (ASTM D6751).The most common source in the U.S. for biodiesel production is soybean
oil, while rapeseed oil is used more frequently in Europe.
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Biodiesel may be blended with petroleum-based diesel fuel at which point it is designated as BXX,
where XX represents the percentage of pure biodiesel contained in the blend (e.g. B5 or B20).

Fuel Specifications - Diesel Only

At present time only Diesel 1 and Diesel 2 are approved for use in Komatsu Fuel systems.
4.1.2 Low Pressure / Inlet Side of fuel system

Low Pressure Overview

In the fuel flow of a diesel engine, the fuel is pulled from the fuel tank by low pressure transfer pump.
In most designs the fuel passes through a primary fuel filter before traveling to the transfer pump. The
primary filter removes larger contamination before the fuel reaches the transfer pump.
Additionally, the primary will incorporate a water separator or larger water separators are placed in
line before the primary filter.
Fuel flows from the transfer pump under pressure to a secondary fuel filter which removes very small
particles of contamination from the fuel. Current Komatsu fuel systems use a 2 Micron secondary
filter.
After the secondary filter the fuel enters the main fuel pump. The main pump develops very high fuel
pressure for injecting into the cylinders to be burned.
The transfer pump provides a higher volume of fuel than is delivered to the cylinders. The surplus
fuel is returned to the fuel tank. There is a relief valve built in the fuel pump housing that regulates
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this return flow. The relief valve maintains a specific fuel pressure in the pump housing. This
constant flow of return fuel helps to cool the fuel system components.

Fuel Tank

At the top of each fuel tank is a lockable fill cap (2), removable strainer (3), and fuel gauge (4). Some
machines have a sight gauge attached to the outside of the tank for quick, easy reading. At the bottom
of the tank are two valves. The valve on the left is used to periodically drain contaminants such as
water from the tank.
The other valve is used to shut off the fuel supply when working on the system.
Normally, the fuel tank is located slightly above the level of the engine to allow gravity to assist in
fuel flow.
Fuel flow from the tank can be reduced or stopped if:
Fuel cap breather becomes clogged
A foreign object such as a piece of plastic is blocking the fuel outlet or suction strainer.
One of the Gauze / mesh strainers in becomes clogged.
Hose is crushed or has an internal blockage.

Sediment Drain & Fuel Shut off Valve

At the bottom of the fuel tank there is a Sediment Drain Valve which is used to drain water and
sediment from that accumulates at the bottom of the fuel tank.
Komatsu recommendations for sediment draining should be followed. Also, about ten minutes after
filling the tank the drain should be open to check for water added during fill-up.
Always use an appropriate container to catch fuel being drained. Never allow fuel to spill to the
ground.
There is a fuel shut off valve usually located on the bottom of the fuel tank. This valve on machines
where the tank is higher than the transfer pump or engine must be closed before beginning filter
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replacement. This will prevent excess fuel from being spilled during filter change. Always remember
to open the valve before attempting to start the engine.

Keep It Clean – Contamination is the Enemy

• Cleanliness has always been an important part in maintaining the performance, reliability, and
useful life of a diesel fuel system.
• Modern fuel systems, such as the high pressure common rail, require a new level of cleanliness
when compared to other fuel systems, but the information contained here should be applied to all
diesel fuel systems.
• The modern fuel system plays a major part in reducing diesel engines emissions.
• In order for the fuel system to meet these ever increasing expectations the fuel system must more
completely atomize injected fuel and the injection events must be very precisely controlled.
• The internal drillings of a modern injector are often extremely small and very susceptible to
plugging from contamination.
• Plugging of the injector on some diesel engines fuel systems can even result in a continuous fueling
event that can severely damage the engine.
• Modern diesel fuel injection systems can operate at very high pressures, 1724 bar (25,000 psi) or
higher.
• Fuel at such high pressure can convert simple particles of dirt and rust into a highly abrasive
contaminate that can quickly destroy the high pressure pumping components and fuel injectors.
• Actually, As little as a spoon full of dirt can damage a fuel system.

Contamination and Nozzle Wear

Photo 1 is a new fuel injection nozzle; note the smooth sharp edges around the spray nozzle holes.
Photo 2 is a nozzle with good fuel system maintenance notice that even after 5000 hours there is little
wear or erosion at the nozzle.
Photo 3 is a nozzle with only 3500 hours that has had poor maintenance. The sharp edges of the
nozzle hole are gone.
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Water Separator

Water is a primary cause for failed pumps and injectors in Diesel Engines
Water and contaminants have a direct impact on the service life and performance of diesel engines.
Besides being abrasive to engine components and cylinder walls, water and contamination displaces
diesel fuel's lubricative coating on the high precision injector components, causing tolerance erosion,
surface pitting, fuel pressure loss and poor performance.
Abrasive foreign matter is being introduced constantly through handling, storage and transportation
of fuel. It is impossible to prevent water from contaminating diesel fuel, condensation is constantly
occurring with storage tanks, fuel carriers and your fuel tank.
The water separator should be check and drained as required. Always check shortly after refueling.
Several machines include an on dash alarm or warning when the water separator requires service.

Combination Water Separator & Primary Filter

The fuel must pass through restricted passages within the fuel pump and very small injection holes in
the injectors/nozzles to form a mist when sprayed into the cylinder. Some fuel passes between the
precisely finished sliding surfaces of the injector/nozzle for lubrication. Dust and dirt particles, mixed
in the fuel, will easily cause clogged injectors or nozzles and seized pump parts. Moisture in the fuel
will cause rust that will have the same effect. To prevent such problems, a fuel filter is installed to
remove dust, dirt, and water from the fuel. Current Komatsu primary filters are 10 micron spin-on
canister types, provided with a special resin treated paper element. The plug in the bottom is used to
drain water and other contaminants from the filter.
Some engines are equipped with a combination fuel and water separator/filter unit.
As the fuel flows through the filter, moisture precipitates down to the collection chamber. The
operator can drain the water regularly by opening the valve.
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Secondary Fuel Filter Improvements

Cleanliness has always been an important part in maintaining diesel engine performance, reliability,
and useful life of a diesel fuel system.
Modern fuel systems, such as the Komatsu HPCR, require a new level of cleanliness when compared
to older fuel systems.
To meet this new level of cleanliness, Komatsu has improved the fuel filtering system for the HPCR
engines. To prevent contaminated dirt and water from entering the fuel system. The Komatsu HPCR
system uses a secondary fuel filter rated at 2 micron absolute and a primary filter rated at 10 micron
absolute which also incorporates a water separator.
Always, refer to the Komatsu Operation and Maintenance Manual for details of replacement interval
and procedures.
Be careful not to use imitation filters. If imitation filters are used, the capture efficiency of the
contamination in the fuel may be reduced.
The increased contamination can result in early wear and possible failure of the fuel system including
the supply pump and injectors may result.
The money saved using imitation filters can soon disappear due to increase costs of machine
downtime and maintenance cost that are far beyond any savings on filter cost.

Fuel Filter Clogging

This slide shows the filter media of both a primary and secondary filter that clogged. These filters did
their job, trapping contamination preventing damage to the fuel system. It should be noted that unlike
oil filters, fuel filters do not have a by-pass valve. When fuel filters become clogged the fuel flow is
restricted. In extreme cases this restriction can be large enough to produce error codes of stop the
engine.
Engine manufactures publish a maximum inlet restriction. Inlet restriction is measured with a vacuum
gauge. When troubleshooting a fuel system, checking the inlet restriction should be one of the tests
that are preformed.
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A fuel filter that clogged before the scheduled replacement interval did the job it was designed for.
The problem is with the amount of contamination in the fuel not the filter. Countermeasures to reduce
the level of contamination should be taken.

