Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25
Topic 9
Transformers-Equivalent Circuit and Performance Analysis
Equivalent circuit and phasor diagram
Based on the deviation of a real transformer from an ideal one, a real transformer shown in Fig.1 can be
represented by an equivalent circuit shown in Fig.2, in which the resistances and reactances shown along
with the ideal transformer represent such deviations.
Fig.1
The equivalent resistances towards the copper losses occurring in the primary and secondary windings of a
real transformer are taken as r1 and r2 respectively, as seen therein. Similarly the equivalent leakage
reactances towards the leakage flux occurring with the primary and secondary windings of it are taken as x1
and x2 respectively. Further, the equivalent resistance and reactance towards the loss component of the no
load current (Iω) and the magnetising current (Iµ) are taken as r0 and x0 respectively.
Fig.2
The equivalent circuit parameters towards Iω and Iµ appear in parallel across E1 as the no load current (I0)
solely depends on E1 which is approximately equal to V1. This equivalent circuit of a transformer comprising
of the parameters r0, x0, r1, x1, r2 and x2 as such is known as the exact equivalent circuit and the
corresponding phasor diagram of the machine for lagging power factor load will be as shown in Fig.3.
Phasor diagrams for upf and leading power factor loads are to be drawn in a similar fashion.
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
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Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25
Fig.3
It is preferable to transfer the voltages, currents and impedances here to one side and keep away the ideal
transformer windings so that the equivalent circuit will become simple. One such simplified equivalent circuit
in which E2, V2, I2, r2 and x2 are transferred to primary side is shown in Fig.4.
Fig.4
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
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Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25
Here,
'
E2 referred to primary is represented as E2 = E2/ k = E1
'
V2 referred to primary is represented as V2 = V2/ k
'
I2 referred to primary is represented as I2 = k I2
' ' '
r2 referred to primary is represented as r2 = r2/ k2 [Since I2 2 r2 is to be equal to I22 r2]
' ' '
x2 referred to primary is represented as x2 = x2/ k2 [Since I2 2 x2 is to be equal to I22 x2]
'
As I0 is relatively small, I1 ≈ I2 and hence, r0 and x0 appearing across E1 are shifted to be across V1 to obtain
the equivalent circuit further simplified as shown in Fig.5, which is normally known as the approximate
equivalent circuit of the transformer. (R1, X1 and Z1 in Fig.5 are to be taken as R01, X01, and Z01 respectively).
Fig.5
Then, the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary are r0, x0, R01 and X01.
The total impedance referred to primary, Z01 = R01 + j X01 = (r1 + r2/ k2) + j (x1 + x2/ k2), where I0 is negligible.
'
Here, the load impedance, ZL also is to be transferred to primary as ZL = ZL/ k2, to carry out the analysis.
' ' '
V1 is the phasor sum of V2 and (I2 Z01) ≈ (I1 Z01) where I2 ≈ I1, as shown in Fig.6.
On the other hand,
if the simplified equivalent circuit is obtained by transferring V1, E1, I1, I0, r1, x1, r0 and x0 to the secondary
side, the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit in terms of secondary are
' ' ' '
r0 , x0 , R02 and X02, where r0 = r0 x k2, x0 = x0 x k2.
The total impedance in terms of secondary,
'
Z02 = R02 + j X02 = (r1 x k2 + r2) + j (x1 x k2 + x2) = Z01 x k2, where I0 is negligible.
'
V1 is the phasor sum of V2 and (I2 Z02), as shown in Fig.7.
