Basic Electronics

Semiconductor Physics
general concepts
the electrons in the last shell(the last orbital) of the atom are called the valence
electrons and they have an interesting role in the interactions of atoms
different atoms have different numbers of atoms in their valence shell
Sodium: 1 electron (wants to get rid of it so it's very reactive)
Neon: 8 electrons (the last orbital is complete and it's a noble gas)
Silicon: 4 electrons
silicon is somewhere between the reactive Sodium and the non-reactive Neon so it can
have some reactions

Building a Silicon Crystal

silicon shares the 4 electrons with with the surrounding atoms and make a organized
pattern which is why we call it a crystal or a Lattice Lattice (order) - Wikipedia and thats
what we use in semiconductor physics
does the silicon crystal conduct electricity?

to conduct electricity we need a charge carrier like an electron

but all the electrons are bound in the crystal
if we did this test at absolute zero this would be true
however at ambient temperature(thermal energy) some of these electrons break off
from that bond and is available to move around
statistically speaking at any temperature some electrons are free because the come off
these bonds
so a piece of silicon can conduct electricity at finite temperatures
that's why we call them a semiconductor, they are not as good as metals and not as bad
as say diamond which is an insulator

Questions
1. where do charge carriers come from?
2. what types of charge carriers do we have?
3. How can we modify the density of charge carriers?
4. How do charge carriers move?

Concept of Bandgap Energy

Lets graph the Density of free electrons at different temperatures in silicon
at zero kelvin there is zero free electrons but as the temperature goes up the number
increases (we don't know how (linear or not) but it does)

something interesting happens when we study two different elements together

if we try to construct the same plot for germanium Ge
why is Ge a stronger function of temperature compared to silicon ?
we are hoping that there is one equation that can describe both of these and there's
only one number that describes silicon and germanium

−ε
15 3/2
n i = 5.2 × 10 t × exp
2kT

ni is the number of electrons in intrinsic silicon per cm 3

ε is the bandgap energy which is the amount of energy an electron need to break free
g

from the silicone bond

so in silicon we need a higher amount of energy ε for the electrons to become free so it
g

needs to be at a higher temperature to have the same number of electrons as

germanium

K is the Boltzmann's Const. and it's value is : 1.38 × 10 J /K −23

T is absolute temperature

so the equation above applies to both germanium and silicon but the only difference is
that bandgap energy has different values for different elements

eV: electron volts is the amount of energy needed to take one electron across
one volt of voltage difference

εg for Silicon :1.12 eV

εg for germanium :067 eV
εg for diamond is 2.5 eV and that's why diamond is such a good insulator
example for Si, at t=300K, n i ≃ 10
10
electrons/cm
3

but we don't know if 10 electrons /cm is a big number or small so we can have a look
10 3

at the number of atoms in a cm of silicon

3

5 × 10
23
atoms per cm so a very small amount of electrons have released electrons so
3

it's a poor conductor

what we had so far was pure or intrinsic silicon

Concept of Holes
lets say in a silicon crystal one of the bonds loses an electron , so the void that is left
behind is called a hole
because the electron had negative charge and it was taken away the hole has positive
charge with the amount associated with electrons

but something interesting happens, lets say we take a snap shot of the piece of silicon
at t = 0 , we see a hole has appeared
at t = t we see that an electron from the surrounding bond has filled the hole and the
1

hole has moved

and at t = t the same thing happens and the hole moves again
2

so we can say that the electrons kept filling the previous hole and created new holes or
equivalently there was one hole and that hole moved from left to right, or positive
charge has traveled from left to right and a current has been created from left to right so
holes are capable of conducting current just like electrons

this answers question number 2

if holes go from left to right we have positive current going from left to right
 if electrons go from left to right we have negative current going from left to right

conduction by holes is not the same as conduction by electrons

question: why are holes slower than electrons?

holes are slower by a factor of 2
the way holes move is by electron being released and trapped unlike electrons just
being released
movement of holes is based on release and trap mechanisms
question:how many holes are there per cm ? 3

the number of holes is the same as the number of electrons

−ε
15 3/2
n i = 5.2 × 10 t × exp
2kT

because for every free electron released we have a hole

density of holes=density of free electrons=n (for pure silicon)
i

symbol for density of holes is p (positive charge)

symbol for density of free electrons is n (negative charge)
p = n = ni

pn = n
2
i
this will be explained later

Doping
question: how do we modify the density of charge carriers ?
lets take a look at a section of the periodic table