When Replacing The Secondary Fuel Filter

Always refer to the Operation and Maintenance Manual because the procedure may vary depending
on machine model.
Points to remember when replacing the main filter.
When replacing the secondary filter, install the new main filter without filling the filter element with
fuel. This procedure prevents the introduction of contamination into the fuel system. Always make
sure that the O-ring is fitted properly.
Fill the new filter with fuel by operating the fuel priming pump which may be manual or electric.
It is important to note that when replacing the filter, make sure that dust never enters the fuel line.
Replacing A Combination Filter W/ A WIF Sensor

The water in fuel sensor known as the “W I F” sensor is used on 107 and 114 series engines.
This sensor sends a signal to the engine controller when water is present in the bottom of the pre
filter.
To replace the filter. First disconnect the connector of the Water In Fuel sensor before removing the
pre fuel filter.
Then remove the water separator, the transparent bowl fitted with the sensor.
Then remove and replace the pre fuel filter with the new one.

10 Micron Pre fuel filter cartridge replacement procedures

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When replacing the 10 micron pre fuel filter, fill the new filter cartridge with fuel according to the
following procedures before installing. Following this procedure will reduce the number of times of
priming pump operation for air bleeding
•First, Confirm that cap (A) is attached to the new filter cartridge before filling it with fuel.
•Second, Pour fuel into the new filter cartridge with cap (A). Never pour fuel into the center hole.
•Third, after filling the new filter cartridge with fuel, remove cap (A) and dispose of it properly
•Forth, apply engine oil to packing surface of the pre fuel filter cartridge thinly, and then, install it on
the filter holder. Tighten the filter cartridge one half to three quarters of a turn after the packing
surface on the cartridge has contacted the sealing surface of the filter holder.
Important.
When replacing the filter, make sure that contamination never enters the fuel line.
Always, refer to the Operation and Maintenance Manual for details of replacement period and
procedures.
Examples Failed Injector Components

Komatsu studies have showed that more than 85% fuel system failures were caused by water and dust
contamination. The sliding components of fuel system are lubricated with fuel. When the fuel
contains water the lubrication to the sliding portions of injectors will be reduced. The result can be
injector seizure.
Therefore preventing water and dust contamination by using Genuine Komatsu filters and following
all service recommendations will extend the life of the fuel system. This reduces operating and repair
costs.

Service And Repairs

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•Whenever you open a fuel system for service or repair you are also opening up the potential for
contamination of the fuel system which can result in engine damage or failure.
• It all begins with “mindful” maintenance.
• When performing maintenance, service, or repair on a modern Komatsu fuel system always review
the service literature before starting.

Clean from the start

Fuel system parts are always manufactured in a very clean environment.

Then they are packaged and shipped clean.
Unfortunately during service they are not always stored in a clean environment.
Many modern injectors are non-serviceable with the exception of the nozzle and control solenoid,
while some injectors are completely non-serviceable.
The moving parts of some injectors are manufactured to extremely tight tolerances with some as tight
as 0.0000635mm (0.0000025in.) 635 100 thousands millimeters or 25 millionths' of an inch.
Due to these ultra tight tolerances and threats from contamination Komatsu fuel system components
are manufactured and remanufactured in conditions that are as clean as or cleaner than a hospitals
operating room.

Think & Plan Ahead

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•Think and Plan ahead.

•Keeping a fuel system clean is easier than cleaning up and repairing contaminated system.
• Once a fuel system is contaminated it is nearly impossible to know if you have successfully
removed contaminants.
• There is little chance you will get paid to decontaminate a customer’s fuel system when the engine
came in for a head gasket replacement.

Clean Before Disassembly

• Rust, dirt, and paint can enter the fuel system whenever a fuel line or other component is loosened
or removed from the engine.
• In many instances a good practice is to loosen a line or fitting to break the rust and paint loose and
then clean off the loosened material.
• Clean the fittings with contact cleaner before removing a fuel line or fitting.
• When possible the recommended cleaning technique is to steam clean the entire engine as well as
the area to be repaired.

When removing fuel lines or fittings from a new or newly painted engine make sure to remove loose
paint flakes and chips that can be created when a wrench contacts painted line nuts or fittings or when
quick disconnect fittings are removed.
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When using compressed air to clean around fittings and connectors is aware that if you are putting
dust in the air that those airborne contaminants will be attracted to any diesel fuel on exposed fuel
system parts like a magnet.
Even when working in an ideal environment with an absolutely clean engine it is impossible to keep
100% of contaminants from entering the fuel system during a repair, but every effort must be made to
keep the system as clean as possible.

Cleaning Methods

• Common cleaning methods are often the quickest route to contamination.

•Choose and use lint free shop towels.
•Cloth and paper towels can leave lint.
•The best cleaning job is often chemicals only.
• Wiping fuel system parts with the wrong type of rag can lead to lint contamination of components.
• Lint from a rag or shop towel can cause a fuel injector to stick.

Caps & Plugs

Keep your caps and plugs as clean and dry as possible when storing them.
• A good practice is to use a sealable container with multiple compartments.
• Also, you can clean and save the shipping plugs from new fuel system components and store them
in different compartments for each engine or fuel system type.
• This allows plugs to be kept clean, organized, and readily available.
• Part of being professional is being prepared.
•Always cap and plug fuel lines, fittings, and ports whenever the fuel system is opened, even if the
repair is only going to take a short time to complete.
• Airborne contaminants can come from the next bay, from bumping the hood, or even from your
clothing.
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• Large particles can be dislodged from other parts being removed from the engine even after the
engine has been thoroughly cleaned from accidental contact like bumping a wiring harness.
• The best practice is to always cap and plug openings in the fuel system as soon as possible.

Fuel System Tools

• The tools used for fuel system troubleshooting and repairs are often overlooked as a potential source
of contamination.
• Like fuel system parts, if your tools are coated with oil or fuel they are a magnet for airborne
contaminants.
• Just because a tool looks clean does not mean that it is clean.
Remember the following points regarding your fuel system tools:
-Always keep your fuel system tools as clean as possible.
- Clean and dry the tools before returning them into your tool box.
- If possible store them in sealed containers. This also helps keep your tools organized and ready for
the next service event.
- Do not hesitate to clean fuel system tools before use, especially if they are shared tools with another
technician.

Parts Washer

• Parts washers seldom have filters that clean the solvent to an acceptable level to be used with fuel
systems.
• In fact many parts washers only have a screen to protect their internal pump and expect gravity to
eventually “settle” the contaminates to the bottom of the tank.
• Fuel system parts are susceptible to the contaminants suspended in solvent and safety solvent.
•They are a bad choice for cleaning fuel system components

Compressed Air
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When used improperly compressed air will put contaminants exactly where you do not want them.
Compressed air systems should be filtered a dried to remove contamination from the air stream.

Clean Hands

• Doctors found out centuries ago that the best way to prevent infections on the operating table was to
wash their hands first.
• You can prevent the kind of “infections” that damage a fuel system by washing your hands.
• Frequently wash your hands with non-pumice soap, and water when working on a fuel system.
•Pumice based “no water required” hand cleaners actually clean your hands about as well as running
your hands through a bag of floor dry.
• Your hands may not be oily, but they are actually a potential source of fuel system contamination.
• The gritty material within the pumice soap will not dissolve in water and can stay attached to your
hands.
• The pumice material can be sand, volcanic rock, or silica.