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
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Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25
Fig.6 Fig.7
Per unit impedance
Per unit impedance is the normalised impedance with a base value. In the case of a transformer,
Per unit resistance, r = I1 R01/ V1 = I2 R02/ V2
Per unit reactance, x = I1 X01/ V1 = I2 X02/ V2
Per unit impedance, z = I1 Z01/ V1 = I2 Z02/ V2
Losses
The losses in a transformer comprise of iron and copper losses. As the operating flux is constant for a
transformer, the iron or core losses are constant whereas the copper losses are variable as the current
changes on loading. Once the relevant equivalent circuit corresponding to the mode of operation is obtained
'
along with the data regarding the load, the currents I2 ∠∅2, I0∠∅0 and I1∠∅1 are determined by way of
carrying out a complex analysis and hence the iron and copper losses get computed.
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
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Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25
Iron or core losses, W const = IIωI2 r0 = IV1I2/ r0
'
Copper losses at any load, W copper = II2 I2 R01
When the loading factor (x) is known along with the rated current,
Total copper losses at full load = II1 ratedI2 R01 = II2 ratedI2 R02.
Total copper losses at x times rated load = x2 II1 ratedI2 R01 = x2 II2 ratedI2 R02.
Thus, the total copper losses at x times rated load = x2 times total copper losses at full load.
Efficiency
When the loading factor (x) is known along with S, Cos Φ, W const and W copper,
Efficiency, ɳ = output/ (output + losses) = (x S Cos Φ)/ (x S Cos Φ + W const + W copper).
Once the equivalent circuit is available, the output and input get computed as
' ' ' ' '
Input = IV1III1ICos Φ1, Wconst = II0I2 r0 = IV1I2/ r0, Wcopper = II2 I2 R01, Output = II2 I2 RL = IV2 III2 ICos Φ2
Efficiency, ɳ = output/ input or ɳ = (input - W const - W copper) / input.
Condition for maximum efficiency: W copper = W const.
All day efficiency
All-day efficiency of a distribution transformer = Output in kWh for 24 hours/ (Output in kWh for 24 hours +
iron loss in kWh for 24 hours + copper loss in kWh for 24 hours).
Voltage regulation
With reference to the phasor diagram shown in Fig.6, with additional construction as in Fig.7,
'
Per unit voltage regulation = [IV1I - IV2 I]/ IV1I = (I1 R01 Cos Φ + I1 X01 Sin Φ)/ V1 = r Cos Φ ± x Sin Φ,
where r = (I1 R01/ V1) = (I2 R02/ V2), x = (I1 X01/ V1) = (I2 X02/ V2), Φ is the phase angle of I2 with V2, + for
lagging power factor and - for leading power factor. Here, I1 = x I1rated and I2 = x I2rated.
Then, % Voltage regulation = ( r Cos Φ ± x Sin Φ) x 100.
Regulation curve is a plot of voltage regulation vs power factor for a constant load (current). Here, the +ve
and -ve regulations are to be marked on +ve and -ve y-axis while the lagging and leading power factors are
to be marked on +ve and -ve x-axis respectively such that the origin corresponds to unity power factor.
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
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Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25
OC Test
Open circuit test or no load test on a transformer is to determine the no load losses or core losses and in
turn the shunt parameters r0 and x0 of its approximate equivalent circuit. One winding of the transformer,
preferably the hv winding is kept open and the other winding is supplied at its rated voltage as shown in
Fig.8, where an LPF wattmeter is preferred to be used.
Fig.8
The voltage supplied, the current drawn and the power drawn under this condition are measured as V0, I0
and W 0 respectively.
Then, the constant loss, Wconst = W 0.
Cos Φ0 = W 0/ V0I0, r0 = V0/ (I0 Cos Φ0) and x0 = V0/ (I0 Sin Φ0).
SC Test
Short circuit test on a transformer is to determine the copper losses, preferably at full load and in turn the
series parameters R01 and X01 of its approximate equivalent circuit. One winding of the transformer,
preferably the lv winding is kept under short circuit and the other winding is supplied at a low voltage such
that it draws the relevant rated current as shown in Fig.9, where an HPF wattmeter is preferred to be used.
Fig.9
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
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Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25
The voltage supplied, the current drawn and the power drawn under this condition are measured as Vsc, Isc
and W sc respectively.