Boron has 3 free electrons and Phosphorus has 5

until now we have worked with pure silicon but what if we add some other elements

we start with a piece of silicone and in a controlled manner we add a phosphorus atom ,
the phosphorus atom has 5 free electrons and when it is bonded to the silicon atoms it
shares 4 of them so it has 1 electron that it hasn't been able to share so it's a free
electron , we don't need to break a bond for the electron to be free

adding this impurity is called doping

the resulting piece of silicon is called Extrinsic silicon
and the atoms that are added are called donor atoms
the overall piece of silicon that has extra electrons for conduction is called n-type
silicon

The density of P atoms ≃ 10 − 10 /cm , 10 is called lightly doped and 10 is called

15 17 3 15 17

heavily doped
but you can see that the number of P atoms we introduces is much greater than the
number of free electrons in free silicon (10 ) so these electrons from P completely
10

overwhelm the electrons we had already in pure silicon

so we could say that n ≃ Density of P atoms and this density has a name and it is shown
by Nd

but still np = n why? because even though the number of n has gone up so much the
2
i

number of p (the number of holes) has gone down the same amount
Second lecture
if we add N donor atoms we also add free electrons, then the density of the free
d

electrons are N /cm

d
3

n: density of free electrons

p: density of holes

for pure Si:n = p = n → n. p = n

i
2
i

for doped Si:n. p = n2

i

for n-type Si: n ≃ N what happened to the holes?

D

so now if we go back to the previous equation we get that for n-type Si : p ≃

2

so the
ni

ND

density of the holes go down

so now the electron is the majority carrier and the holes are the minority carriers
can holes become majority carriers?
for that we need to introduce different atoms for example Boron
Boron has 3 free electrons so it could only make 3 bonds with the surrounding silicon so
there would be a void which we call a hole
![[
Now we've made a P-type semiconductor
if we add n boron atoms per cm then we have N holes P
3
a ≃ Na

Na a stands for acceptor

what happens to the density of free electrons?

![[
quiz

the majority type carriers stay the same while the minority increases with time

summary
Carrier transport
Drift and Diffusion

Drift
it comes from applying an electric field to the material

Drift is Current conduction due to electric field

our objective is to quantify the current that arises in a piece of semiconductor when
they apply voltage to it
if we find the resistance of the object we can use Ohm's law
to find the resistance we had R = ρ but to find ρ it's a bit different in semiconductors
L

an electric field is defined as the force that a unit charge experiences when the
charge is place in that field

if a unit charge is put in a field it accelerates and it's velocity keep increasing but
because of resistance of the electrons it reaches it's terminal velocity

just like a parachutist who has jumped from an airplane and after a while
because of air resistance it reaches it's terminal velocity
so the Velocity of the electrons in a semiconductor should be proportional to the
Electric field it cant be the same so we need a proportionality factor μ or the mobility
n

factor μ = 1350cm /(v. s) for electrons

n
2

Observation
we have a rectangular piece of silicon

we now want to find the current, we know the velocity and the electric field
if we have the voltage and the length we have the electric field
voltage is negative integral of electric field over the distance since the electric field is
constant here we get E =
VB

current is the amount of charge that pass through a cross-section in 1 second

the charge moves v meters in 1 second so
in practice people like to show current density, current density means the amount of
current flowing per unit area
so we change the equation and the unit will turn into Ampere per unit area squared
so current density is J = μ Enq A/cm
n n
2

this completely characterizes the drift current in an n-type semiconductor

the semiconductor also has holes so the total current density is

J = (μ n . n. q + μ p . p. n)E

the μ p
2
≃ 400cm /(v. s)

Lecture 3
Diffusion
we could have current without voltage
even though it goes against ohms law
Diffusion:movement of charge carriers from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration

if we somehow inject electrons to one side the electrons move across the
semiconductor with a gradient the same thing happens with holes but electrons move
against conventional current but holes move with it

the amount of current that flow should be proportional to the slope of the
concentration( if the concentration was equal there would be no diffusion)
we see that the number of electron keep reducing the only reason could be the holes
now what if the number of holes that we have is very small?