10 Rules of Fuel Management

1. Be sure to use diesel fuel specified in the Komatsu Operation and Maintenance Manual.
2. Be sure to use high-performance Komatsu genuine filters and observe periodic replacement
intervals.
3. When replacing the filter, make sure that dust an contamination never enter the Fuel line.
4. To prevent the formation of any condensation, fill up the tank with fuel after daily operation is
completed.
5. When refueling the machine, clean around the fuel tank cap to prevent dirt from entering the tank.
6. Use clean fuel filling devices for refueling.
7. Drain the water and sediment from the fuel tank before starting daily operation and about 10
minutes after refueling.
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8. Drain the water and sediment from the water separator attached to the lower part of the pre fuel
filter before starting daily operation.
9. Drain the water and sediment from the storage fuel tanks (including tankers) and clean them
periodically.
10. When storing fuel in an oil drum, place the drum horizontally to prevent rainwater from entering
it.

Fuel Pump - Gear Type

In most diesel fuel systems, fuel is supplied by a positive displacement gear-type pump. Fuel is
pumped around the outside of the two meshing gears and is then under sufficient pressure to reach
other parts of the fuel system. Rotary type gear pumps are also used. Over the years several types of
pumps have been used.
One of the most common is the gear pump

Diaphragm Type (Lift) Pump

The diaphragm type feed pump is mostly found on small diesel engines and they are often referred to
these as lift pumps. A special lobe mechanically drives this pump on the machine camshaft. The lobe
raises the arm of the lift pump to create the pumping action. See photo “A”
Photo “B” shows the other side of the same diaphragm type pump. Here there is an external lever,
(contacting the pump arm), which permits hand operation of the pump for priming and bleeding air
from the system. With this design, a spring-loaded diaphragm is used to move the fuel.
Check valves prevent fuel bleed back during pumping and engine shut down.
(Photo “C” The lift pump provides a positive flow of fuel to the filter. The spring and the lever work
together to move the diaphragm up and down. When the diaphragm moves down a vacuum is created
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which opens the inlet check valve pulling fuel into the pump. The outlet valve remains closed. When
the diaphragm begins to move up the inlet check valve closes and the outlet valve opens. The upward
motion of the diaphragm pushes the fuel pass the outlet check valve.
The diaphragm movement creates a vacuum on the inlet line from the tank and a positive pressure on
the outlet line to the fuel pump.

Piston Type Fuel Transfer Pump

The camshaft of the multi-pump assembly drives the piston type feed pump. See
Figure through for details of its pumping action. The piston type fuel transfer pump is usually
provided with a hand priming pump. It permits manual pumping of fuel for bleeding air out of the
fuel system, and for flow timing the multi-pump assembly. See next slide for details on the operation
of a typical piston type transfer pump:

Pumping Action of Piston Type Transfer Pump

When the transfer pump drive cam rotates to its lowermost position, the piston spring pushes the
piston down. At the same time, the intake valve is opened due to the sudden drop of pressure on the
spring side of the piston. The piston moving down creates a vacuum pulling fuel into the pump
chamber.
When the piston is pushed up by the action of the cam, pressure rises in the pump chamber. This
forces the intake valve closed and the exhaust valve open.
The fuel in the upper part of the piston is discharged. Some of the discharged fuel is directed to the
lower part of the piston.
When the piston drops again, the fuel pressure under the piston is the same as in the fuel filter and
main multi-pump assembly. At the same time, new fuel enters the pump chamber and the preceding
processes are repeated.
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When the engine speed is high, and there is little or no load on the engine, the pressure on the
delivery side (fuel filter and injection pump side) can raise above 3 kg/cm² (43 psi). When this occurs,
the pressure of the fuel on the outlet side is greater than the spring force on the inlet side. As a result,
the piston is pushed up, and the piston no longer is in contact with the push rod. At this point the
pump is non-delivery; additional fuel is not required for engine operation. When the pressure drops,
the piston is pushed down by the spring, the contact with the push rod is restored, and pumping action
is resumed.

Hand Priming Pump Operation

This slide illustrates hand priming pump operation. The hand pump handle (5) is spring loaded. The
handle (5) is attached to the piston (1). The priming pump delivers fuel to the injection pump when
the piston (1) is depressed by hand.
Depressing the handle (5) and piston (1) closes the inlet check valve (4) and the pump chamber
pressure rise opens outlet check valve (3). Fuel flows past the outlet check valve (3) to outlet port (B).
When the handle is released the spring (2) pushes the handle up retracting the piston. As the piston
retracts a vacuum is created in the priming pump chamber which opens inlet check valve (4) and
closes outlet check valve (3). Fuel is pulled past port (A) into the priming pump chamber which will
be delivered on the next down ward stroke of the handle and piston.

Electric Fuel Pump

Electric fuel pumps are used with some engine applications. They may be the only transfer pump and
run continuously. Others are used as a priming device on start up. The ECM switches the pump on to
prime the fuel system for starting. Once the engine is running an engine mechanical pump transfer the
fuel from the tank to the main fuel pump.
The design in this slide incorporates an ECM cooling plate and a check valve.
Without the ECM cooling plate check valve, fuel would continuously circulate through the ECM
cooling plate when the lift pump is not running. The check valve can become damaged upon
installation. Inspect the check valve for damage or debris when troubleshooting low power and
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performance problems. High fuel inlet restriction will be measured at the gear pump inlet if the check
valve is damaged.

Pump Housing Overflow / Relief Valve

To maintain fuel flow to the fuel pump individual pumping chamber the pump housing must remain
pressurized. To accomplish this function, a relief / overflow valve is used keep the internal pressure
of the injection pump at fixed level.
It keeps the pressure of the fuel entering the plunger barrel at constant level to prevent air bubbles to
be generated in the injection pump. It also keeps the amount of fuel fed to the barrel at a constant
level even if the engine speed changes.
The structure of the overflow valve includes a check ball, a calibrated spring and an end cap. The
check ball is pressed by the calibrated spring which keeps the fuel pressure constant level.
If the check ball should sick open the pressure inside the injection pump will drop.
This condition could cause the engine not start or a decrease in engine output.
It should be noted that Komatsu HPCR high pressure fuel pumps use a valve very similar in design to
maintain pump housing pressure.

Fuel Shut-Off Solenoids (Slide 5-9)

Fuel shut off devices – On engines are fitted with electric fuel shut off solenoids.
When the ignition switch is turned on, the solenoid is activated and the linkage moves to allow the
engine to start and run.
A large force is required to move the shut down lever and governor linkage. To generate this force the
solenoid has a set of contacts that split the windings in two C1 & C2. The coil uses a large current to
pull in and once the stop lever is moved to the run position the pull-in windings are turned off.
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Correct fuel solenoid adjustment essential. If the clearance is too small that the pull-in contact will
not open and the coils will burn out due to excessive current.
Additionally, internal governor components may be damaged due to excessive force being applied to
the stop lever. If the clearance is excessive than engine output may be reduced because the stop lever
is not being fully retracted. Always refer to Komatsu service literature for correct fuel shut off
solenoid adjustment.
Fuel control lever (8) is connected to the throttle linkage to control engine speed.

Komatsu Engine Stop Motor

Some Komatsu engines use an engine stop motor. The HD325-6 used a mechanical fuel system that
incorporated a cable stop motor.
An electric motor is connected to a cable that is connected to the engine stop lever inside the
governor.
The small motor drives a worm gear, which is in mesh with a worm wheel. This motor works very
much like an electric windshield wiper motor. When the ignition is turned on, the motor is energized.
The worm gear is driven to fix the governor fuel control linkage in the “RUN” position. When this
position is reached, contacts on the contactor assembly are opened and current to the motor is cut off.
When the ignition key is turned off, the motor is again energized. However, because of the alignment
of the contact points on the contactor assembly, current flows in the opposite direction. As a result,
the motor drives the worm gear, worm wheel assembly, and cable in the reverse direction. The
governor fuel linkage is moved to the “NO FUEL” position, and the fuel to the engine is shut off.
Once again, when this action is complete, the contact points on the contactor assembly are opened
and current stops going to the motor.