Then, the full load copper loss, W copper fl = W sc.
Total copper losses at x times full load = x2 W sc.
R02 = W sc/ Isc2, Z02 = Vsc/ Isc and X02 = [Z022 - R022]1/2 and
R01 = R02/ k2, X01 = X02/ k2.
Sumpner's test
Sumpner’s test or back to back test is to be conducted on two identical transformers and it is to determine
the core losses as well as copper losses and in turn all the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit
of a transformer, it being a replacement to the open circuit and short circuit tests as such. The lv windings of
the transformers are connected in parallel and supplied at rated voltage, keeping the switch S open as
shown in Fig.10. Then the switch S is closed and the series connected hv windings are supplied with a low
voltage such that they carry the relevant rated current as shown there in.
Fig.10
The emfs induced on the hv windings of the two transformers due to the voltage supplied at their lv windings
are in opposition and hence circulate no current as per the polarity of the connections and hence it is
equivalent to an open circuit test.
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
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Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25
Similarly, the emfs induced on the lv windings of the two transformers due to the current supplied through
their hv windings get added up to circulate a current within the closed path comprising of the lv windings
alone, without altering the current drawn by the lv windings from the supply as per the polarity of the
connections and then it is equivalent to a short circuit test.
Hence, W 1 and W 2 are preferred to be LPF and HPF wattmeters respectively. The voltage supplied, the
current drawn and the power drawn under this condition are measured as V1, I1 and W 1 respectively on lv
side where the same are measured as V2, I2 and W2 respectively on hv side. Then, the voltage supplied, the
current drawn and the power drawn in respect of one transformer will be obtained as V0 = V1, I0 = I1/ 2, W 0 =
W1/ 2, Vsc = V2/ 2, Isc = I2 and W sc = W 2/ 2.
Hence, the constant loss, W const = W 0.
Cos Φ0 = W 0/ V0I0, r0 = V0/ (I0 Cos Φ0) and x0 = V0/ (I0 Sin Φ0).
The full load copper loss, W copper fl = W sc.
Total copper losses at x times full load = x2 W sc.
R02 = W sc/ Isc2, Z02 = Vsc/ Isc and X02 = [Z022 - R022]1/2. Then, R01 = R02/ k2 and X01 = X02/ k2.
Parallel operation
It is essential to operate a few transformers in parallel rather than operating a single transformer, when the
total load demand goes above certain limit. Reliability of supply, limit on transformer capacity and need for
maintenance are some of the major considerations here. The machines to be operated in parallel must be of
same voltage rating and they should have same percentage impedance and X/ R ratio. They can be of
different power ratings while their equivalent impedances should be inversely proportional to the individual
power rating. Further, their connection should be proper as far as the polarity is concerned. Load sharing
between two transformers is considered here as shown in Fig.11.
Fig.11
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Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25
Sharing of complex power, S = (P + j Q) by two transformers of impedances ZA and ZB will be given as
SA = S ZB/ (ZA + ZB) and
SB = S ZA/ (ZA + ZB) when the voltage ratio is equal.
Sharing of power supplied to a load (ZL) by two transformers of impedances ZA and ZB will be given as
SA = V2 IA and SB = V2 IB, where
IA = [EA ZB + (EA - EB) ZL]/ [ZA ZB + ZL (ZA + ZB)],
IB = [EB ZA - (EA - EB) ZL]/ [ZA ZB + ZL (ZA + ZB)] and
V2 = I ZL = (IA + IB) ZL, when the voltage ratio is unequal.
Switching transients
When the voltage is switched on to the transformer, the exciting current undergoes a transient before
reaching its steady-state value. The severity of this switching transient in a transformer depends on the
switching instant and it will be the worst if the switching takes place when the value of the applied voltage is
zero. Because of the low time constant of the transformer circuit, this transient may persist for several
seconds. It is this switching transient referred to as the inrush current in a transformer.
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
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