the current is constant and the diffusion still exist but the slope is different
= 34cm /s and D = 12cm /s
2 2
D n p
Einstein's Relation

in drift we have mobility to show how mobile the electrons are

in diffusion we have diffusivity to show how willing electrons are to diffuse
but there is a relation between the two, called Einstein's relation

D kT
=
μ q

kT
is 26mV @T = 300k
q

the whole quantity of KT

q
is 26mV at room temperature, it is also called the Thermal
Voltage

The P-N Junction

the first electronic device we can build
at a high level we just attach a p-type semiconductor to an n-type which gives us a two
terminal device

p-type n-type
semi semi

Applications

chargers and adaptors

voltage multipliers
…
Quick Experiment
if we attach an n-type to a voltage it follows the ohms law but
the p-n junction no longer does that the slope in positive becomes parabolic and the
current in the negative v becomes almost zero
how do charge carriers redistribute themselves after the p-n junction is
formed?
how does the p-n junction behave under 3 conditions equilibrium, reverse bias,
forward bias?
some observations
P-N Junction in Equilibrium
in the junction electrons leave the n side and go to the p side and create positive ions on
the left side
in the right side, lots of holes leave the right side and make negative ions
we have a current consisting of electrons going from n to p and a current containing
holes going from left to right
in conventional method current goes the opposite of electrons so for both we have a
current going from right to left or from p to n

how come we have a current while the terminals are open? well this goes on for a
while but it should stop what stops the flow of current? well we have ions that have
formed , positive charge on the right side and negative on the left so we have an electric
field

to figure out which way an electric field is pointing we put a positive charge in
and see which way it goes

the electric field is going from right to left.

this electric field stops the electrons and the holes from diffusion and that's when the
p-n junction reaches equilibrium
the region in the middle is called depletion region (depleted of free charge carriers)

Lecture 4

how do we know when the diffusion current has stopped?

this junction will stop carrying this diffusion currents when the drift currents associated
with the electric fields cancel the diffusion currents associated with the difference in
densities
so we can write an equation

Built-in Potential :

kT N aN d
V0 = ln
2
q N
i

quiz : Is there an electric field outside the depletion region?

no, the amount of electric field we can measure on a surface is proportional to the net
charge enclosed by that surface
so since there is no electric field in the n and p areas that means there is no voltage
drop in those (neutral) regions

Observations:
1. we only wrote the conditions for the holes not the electrons what happens if we
write it for the electrons? same V expression is obtained if the electron currents are
0

considered
2. if N and N are on the order of 10 /cm , then V ≃ 26mV ln ≃ 720mV so in a
32
16 3 10
a d 0 20
10

typical case the amount of Built-in potential that a p-n junction holds is 700 to 800
mV

3. V is localized, it only exists in the depletion region and nowhere else

0

4. we cannot measure V from outside

0

why? because when we connect the p-n semiconductor we create new

junctions on the terminals that have their own built-in potential and if we use
KVL we find that the voltage of the two new junctions combined are the
same as the p-n junction

P-N Junction in Reverse Bias

this time we apply something from outside to the junction
the definition of reverse bias is the positive end of the battery goes to the n side and
the negative end goes to the p side

lets call the voltage V , reverse bias voltage

R
when we apply V some of the electrons from the n side move to the + side of the
R

battery and more positive ions in the n side of the junction are created also on the p side
some of the holes move towards the - side of the battery and the negative ions on the p
side of the junction increase so the depletion region gets wider

so nothing significant seems to happen in this case, but

remember in physics where we had capacitors and the farther the gap between the
plates where the higher the capacitance here something similar is happening with the
diode

so as we go from equilibrium to reverse bias we can examine the capacitance

associated with it

we have a name for this device and we call it an electronically-variable capacitor or a

Varactor varactor is a capacitor whose value can be controlled by voltage
V0 is the built-in potential
so what do we do with this device?

the oscillator needs a mechanism that changes the frequency by the change of voltage
this is where varactor is used

Lecture 5
P-N Junction in Forward Bias
its the opposite of reverse bias
positive to p and negative to the n
VF wants to push holes away and similarly the negative terminal wants to push the
electrons away

the electrons get attracted by the + and the holes get attracted to the − of the battery
and these two currents of holes and electrons can go forever if provided energy
these two currents add up and contribute to the overall current

lets take a variable voltage and call it V X

if V is negative the − side of the battery is more negative and the current going
X

through is very small(reverse bias)

if V is positive it's forward bias and the p-n conducts current
X
now what we want to know is the current that flows in the forward bias region
it is

VX
I junction = I s (exp − 1)
VT

Shockley diode
kV
D

T
i d = I s (e K − 1)

K =
11600

η
η(Ge) = 1 , η(Si) = 2
T k = T c + 273.15

Isis there because the rest of the phrase doesn't has a dimension but the current needs
one and it's called Reverse saturation Current
VX is the voltage we applied
VT is the thermal voltage V T =
kT

exp - Maple Help

what if we make V negative ?