Komatsu Throttle Linkage

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Throttle linkage connects the operator with the engine fuel lever. This linkage allows the operator to
increase or decrease the fuel sent to the engine as required. It uses a manually operated linkage. This
slide shows a typical linkage configuration. Various configurations exist on Komatsu machines.
The maintenance and adjustment of mechanical linkage is essential for smooth machine operation.
Linkage should be checked as recommended in Komatsu service literature.
A power complaint could be as simple as worn or loose linkage not bringing the governor fuel lever
to full fuel position.
4.1.3 Types of Fuel Systems

Many configurations of fuel injection have been used over the past century.
Until the recent introduction of electronic controlled fuel systems most diesel engines make use of a
camshaft, rotating at half crankshaft speed that lifted mechanical single plunger high pressure fuel
pump driven by the engine crankshaft. For each cylinder, its plunger measures the amount of fuel and
determines the timing of each injection. These engines use injectors that are basically very precise
spring-loaded valves that open and close at a specific fuel pressure. For each cylinder a plunger pump
is connected with an injector with a high pressure fuel line. Fuel volume for each single combustion
is controlled by a slanted grove in the plunger which rotates only a few degrees releasing the pressure
and is controlled by a mechanical governor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed
constrained by springs and a lever. The injectors are held open by the fuel pressure. On high speed
engines the plunger pumps are together in one unit. Each fuel line should have the same length to
obtain the same pressure delay.
A less expensive type fuel system for high speed engines with less than six cylinders is to use an
axial-piston distributor pump ,consisting of one rotating pump plunger delivering fuel to a valve and
line for each cylinder (functionally analogous to points and distributor cap on an Otto engine).
This contrast with the more modern method of having a single fuel pump which supplies fuel
constantly at high pressure with a common rail (single fuel line common) to each injector. Each
injector has a solenoid operated by an electronic control unit, resulting in more accurate control of
injector opening times that depend on other control conditions, such as engine speed and loading, and
providing better engine performance and fuel economy. This design is also mechanically simpler than
the combined pump and valve design, making it generally more reliable, and less noisy, than
mechanical systems.

Fuel System Functions

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In general a diesel engine’s fuel system performs three important functions:

Injection Timing Control – The system delivers the fuel shot at the optima piston position. As the
piston is traveling up towards TDC fuel is sprayed in the cylinder to produce the energy for the
following power stroke. Variations in degrees of crankshaft rotation (advanced or retarded) can
dramatically change the engine performance.
Injection Quantity Control – The fuel system works with the governor to deliver the correct amount
of fuel to the engine. The operator uses the accelerator to move linkage connected to the governor
portion of the fuel system the governor maintains both idle speed and maximum engine speed known
as “High Idle”
Proper Atomization & Penetration – At the time of injection the cylinder pressures are very high. The
fuel must atomize the fuel as it is injected and develop enough pressure for the fuel spray to push
through or penetrate the high cylinder pressures.

Mechanical Multiple-pump System

Although all fuel systems in all makes of diesel engines have the 5 foregoing functions, the manner in
which the functions are affected vary considerably. Some engines use the multiple-pump system. In
this system, fuel is supplied to a housing that incorporates a group of high pressure pumps.
Mechanically governed fuel injection systems are driven by the engine's gear train.
These systems use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load
and speed.
Each cylinder has its own individual pump and high-strength steel lines carry fuel to each cylinder
injector. In this system, the injector is not operated by the engine camshaft. The supply function is
usually done by a gear-type pump. Metering, timing, and control are done within the housing of the
individual pump. Injection into the cylinder is done by the spray nozzle.
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Conventional mechanical in-line fuel injection systems have been used for many years. In-line fuel
injection system features are:
Maximum fuel injection pressure 500 to 800 kg per centimeter squared.
Fuel injection pressure depends on the engine speed.
Injection nozzle is a fixed pressure regulator.
Injection timing is fixed or proportionally controlled using a timing device.
Conventional in-line fuel systems are unable to meet Euro / Tier3 standards.

Injection Pump - 1

Explain where an amount of pressure- fed fuel is controlled, using an illustration and photo of a
cutaway model.
1. Camshaft - This part pushes up and down a plunger to feed pressurized fuel and turns two
governors.
2. Plunger - This part pressure- feed fuel to an injector.
3. Governor - This part adjusts a fuel injection amount to the movement of an accelerator pedal (or
fuel dial). In addition to this function, it also works to increase fuel injection amount to restore the
engine rpm to the set value when load on the engine increases and lowers the revolution.
4.1.4 High Pressure System Fuel Flow

High Pressure System and Their Components

The fuel flow of a High Pressure System, common on Komatsu designed engines.
The flow of the fuel in a high-pressure system is as follows:
Fuel in the fuel tank is sent to the fuel filter by the fuel feed pump.
From the fuel filter the fuel flows to the main fuel galley of the injection pump.
Fuel at the main fuel galley is available to individual plunger pumps for each cylinder; and the
pumping action of these plungers sends fuel under high pressure to the injection nozzles.
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Each injection nozzle opens to inject fuel into the cylinder when fuel pressure rises to the required
value.
Any fuel, which leaks between the nozzle barrel and its plunger, travels to a connector block and
joins unused fuel from the injection pump as it returns to the tank.

Multi-Pump Distributor Fuel Pump

Multi-pump injector pump - The injection pump drive gear drives these types of pumps in the timing
gear train, which rotates once every two turns of the engine.
This is necessary to ensure that injection occurs when the cylinder is near top dead center (TDC) on
the compression stroke.

Injection Pump Camshaft

In the fuel pump there is a camshaft with a lobe for each plunger and barrel assembly. This camshaft
is driven by the engine gear train at ½ engine RPM.
Another way to look at it, the pump camshaft makes one complete revolution for each two engine
revolutions. The rotation of the injection pump camshaft causes each cam to push a tappet to raise a
plunger so that fuel is pushed under pressure to the injection nozzle.
To achieve correct injection timing gear train driving the injection pump camshaft must be timed
correctly for best engine performance.

Bosch Type Injection Pumps

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The following sequence of plunger lift and retraction illustrates the pumping action for moving fuel
from the gallery to the engine cylinder. Flow of fuel into the plunger barrel (1) starts when the
plunger (2) is lowered to open the inlet and outlet port. It stops when the plunger reaches its lowest
position. The plunger is now at bottom dead center (BDC), and fuel from the main gallery fills the
bore between the plunger and the delivery valve.
When the plunger is raised to close the inlet and outlet port (A) in the plunger barrel (1), a quantity of
fuel is sealed in the bore. This is often referred to as port closing. Continued lifting of the plunger
reduces the volume above the plunger, creating the pressure necessary for injection.
The plunger (2) is further raised until the slot (B) in the plunger comes into alignment with the inlet
and outlet port (A). This is sometimes called port opening.
Fuel returns to the inlet and outlet port through the plunger center hole and the slot, thus causing a
quick drop of fuel pres-sure. Now the plunger is at top dead center and fuel injection is finished.

Pump Line Systems

Bosch System Fuel Metering

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The metering of the fuel is dependent upon the stroke of the plunger and the relationship of the slot to
the inlet and outlet port. The control sleeve rotates the plunger. This action controls the quantity of
fuel delivered to the cylinder

Action Of Control Rod / Rack

This slide illustrates the positioning of the vertical and helical slots on the plunger, in relation to the
inlet and outlet (fill/spill) port.
For zero delivery, the plunger is rotated so the vertical slot on the plunger is aligned with the fill/spill
port. In this position, fuel is not sealed above the plunger.
Therefore, even if the plunger is raised and lowered, no pressure can build and no fuel is delivered
For delivery of a quantity of fuel less than maximum, the plunger is positioned so the fuel is sealed
above the plunger for some lift distance between port closure and port opening. This depends on the
throttle position set by the operator.
For maximum delivery, the plunger is positioned so the fuel is sealed above the plunger for the
maximum lift distance between port closure and port opening.
Now that we've discussed the pumping action of the plunger and the control of the quantity delivered,
let's examine other elements in the fuel flow path that affect delivery.