X

if we make V negative the exponential becomes smaller than one and the whole
X

equation becomes negative

as V becomes more and more negative the exponential gets closer to zero until the
X

value on the I becomes −I that is why we call it the reverse saturated current
X S

because in reverse bias it saturated to this value

this small current in reverse bias is called the Leakage current

in the big picture we can ignore the leakage current but in some cases it is very
important

If we have a device that carries a current for positive voltages across it but doesn't
for negative voltages across it it is called a diode
Diode: a two terminal device that conducts current when it's voltage is positive and no
current when it's voltage is negative
for Diodes we need to distinguish between it's two terminals

the equation I x = I s (exp

VX

VT
− 1) does not relate to the structure of the p-n junction but
does that mean that a silicon junction and germanium junction react the same? no
all of that is reflected in I S

Dn Dp
2
I s = A. q. n i ( + )
Na Ln Nd Lp

A is the cross section area of the diode ← the most important quality
q is electron charge

N is the intrinsic density

i

Ln and L are the diffusion lengths

p

we don't use this often

the cross section area can go from microns to big diodes for power electronics
Note: if the forward bias voltage is greater than 4 V (V > 4V ) then T X T

we have I X ≃ I s exp
VX

VT
, in most cases this is what we'll use
quiz we have a current I going through a forward bias what is the voltage across it?
1
 IX
V X = V T ln
IS

this is also an important equation

ex If I = 10
s
−16
A and we measure a forward-bias current of 1mA, what voltage is applied
to the diode?

(V is 26mv at room temperature)

T

I2
V F 2 − V F 1 = V T ln
I1

for 10x increase in current, we need to increase the voltage by V ln 10 ≃ 60mv

T

so every time voltage goes up by 60mv the current goes up by a factor of 10

if we plot I as a function if V carefully
 if in the field we work with, the currents we work with are not so divergent ranging
from factor of 4 or 5 then we can say the voltage across forward bias diodes are in
the range of 700-800 mv
typical forward-bias voltages for diodes are in the range of 700 − 800mV

Modeling a P-N Junction(Diode)

Exponential Model

let's see how friendly this equation is in our calculations

when solving diode circuits we first guess if a diode is forward or reverse biased,
we solve the circuit then guess
so we reach this equation that is hard to solve so we have to find a different model that
let's us carry on with our calculations more easily
Lecture 6
so now we need a simplified model that is easier to solve
and as engineers we need to decide when to use these models

Diode Models
Exponential Model
that we've talked about before

the exponential model is hard to calculate by hand so we need to approximate the

exponential model's characteristics

ID
V D ≃ V T ln
IS

Constant-Voltage Model
lets make some observations
so this model actually works in 80% of times but what we need is a circuit model and we
can make that like below

in tests we are given the V D,on value

Ideal Diode Model

an ideal diode is one that passes positive voltages and blocks negative voltages
so we don't need the 700-800 mV to turn on the diode
examples
this is an interesting circuit what it's saying is that "as the input voltage changes I will
follow this change until a certain point and then saturate or limit myself"

so if the voltage that we apply at the input is small enough we just follow the output and
don't do anything to it, but if the voltage becomes large we limit it
what is the application of such a circuit?
it clips and limits signals larger that a certain point

Reverse Breakdown
when the V becomes more and more negative the voltage increases dramatically
D

why does this happen? and is it a good thing?

at normal temperatures we have some electrons moving over the junction and if we
have higher temperature the amount of these electrons get higher and higher that
that's why we have this, this is called Junction Breakdown
as long as the temperature of the diode doesn't increase considerably it doesn't
damage the diode so it's a reversible effect

There are applications for these effects like the Zener diode
Lecture 7
summary of models

another example for an application of diode: charger/adaptor

in order to go from the large AC voltage from the wall to the laptop what do we
need?
 the 110 volts doesn't mean the peak to peak is 110 volts but the peak value
(value from 0 to the peak) is 110 × √2 so the peak to peak value is 2 × 110 × √2 ,
so it's a very large voltage swing

we could use a basic resistive divider that attenuates whatever voltage we give to one
side, so if we give a large sinusoid we get a small sinusoid

but the problem is that if we use this in a charger, when we use a lot of power in a
resistor we burn a lot of power and it gets hot
we want something more efficient in reducing the swing
some element that does not have power dissipation
like a capacitor inductor and transformer, because these are reactive components
and the best solution is the transformer

but this swing here is ac and we need to take it into dc

so we put the ac inside a black-box and out comes a waveform without the negative,
this is a non-linear operation because of it wasn't the outcome would be a different
sinusoid
what can we say about this waveform? well the average value of the waveform is
non-zero while the average value of the sinusoid is zero

and if we give this to a low-pass filter it straightens the voltage and we get a somewhat
dc voltage
so what is inside the black-box?
the black-box says I pass positive voltages and block negative voltages; so it is a diode
this process is called rectification
example : using the ideal diode model
(a)

1. for very negative V (the + side of the battery is more negative than the + side): the
X

diode is open circuit

 2. the V is positive
X

what if the on or off value we choose for the diode is wrong?

we go on with the calculations and

with the wrong assumption we see that since the V is negative then the I
X X

should also be negative and the I is going to flow backwards into the
X

negative side of the diode where the current flow is not allowed so the
assumption was wrong

(b) we add a resistor to the network

 1. if V X < 0 → IX =
VX

R 1 +R 2

2. if V is positive then the path of least resistance is through the diode and we have a
X

resistor and a battery

Types of characteristics
1. I-V Char.
we have some sort of complex circuit we apply a voltage and we measure the current
resulting from that circuit then we plot it
2. Input-Output Char.
the box has an input and an output
for example it has a voltage V and somewhere else it has a voltage that is different V
in out

, so we plot V as a function of V and we call that input-output characteristic

out in

if the system was linear this line would be straight

example
we want the i-v char of this circuit
in the negative region it's a short circuit and V is zero
out

in the positive region since the whole circuit is open and there is no current the voltage
across V is equal to V so the slope is 1
x out

this can be an example for a rectifier

now we want to look at other quantities in the circuit like V R2 ,V R1 and V D1

Lecture 8
application of diodes

since voltage across diodes is a logarithmic function it is a weak function so with the big
fluctuations of current the voltage across it doesn't change much
we can use this to make a constant voltage source that with the battery losing charge
and lowering it's voltage the voltage doesn't fluctuate much
the current across the diodes do fluctuate a lot

if we use a resistive voltage divider since the function is linear the voltage would
change by the change of it's current if we want a constant voltage source we could use
high voltage but that would drain the battery quickly

Principles of diode circuit analysis

we will use the constant voltage model

1. begin by assuming certain states for all diodes

write down the assumptions so you don't forget
check the final result against these assumptions
2. If a diode is about to turn on or off, it must sustain a voltage of V D,on but it's current is
small
3. If a Diode is on and carries current the current must flow from the anode to the
cathode
if that wasn't true there was a mistake
example

the reason we can say that the voltage across the battery and diode is the same is
because when the diode is about to turn on the current is insignificant and can be
ignored so there is no voltage drop in R 1
we can see that the i-v char of the circuit did not change even though the placement of
the resistor and the diode changed
so we can surmise that if we have a series combination of two terminal devices and we
swap these devices what we see from outside does not change
Lecture 9
when the diode is about to turn on it has a small current so we have to analyze the right
side of the circuit separately to find V
N

we see that if we rearrange it it's a voltage divider

Practical Diode Circuits

Basic Concepts we need to know before talking about rectifiers

Half Wave Rectifiers

I-V Char of Half-Wave Rectifier
Input-Output Char

Time Response of the circuit

when V reaches V
in D,on the diode turns on
in this configuration the output tracks V with a difference of V
in D,on

when the input voltage has come back to V the diode will turn off and the output
D,on