Delivery Valve & Fuel lines

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During normal engine operation, the nozzles, high pressure lines, delivery valve holders, and plunger
bores are completely filled with fuel. The delivery valves prevent drain-back between injection cycles
maintaining a minimum fuel pressure in the fuel lines to the Injectors.
Now let's examine the delivery cycle at the point where the plunger is lifting. It causes the pressure in
the bore between the plunger and the delivery valve to rise.
When the pressure between the plunger and the delivery valve exceeds the opposing forces of the
spring and the residual pressure in the high-pressure line, the delivery valve opens.

Delivery Valve Cycle

The fuel pump plunger pushes of displaces fuel line raising the pressure to the high pressure needed
for injection. The pressure raises the pressure until the pressure in the line overcomes the spring force
on the needle valve in the nozzle, causing it to open. The pressure continues to rise as fuel is forced
into the combustion chamber through the spray holes in the nozzle tip
When the helical slot on the plunger passes the port to the fuel gallery, pressurized fuel above the
plunger escapes. The pressure to the Injector instantly falls. When this occurs, pressure and force on
the delivery valve is reduced and the delivery valve closes.

Delivery Valve Function at the End Of Injection

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The delivery valve performs two functions as it closes. First, the retraction collar seals the fuel in the
high-pressure line as it enters the valve body; and second, continued movement of the valve cone to
its seat on the valve body increases the volume available for fuel. This allows the pressure in the
high-pressure line to be reduced rapidly
This rapid reduction of pressure in the high-pressure line allows the needle valve in the nozzle to
close very quickly. This action prevents dribbling of fuel into the engine cylinder known as secondary
injection.
Secondary injection in a diesel engine is defined as the introduction of additional fuel into the
combustion chamber after the end of the main injection. Testing indicates that secondary injection
increases smoke, unburned hydrocarbons, and specific fuel consumption power is reduced.

Automatic Timer

Automatic timers - Some High-Pressure Systems also have an automatic timer.

Its function is to automatically advance fuel injection timing in proportion to increases in engine
speed.
The automatic timer, when used, is either fitted to the front of the fuel injection pump (multi-pump),
or placed between the fuel pump drive gear and the pump drive flange.
As shown in Figures 5.64 and 5.65, as engine rotation increases, a centrifugal force acts on the
flyweights (4) to expand the flyweight around the weight holder pin (11) (fulcrum). When the
flyweight is expanded, the driving flange pin (2), which is in contact with the curved surface, is
pushed toward the flyweight.
Because the driving flange pin cannot be moved, the weight holder pin is moved toward the driving
flange pin, against spring tension.
Unit Injector System & PT System
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Another type of fuel system is the unit injector system. In this system, all functions except the fuel
supply from the tank and governing are incorporated in one injector. Each cylinder has one unit
injector and is engine cam operated. A gear-type pump supplies fuel and a governor and throttle are
connected by mechanical linkage to each injector. Metering is accomplished by positioning the
injector plunger
PT System
The amount of fuel metered in the PT system depends upon the time fuel has to flow into the injector
cup and the amount of pressure the fuel is under. Since the time the metering orifice is open is
inversely proportional to and wholly dependent on engine speed, power output is regulated by
changing the pressure of the fuel.
The exact period of time injection takes place in the engine cycle is a function of the cam lobe on the
camshaft. Camshaft rotary motion is changed into reciprocating motion by a follower riding on the
eccentric cam. Thus, grinding the cam lobe properly during manufacture is of prime importance.
Tolerances are held extremely close so fuel injection takes place at an optimum time in the engine
cycle and uniformly in all cylinders
PT Fuel injection is accomplished by the descent of the injector plunger. Since the plunger fits into
the injector barrel very closely, fuel is put under tremendous hydraulic pressure and is sprayed out the
extremely small drillings in-to the cylinder. Fuel is atomized by the small drillings it is forced out
through and is distributed uniformly in the hot compressed air because the drillings are spaced all
around the bottom of the cup.

Mechanical Governor

A governor is required on a diesel engine to control the idling and maximum speeds of the engine,
with some governors being designed to control the speed within the overall operating range of the
engine. It is possible for the operator to control the engine speed between idle and maximum through
the operation of the throttle. Idle and maximum speeds must be controlled to prevent the engine from
stalling during low-speed idle and to keep the speed from exceeding the maximum desired limits
desired by the manufacturer. The main reason that a diesel requires a governor is that a diesel engine
operates with excess air under all loads and speeds. Therefore, air is always available and any
additional fuel could put the engine in over speed.
Even though it is not part of the fuel system, a governor is directly related to this system since it
functions to regulate speed by the control of fuel.
In diesel engines governors are connected in the linkage between the throttle and the fuel injectors.
The governor acts through the fuel injection equipment to regulate the amount of fuel delivered to the
cylinders.
As a result the governor holds engine speed reasonably constant during fluctuations in load.
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Fuel System / Governor Adjustment.

Never attempt to adjust a fuel system or governor with on the engine, unless the service material
describes specific procedures.
Unauthorized adjustments can create a hazardous condition, such as engine over speed or excessive
power shorting the life of the engine. Additionally, emission regulatory agencies in various countries
can impose large fines if adjustments to a fuel system results in the engine being out of compliance
with required emission regulations. In the United States the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
can impose a fine as high as $10,000 USD per day per engine.

Governor Terms

Maximum no-load speed or high idle is used to describe the highest engine rpm obtainable when the
throttle linkage is moved to its maximum position with no load applied to the engine.
Maximum full-load speed or rated speed is used to indicate the engine rpm at which a particular
engine will produce its maximum designed horsepower setting as stated by the manufacturer.
Idle or low-idle speed is used to indicate the normal speed, at which the engine will rotate with the
throttle linkage in the released or closed position,
Stability refers to the ability of the governor to maintain speed with either constant or varying loads
without hunting.
Speed droop is used to express the difference in the change in the governor rotating speed which
causes the output shaft of the governor to move from its full-open throttle position to its full- closed
position or vice versa.
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Hunting is a repeated and sometimes rhythmic variation of speed due to over control by the governor.
Also called speed drift.
Sensitivity is an expression of how quickly the governor responds to a speed change.
Response time is normally the time taken in seconds for the fuel linkage to be moved from a no-load
to a full-load position. Isochronous is used to indicate zero droop capability. In others words, the full-
load and no- load speeds are the same.
Overrun is used to express the action of the governor when the engine exceeds its maximum
governed speed.
Under-run is a simple term to describe the ability of the governor to prevent engine speed from
dropping below a set idle, particularly when the throttle has been moved rapidly to a decreased fuel
setting from maximum full-load position.
Dead-band is the change in speed required before the governor will make a corrective movement of
the throttle.
State of balance is used to describe the speed at which the centrifugal force of the rotating flyweights
of the governor matches and balances the spring force of the governor.

Relationship Between Idle, High Idle and Overrun / Droop

This curve is known as a “Lug Curve” The throttle is set at full and the load varies to change engine
speed. Full-load or rated speed is about 2275 RPM, here the governor is against the stop. If the load is
reduced the governor begins to reduce the amount of fuel. If the load is further removed the will reach
“High Idle” the governor will not fuel the engine above this RPM.
This graph illustrates two “High Idle” points. The blue line is about 2400 RPM High
Idle and the red line is about 2550 RPM. The RPM range between Rated speed and High Idle is
known a “Governor Overrun or Droop. And is some time expressed as a percentage of rated speed.
For this example:
•Blue line - 2400 – 2275 = 125 RPM or ~ 5% Droop
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•Red line - 2550 – 2275 = 275 RPM or ~ 12 % Droop

This graph also illustrates Stall Speed (~ 1750 RPM) and Peak Torque speed (~ 1250 RPM). Once the
load pulls the RPM below Rated speed the fuel rack is against the rack stop and fuel is a full amount.
Increasing the load slows the engine to stall speed and peak torque speed.

Governor Weights and Centrifugal Force

The throttle lever pulls the governor spring which is attached to the lever. This moves the fuel rack to
increase fuel delivery. The governor weights are turned at one half engine speed. The weights are
pushing against the sleeve which is attached to the bottom of the lever. As the rotation of the
governor flyweight increases, its own weight and centrifugal force moves the floating lever which
causes the rack to reduce fuel delivery.
When more load is applied to the engine and the engine speed lowers, the rotation of the governor
flyweight drops, lowering its centrifugal force, governor spring force prevails, pushes the control rack
to the left side, increasing fuel injection amount and keep the set engine speed.
When load on the engine lessens, the entire mechanism works in reverse.
When the engine speed is set at a certain rpm, governor spring force and governor flyweight force
balance with each other, thereby fixing the position of the control rack.

Governor Linkage

The back of the injection pump camshaft is connected to the governor weight.
With variation of camshaft speed, the governor weight is opened or closed. This keeps a balance
between centrifugal force and governor spring tension. The opening and closing movement of the
governor weight is delivered to the injection pump control rack through the tension lever and other
links inside the governor.
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Movement of the control rack is transmitted to the plunger pinion. The pinion determines the fuel
injection quantity by adjusting the fill/spill port, and its relation to the slot of the piston (port
opening).
The fuel control lever in the operator's compartment is linked to the governor control lever. This lever
is also linked to the tension lever inside the governor. It actuates the control rack to adjust fuel
injection quantity.

Working principle

The guide lever top end is pinned to the top to governor housing and the bottom end is connected to
the sleeve with a pin as indicated by point (A).
The bottom end of the floating lever is pinned to a fixed point (C). The top end is linked to the control
rack and is pulled towards the rack by the starting spring. The mid-point (B) of the floating lever is
pinned at to the guide lever.
Two flyweights are pivot mounted on the camshaft to push on the sleeve. As the flyweights spin
centrifugal force is produced causing the weights to spread out and push against the sleeve. This force
pushes the sleeve to the right against the force of the governor spring.
The movement of the sleeve to the right is proportional to the camshaft / engine speed, causes the (B)
point on the levers to move to the right and the control rack is moved towards the reduced fuel
direction.

RSV Governor

A governor is required on a diesel engine to control the idling and maximum speeds of the engine,
with some governors being designed to control the speed within the overall operating range of the
engine. It is possible for the operator to control the engine speed between idle and maximum through
the operation of the throttle. Idle and maximum speeds must be controlled to prevent the engine from
stalling during low-speed idle and to keep the speed from exceeding the maximum desired limits
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desired by the manufacturer. The main reason that a diesel requires a governor is that a diesel engine
operates with excess air under all loads and speeds.
Even though it is not part of the fuel system, a governor is directly related to this system since it
functions to regulate speed by the control of fuel or of the air-fuel mixture, depending on the type of
engine. In diesel engines governors are connected in the linkage between the throttle and the fuel
injectors. The governor acts through the fuel injection equipment to regulate the amount of fuel
delivered to the cylinders.
As a result the governor holds engine speed reasonably constant during fluctuations in load.

Boost Compensator / Air Fuel Ratio Control (AFRC)

When a turbocharged engines accelerates, the turbocharger requires time to build boost (air flow) If
the fuel system delivers fuel before there is adequate air flow to support combustion the engine will
produce black smoke. Black smoke from the exhaust is undesirable; therefore engine and fuel system
designers have designed devices to limit fuel delivery until there is sufficient air. Bosch calls this
device a boost compensator, other names include AFRC, AFC, and one manufacture calls it a “PUFF
Limiter”. While the names may be different the function is the same this device is activated by
turbocharger boost pressure to increase fuel quantity at high-speed, high-load engine operating
conditions, without regard to governor operation. It also reduces the fuel injection quantity during
acceleration.
In other words, the boost compensator acts to reduce wasted fuel (black smoke), during sudden
changes of engine speed.
If the connection tube is disconnected or broken or the diaphragm is torn, there may be a complaint of
lack of power.

Diesel Injectors
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As stated before, the main purpose of the fuel injection system is to deliver fuel into the cylinders of
an engine. While this may be the general purpose of the system, two specific objectives of a
fundamental importance may be described by the following functions:
• Timely introduction of the fuel into the cylinder, that is, injection timing and its control.
• Delivery of an accurate amount of fuel to meet power requirement, that is, injection metering and its
control.
The fuel injector is the component that delivers an accurately metered amount of fuel at the proper
time to achieve good combustion.

Fuel Injector Terms

Nozzle refers to the part of the nozzle body/needle assembly which interfaces with the combustion
chamber of the engine. Terms like P-Type, M-Type, or S-Type nozzle refer to standardized
dimensions of nozzle parameters
Nozzle holder or injector body refers to the part the nozzle is mounted on. In conventional injection
systems this part mainly served the nozzle mounting and nozzle needle spring preloading purpose. In
common rail system, it contains the main functional parts: the servo-hydraulic circuit and the
hydraulic actuator (electromagnetic or piezoelectric).
Injector commonly refers to the nozzle holder and nozzle assembly.
Rate of injection is the mass flow of fuel out of the nozzle, typically shown over a time axis.
Start of injection and end of injection refer to the start and end of flow from the nozzle, often
referred to with reference to the engine crank degrees.
Opening rate and closing rate refers to the gradients in the rate of injection during needle nozzle
opening and closing, respectively.
Injection pressure it may refer to the mean pressure in the hydraulic system for common rail
systems, or to the maximum pressure during an injection (peak injection pressure) in conventional
systems.

Pump-line-nozzle (P-L-N)

Pump-line-nozzle (P-L-N) is a fuel system using central injection pump driven off the engine gear.
The injection pump feeds separate injection nozzles located in the cylinder head above each cylinder.
Lines which must be of exactly equal length, link the pump with the nozzles. In the case of the in-line
pump, the central pump incorporates a number of separate plunger/barrel pumping elements each
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serving one injector. Each nozzle incorporates a needle valve and the orifices which provide fuel
atomization.
The P-L-N fuel system used to be the most common type of diesel injection, dominating most diesel
engine applications. In addition to the in-line pump design, where each injector is fed by a separate
pumping element, several other configurations that have been developed, including the
distributor/rotary pump.

Old & New Purposes of Fuel Injection System

Function of the fuel Injector:

Fuel atomization, how small the fuel particle size is and how dispersed it is in the cylinder, has
become a primary design objective for a successful diesel fuel injection system.
Good fuel penetration into the dense air that is compressed in the cylinder is required Quality of the
mixture (fuel and air) with good atomization improves combustion efficiency, how well the available
air is used is also an indicator of high combustion efficiency.
Additionally, equally dividing the total fuel among the cylinders of an engine is critical.

Complete Combustion

The objective is to burn the fuel completely. The injector or nozzle atomizes the fuel in the
compressed air in the cylinder. Injection must be higher than cylinder pressure and there is only a
short time in which to spray the fuel.
The engine designers use injectors with a specific spray angle and spray pattern. If the nozzle tip is
clogged or damaged, the spray angle or pattern may be affected.
When an injector is suspected of having failed, it is tested for opening pressure, spray angle and spray
pattern. The slide shows good and bad patterns.
Injection Timing
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Nozzle Parts

The following are the names of major parts.