goes back to zero

then the voltage keep getting more negative and the output stays at zero
this only has the positive half of the signals and that's why it's called a half wave
rectifier
Lecture 10
since the rectified waveform has huge fluctuations we cannot give it to a laptop, we
need a constant value
now we need to add a low pass filter which is a capacitor and a resistor
but lets replace the R with a capacitor and see what happens
1

if we put current into the capacitor the voltage across it rises and if we take current out
of the capacitor the voltage collapses

when the voltage reaches it's peak value of V there are three possibilities
O
 1. for the voltage to go up which is impossible because it's at it's highest value
2. for the voltage to go down: for the voltage to go down the current has to go out of
the capacitor and since the current can't go through the diode so the current can't
go out so the voltage cant go down
3. for the voltage to remain constant: since the two from before didn't work this one
should be correct
so when the voltage reaches V it stays there forever
O

the reason the current cant go back in the negatives is because the voltage of V will in

be smaller than V O

Issues in Half-Wave Rectifiers

1. reverse voltage across D : in the negative voltages the diode experiences reverse
1

bias so the diode has to have a reverse breakdown greater than what we have here
the negative input is very negative and the output is constant so the voltage across
the diode will be 2V − V
O D,onso the diode we want to buy it's reverse bias
breakdown has to be greater than this

2. Two Points:

1. what was the point of having the R ?1

the voltage can be zero only if we have zero current through finite impedance
not infinite impedance so we don't know what the voltage of V is without R
out 1

so it doesn't have to be a resistor it can be a capacitor or a resistor or .. but we

can't leave it open
 2. can we plot input output char for rectifier with capacitor
in general it is very difficult and uninteresting, since capacitor is time
dependent so we don't make char for circuits with energy storage elements

3. what happens when this rectifier drives something with load?

Half Wave Rectifier with Cap and Load

before when we didn't have the resistor the voltage stayed constant but now that there
is a resistor it decays
D turns off after the peak, the circuit can be simplified
1

to a capacitor that is connected to a resistor, so the voltage will decay exponentially

so the voltage will decay until the D turns on again and voltage begins to track the
1

input up to the peak

this waveform repeats

this waveform that is generated instead of the constant DC is called a ripple
this ripple in some cases is very undesirable , if you use this in an audio device for
example it will cause humming in the audio

If ripple is small the decay lasts T

in

to calculate how much the voltage has fallen we have to analyze the circuit again
if we look at the exponential for a τ that is very smaller then the t (milliseconds) we can
approximate the exponential into a straight line

the decay is T seconds so

in

now we are interested in the height that is lost

so if the R is large(the load) then the ripple we get is smaller

1

if the C was small the ripple would be larger

1

Lecture 11
Full Wave Rectifiers
there are two benefits to the full wave rectifier

1. the amount of ripple is half of what we get in half wave

2. the maximum reverse voltage that we need is half of what we need in a half wave
rectifier

this is what we expect from a full wave rectifier to have both half waves and have an I-V
Char that looks like above
Observation
if we can use diodes to build these switches we can make a simple full wave rectifier

the output does not share any terminals with the input
this structure is called a diode bridge
the diodes in the parallel sides have the same direction

lets put a resistor in the output and analyze the circuit

lets plot V out as a function of V in

so it's similar to HWR but with two diode drops
in region 2 all diodes are off
in 1 and 3 two diodes are on
so we see that we have reached the char that we wanted in the beginning

now lets connect a capacitor to the output

the purple is when there is only a resistor
and the Green in when there is only a capacitor

the black line is the behavior of the FWR with C and R

can we calculate the ripple?
so it has about half the Ripple of HWR

V 0 − 2V D,on T in
.
R1 C1 2

Lecture 12

Limiting Circuits
takes a larger amplitude to a smaller certain amplitude
we've had this circuit before if the voltage reaches V D,on the voltage clips at that point
and gets limited to VD,on

a limiter to clip both positive and negative swings is below

Voltage Doubler
in the observations below the diode is ideal
2. since according to number one for the capacitor to charge we need charge on both
plates but we don't have that here the capacitor wont be charged so the output is equal
to the input
4. according to number 2 since the input goes from +V to −V and the change is 2V the
0 0 0
change to the output has to be the same but the initial value is not the same so the
output goes to −2V 0

here we begin to see signs of voltage doubling

now can we design a circuit that goes from 0 to +2V ?
0

what if we flip the diode?

Level Shift Circuit