•Bar Filter:
This part traps dirt in the clearance between the inlet connector and bar filter.
•Nozzle (Needle Valve):
This part is pressed against the nozzle body with spring force. When fuel pressure is applied to the
nozzle, the nozzle is pushed toward the spring, forcing the valve to open.
•Nozzle Body:
This part has a pin hole, which differs depending on the size of an engine, but normally a hole size is
0.1 mm to 0.3 mm. In the case of a pintle type, the size is 0.5 mm to 2.0 mm.
•Spring Tension Adjustor:
Injection pressure at the start can be adjusted by adjusting spring force of this part.
•Fuel Return:
An amount of highly pressurized fuel that returns through the push rod nozzle holder body is quite
limited.

Testing Injectors
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Checking of Nozzle Hole Condition and Adjustment of Injection Pressure

•Judge an injection condition while fuel is actually being injected.
•Be careful not to expose a hand to injected fuel. Otherwise fuel gets in the body and causes
gangrene.
•One of the means to judge an injection condition is to put a sheet of paper under a nozzle injecting
fuel and see a pattern of fuel injected on the paper.

APS Control System

Most of the starting-aid systems for pre-combustion chamber type engines are glow-plug types.
Many small bore direct injection type engines use ribbon heaters between the intake manifold and
cylinder head inlet ports. These systems are all electric and not part of the fuel system.
Consequently, they can be studied in the Basic Electric Study Guide.
However, in larger bore Komatsu 155 and 170 series engines, an automatic priming system (APS) are
used which uses fuel from the fuel system. There are several variations of this system but the
fundamental operational concept is the same for all.
When the engine is cold, which is determined by the engine water temperature sensor, and the
operator pushes the preheat switch on the control panel, glow plugs in the intake manifold will begin
heating intake air. At this time, a preheat indicator lights up on the monitor panel to tell the operator
that this is happening.
When the monitor panel light goes out, this is the signal for the operator to start the engine. During
cranking and after the engine is running, are the only times that small quantities of fuel is sprayed into
the intake manifold to further preheat the high volume of intake air. The APS controller inside the
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relay box controls this operation. This controller is programmed in such a way that it must receive
two electrical input signals before it will send any electrical output signals to the preheat fuel nozzles.
When cranking, one signal comes via the pre-heat back-up relay to confirm that the battery circuit is
complete, and the other signal comes from the starting switch to confirm that the engine is being
turned over.
After the engine is started, one signal comes from the heater relay to confirm that the battery circuit is
complete, and the other signal comes from the alternator R terminal to confirm that the engine is
running.
The entire APS electric system is grounded through the engine water temperature sensor. When the
engine reaches operating temperature, the circuit is broken and preheating is stopped.

General Overview of Electronic Fuel Systems

Over the past 25 years governments around the world have implemented diesel engine exhaust
emission standards. Mechanical fuel systems are not able to meet these new regulations. Similar to
the automotive and on-highway truck industries, electronic controls have been adapted to off-
highway engine to meet exhaust regulations.

Worldwide Move To Electronic Diesel Engine Control

Passenger cars and on-highway trucks have been required to meet emission standards sooner than the
off-highway industries. Therefore, they pioneered the use of electronic engine control fuel systems.
Engine control fuel systems began to be introduced with Tier 2 emission regulation in 2001 and by
2006 when Tier 3 requirements went in to place almost all off-highway diesels were electronic.
Electronic engine control fuel systems provide for:
Meeting emission regulations
Improved engine response
Improve fuel economy while complying with emission regulations
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Customized controls and engines for various applications.

Added user features and benefits
Parameter control
Flexible implementation of control strategies for:
Flexible injection timing
Flexible injected quantity metering
Reduced fuel delivery variance
Reduction of smoke with control strategies

Additional Fuel System Functions

Earlier we discussed the main functions of a diesel engine’s fuel system Injection
Timing Control, Injection Quantity Control, and Proper Atomization & Penetration.
Diesel clatter is caused largely by the diesel combustion process, the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel
when injected into the combustion chamber causes a pressure wave. Engine designers can reduce
diesel clatter through: pilot or pre-injection and injection rate shaping; Common rail diesel injection
systems permit multiple pre-injections as an aid to noise reduction.
Electronic diesel engine controls have added additional functions:
Pilot Injection – During start up and in cold weather the fuel system injects a small amount of fuel
prior to delivering the main fuel shot. This small amount burns instantly in the cylinder which warms
the air charge for the main injection.
Split Injection & Rate Shaping - The main fuel is varied in such a way to create the desired
combustion of the fuel. Reducing emissions and noise.
Post – Injection – This spraying of fuel at the end of the power stroke or during the exhaust stroke.
The fuel burns in the exhaust manifold and exhaust system. This controls the heat in the exhaust
system to improve the performance of emission devices which require specific temperatures.

ECM / Engine Controller

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Electronic controlled diesel engines began to be introduced in the early 1990’s.

The engine control module (ECM) or Engine Controller is the brains of the system. The ECM
receives inputs from various engine sensors, processes the input using internal programs and then
provides output to run the engine.
The ECM controls the fuel injection rate. This function is employed instead of the function of the
conventional governor. It controls the fuel injection according to the signals of engine speed and
accelerator angle so that the fuel injection rate will be most proper.
The ECM manages Fuel injection timing. The fuel injection timing control function is employed
instead of the function of the conventional timer. It controls the fuel injection timing most properly
from the engine speed and fuel injection rate.
The ECM for the Komatsu HPCR system controls fuel injection pressure
(Common rail fuel pressure control function). The fuel injection pressure control function (common
rail fuel pressure control function) is a function of measuring the fuel pressure with the common rail
fuel pressure sensor and feeding it back to the engine controller to control the delivery of the fuel
supply pump.
Additionally, this function performs pressure feedback control so that the fuel injection pressure will
be the same as the optimum value (command value) set according to the engine speed and fuel
injection rate.
Another important feature is the ECM’s ability to deliver fault codes to the technician when a
problem occurs.
The ECM is an electronic device and therefore has temperature limitations.
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General Specifications provide the Engine Control Module can operate in temperatures of -40 Deg C
to 86 Deg C and can be stored in temperatures from - 40 Deg C to 105 Deg C. When the engine is
operating, the engine and ECM electronics will generate heat so the engine may operate at
temperatures less than -40 Deg C but the electronics may not function to start the engine if the ECM
and sensors are below -40 Deg C.

Electronic In Line Pump

The first electronic engines adapted electronic components to existing fuel pumps.
This is an example. Bosh added an electromagnetic and a rack position sensor to an existing “P”
pump design. The ECM provided the current to energize the magnetic which move the fuel rack. The
rack position sensors provide a feedback signal to the ECM. The ECM was able to compare
command rack position with actual position. Komatsu used these fuel systems for the SAA12V140E-
1 & 2 engines used in North American built HD785-5 trucks and WA800/900-3 wheel loaders.
Additionally, Komatsu developed the Electro- Hydraulic KP21 fuel system which was used on the
6D170E-2 and the 12V140E-2 engines produce in Japan. The
KP21 was an exclusive Komatsu design; Komatsu received several patents for the design.

Overview of the HPI Fuel System

The HPI system was introduced on the SAA6D170 -3 engines to meet Tier 2 emissions. The fuel
system offered infinitely variable injection timing using a simple, efficient design, with injection
pressures beyond then current production engines.
The system uses an electronically controlled fuel pump which supplies fuel to two actuators. One
controls fuel delivery to lower portion of the injector for combustion. The other varies fuel supplied
to the upper timing portion of the injector.
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The lower portion functions much the same as a Cummins PT injector. The upper portion serves as a
hydraulic camber connecting the mechanical top of the injector to the lower fuel delivery portion. The
amount of fuel in the top chamber controls injection timing. When the rocker arm pushes on the
mechanical top, if there is more fuel in the chamber then the lower portion moves sooner. Timing is
advanced, reducing the fuel in the chamber retards timing.

Common Rail HPCR Fuel Systems

In 2001 to meet Tier 2 emission regulations Komatsu began using Denso CRI fuel systems. In 2006
to meet Tier 3 Komatsu introduced the High Pressure Common Rail known as H P C R. These fuel
systems use components supplied by Denso Corporation of Japan and Bosch Corporation of
Germany.
HPCR fuel injection system features:
Denso and Bosch systems have a similar design.
•The maximum injection pressure 1200 to 1600 kg per centimeter squared.
•The supply pump produces high fuel pressure and controls the fuel pressure.
•The high-pressure fuel is stored in the accumulator (Common Rail).
•The injection quantity and injection timing are controlled electronically by the controller.
Important
Extreme care has to be emphasized during component replacement and repair. Due to the
environment this new fuel systems must work in, the introduction of contamination and debris in to
the fuel system during service or repair is high, if care is not taken.

Common Rail Injection HPCR

The fuel supply pump generates fuel pressure inside the common rail. The fuel
Pressure is controlled by the amount of fuel discharged from the supply pump. The amount of fuel
discharged is controlled by sending an electrical signal from the ECU to switch the PCV (discharge
control valve) of the fuel supply pump ONOFF.
The common rail accepts the fuel pressure generated by the fuel supply pump and distributes it to the
cylinders. The fuel pressure is detected by the common rail fuel pressure sensor installed in the
common rail. It carries out feedback control to ensure that the actual pressure value matches the
command pressure value set in accordance with the engine speed and engine load.
The CRI system detects the condition of the engine (engine speed, accelerator angle, cooling water
temperature, etc.) from various sensors, and uses a microcomputer to carry out overall control of the
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fuel injection amount, fuel injection timing, and fuel injection pressure to operate the engine under
the optimum conditions.
The computer also carries out self-diagnosis of the main components, and if any abnormality is
found, it carries out diagnosis and sends an alarm to inform the operator. It also has a fail-safe
function to stop the engine according to the location of the abnormality and a backup function to
switch the control method to make it possible to continue operation.

CRI / HPCR Fuel Systems

The CRI / HPCR system detects the condition of the engine (engine speed, accelerator angle, cooling
water temperature, etc.) from various sensors, and uses a microcomputer to carry out overall control
of the fuel injection amount, fuel injection timing, and fuel injection pressure to operate the engine
under the optimum conditions. The computer also carries out self-diagnosis of the main components,
and if any abnormality is found, it carries out diagnosis and sends an alarm to inform the operator. It
also has a fail-safe function to stop the engine according to the location of the abnormality and a
backup function to switch the control method to make it possible to continue operation.
# 1 The Komatsu Tier 3 125, 140, 170, & 12V 140 series engines use a fuel system developed by
Denso corporation of Japan..
# 2 The Komatsu 114 series engine uses a Cummins design fuel pump with
Injectors supplied by Bosch Corporation.
# 3 The Komatsu 107 series engine uses a Cummins design fuel pump and Injectors.

CRI / HPCR Fuel Systems

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The fuel supply pump generates fuel pressure inside the common rail. The fuel pressure is controlled
by the amount of fuel discharged from the supply pump.
The amount of fuel discharged is controlled by sending an electrical signal from the ECM to switch
the PCV (discharge control valve) of the fuel supply pump ONOFF.
The common rail accepts the fuel pressure generated by the fuel supply pump and distributes it to the
cylinders. The fuel pressure is detected by the common rail fuel pressure sensor installed in the
common rail. It carries out feedback control to ensure that the actual pressure value matches the
command pressure value set in accordance with the engine speed and engine load.
The injector controls the amount of fuel injection and the fuel injection timing. It controls by
switching the TWV (Two-Way electromagnetic Valve) ON-OFF. When the TWV is turned ON
(conducts electricity), the fuel circuit is switched so that the high-pressure fuel in the control chamber
passes through the orifice and flows out. The needle valve goes up because of the nozzle cracking
pressure actuated by the high-pressure fuel at the nozzle end, and fuel injection is started. When the
TWV is switched OFF (no current flows), the control chamber becomes a fuel circuit with the high-
pressure fuel applied through the orifice, so the needle valve goes down and fuel injection is
completed.

CRI / HPCR Injection

The high-pressure fuel generated by the fuel supply pump goes from the common rail and is
distributed to each cylinder he fuel pressure of the common rail passes through the fuel injection
pipes of each cylinder and is applied to the control chamber and the nozzle of the injector.. The start
and finish of injection is controlled by opening or closing the nozzle needle valve by using an
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electromagnetic valve inside the injector. Therefore, the fuel injection timing is controlled
electronically by the timing of the electricity passing through the TWV, and the amount of fuel
injected is controlled by the amount of time that electricity passes through the TWV.
The injector controls the amount of fuel injection and the fuel injection timing. It controls by
switching the TWV (Two-Way electromagnetic Valve) ON-OFF. When the TWV is turned ON
(conducts electricity), the fuel circuit is switched so that the high-pressure fuel in the control chamber
passes through the orifice and flows out.
The needle valve goes up because of the nozzle cracking pressure actuated by the high-pressure fuel
at the nozzle end, and fuel injection is started. When the
TWV is switched OFF (no current flows), the control chamber becomes a fuel circuit with the high-
pressure fuel applied through the orifice, so the needle valve goes down and fuel injection is
completed.

Caterpillar HEUI / Ford Power Stroke

The operation of the HEUI fuel system is different from mechanically actuated fuel injection systems.
The engine uses an HEUI in each cylinder. A solenoid on each injector controls the amount of fuel
delivered by the injector. An engine speed/timing sensor detects top dead center (TDC). All fuel
injection is timed off the occurrence of TDC. The
ECM determines how much fuel is to be delivered based on the difference between desired and actual
speed. The ECM then sets the timing from TDC for each cylinder based on data received from the
coolant temperature sensor, inlet air manifold temperature, atmospheric pressure sensor, and
turbocharger outlet (boost) pressure sensor. The ECM adjusts timing and fuel delivery for best engine
performance, fuel economy, and white smoke control.
The HEUI fuel system uses a hydraulically actuated electronically controlled unit injector.
All fuel systems for diesel engines use a plunger and barrel to pump fuel under high pressure into the
combustion chamber. Fuel is pumped into the combustion chamber in precise amounts to control
engine performance. The HEUI uses engine oil under high pressure to power the plunger rather than a
fuel injection pump camshaft lobe to power the plunger.
The HEUI uses engine lubrication oil that is pressurized from 870 psi (6 Mpa) to 3500 psi (24 Mpa)
to pump fuel from the injector. The HEUI operates in the same way as a hydraulic cylinder to
multiply the force of the high-pressure oil. By multiplying the force of the high-pressure oil, the
HEUI produces injection pressures that are very high. This multiplication of pressure is achieved by
applying the force of high-pressure oil to a piston. The piston is larger than the plunger by
approximately six times. The piston pushes on the plunger. The engine lubrication oil under high
pressure is called the actuation pressure of the oil. The actuation pressure of the oil generates the
injection pressure delivered by the unit injector, increasing the pressure by a factor of six. Low
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actuation pressures result in low injection pressure of the fuel. During conditions of low speed such as
idle and start, low injection pressure is used. High actuation pressure during high idle and
acceleration results in high injection pressure of the fuel. The HEUI fuel system provides infinite
control of injection pressure.