UNIT 3: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

SALINITY (VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION)

Concept and Introduction

The oceans cover most of our planet, and most of their water is salty. Salinity, the measure of
saltiness in seawater, plays a crucial role in shaping our oceans. It reflects the balance
between evaporation and precipitation, and the influence of factors like temperature,
currents, and water mixing. Understanding salinity helps us comprehend the dynamics
of oceanic ecosystems and their impact on climate.

Salinity of the Ocean

• Salinity: It is the total content of dissolved salts in seawater. It is usually expressed

as parts per thousand (o/oo) or ppt and denoted by letter ‘S’
• Average Salinity: of seawater is about 35 grams per kilogram (g/kg) of seawater or 35
ppt.
• Ocean Water Composition: 77.7% sodium chloride, 10.9% magnesium chloride, 4.7%
magnesium sulphate, 3.6% calcium sulphate, and 2.5% potassium sulphate.

Significance of Salinity

1. Salinity determines the compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature, density,

absorption of insolation, evaporation and humidity and electrical conductivity of
seawater.
2. Salinity, along with temperature, can be used to calculate the density of seawater

Dr. Shweta Rani, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College, DU

 3. Salinity can be used to directly calculate the concentrations of the major ions in
seawater.

Factors Affecting Salinity of the Ocean

1. Evaporation: High evaporation increases salinity. For example, Mediterranean Sea,

Red Sea represents the zones of high evaporation and correspondingly high salinity

2. Precipitation: High precipitation decreases salinity. For example, decreases in coastal

regions by the freshwater flow from rivers (Ganges and Brahmaputra in Bay of
Bengal) and in polar regions by the processes of freezing (increases salinity) and
melting (reduces salinity) of ice.

3. Freshwater Flow Influx: Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions

by the freshwater flow from rivers, and in polar regions by the processes of
freezing and thawing of ice.

o Where the freshwater flow into the oceans is greater, the salinity is lower.

o For instance, at the mouths of rivers such as Amazon, Congo, Ganga etc., the
ocean surface salinity is found to be lower than the average surface salinity.

4. Wind Direction Wind transfers water to other areas, which affects salinity. They
drive away saline waters to less saline areas resulting into decrease of salinity in
the former and increase in the latter

5. Atmospheric Pressure: Anti-cyclonic conditions with stable air and high

temperature increase salinity of the surface water of oceans

6. Ocean Currents: Warm currents elevate salinity in higher latitudes; Cold currents
decrease salinity near the equator. Example: The salinity of the North Sea increases
due to more saline water brought by the North Atlantic Drift.

7. Water Mixing and Enclosed Seas: Limited freshwater mixing increases salinity.

o Examples: Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf have high salinity.

8. Salinity, temperature, and density of water are interrelated. Any change in

temperature or density influences the salinity of water in an area. In general, regions
with high temperatures are also, regions with high salinity.

Measures of Salinity

Dr. Shweta Rani, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College, DU

 1. Salinity provides an approximate measure of the total mass of salt in one kilogram of
seawater.
2. Seawater with S equal to 35 contains approximately 35 grams of salt and 965 grams of
water, or 35 ppt (35 psu).

Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of seawater is influenced by a wide variety of chemical transport

mechanisms. Rivers add dissolved and particulate chemicals to the oceanic margins. Wind-
borne particulates are carried to mid-ocean regions thousands of kilometres from their
continental source areas. Hydrothermal solutions that have circulated through crustal materials
beneath the seafloor add both dissolved and particulate materials to the deep ocean. Organisms
in the upper ocean convert dissolved materials to solids, which eventually settle to greater
oceanic depths. Particulates in transit to the seafloor, as well as materials both on and within
the seafloor, undergo chemical exchange with surrounding solutions. Through these local and
regional chemical input and removal mechanisms, each element in the oceans tends to exhibit
spatial and temporal concentration variations. Physical mixing in the oceans (thermohaline and
wind-driven circulation) tends to homogenize the chemical composition of seawater. The
opposing influences of physical mixing and of biogeochemical input and removal mechanisms
result in a substantial variety of chemical distributions in the oceans.

DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY

The spatial distribution of salinity across oceans, is studied in two ways:

• Horizontal Distribution of Salinity

• Vertical Distribution of Salinity

HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY

Horizontal Salinity Range and its Characteristics

1. The salinity for normal Open Ocean ranges between 33 to 37 grams.

2. On an average, salinity decreases from equator towards the poles. However, it is

important to note that the highest salinity is seldom recorded near the equator though
this zone records high temperature and evaporation but high rainfall reduces the relative
proportion of salt. Thus, the equator accounts for only 35‰ salinity.

Dr. Shweta Rani, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College, DU

 3. The highest salinity is observed between 20° N and 40° N (36‰) because this zone is
characterized by high temperature, high evaporation but relatively low rainfall

4. The average salinity of 35‰ is recorded between 100 -300 latitudes in the southern
hemisphere

5. The zone between 40 deg -60 deg latitudes in both the hemispheres records low salinity
where it is 31‰ and 33‰ in the northern and the southern hemispheres respectively.

6. Salinity further decreases in the polar zones because of influx of Glacial melt-water.
On an average, the northern and the southern hemispheres record average salinity of
35‰ and 34‰ respec¬tively

7. Maximum salinity (37 o/oo) is observed between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W – 60° W.

8. The salinity gradually decreases towards the north.

9. The salinity sometimes reaches up to 70 o/oo in the hot and dry regions where
evaporation is high.

10. The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is largely due to its shape and larger areal
stretch.

11. In the landlocked Red Sea, the salinity is 41o/oo which considerably high.

12. The salinity in the estuaries and the Arctic varies from 0 – 35 o/oo, seasonally.

13. Due to the influx of melted water from the Arctic region, the salinity decreases from 35
o/oo – 31 o/oo on the western parts of the northern hemisphere.

14. The North Sea records higher salinity due to more saline water brought by the North
Atlantic Drift despite its location in higher latitudes.

15. Due to the influx of river waters in the large amount, the Baltic Sea records low salinity.

16. The Mediterranean Sea accounts for the higher salinity due to high evaporation.

17. Salinity is very low in the Black Sea due to massive freshwater influx by rivers.

18. The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 o/oo.

19. The low salinity trend in the Bay of Bengal is due to the influx of river water.

20. But the Arabian Sea displays higher salinity due to the low influx of fresh water and
high evaporation.

Dr. Shweta Rani, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College, DU

Salinity by Region

1. Equatorial regions: Relatively low salinity due to high rainfall

2. Subtropical High-pressure Zones: experience the highest salinity due to high

insolation (clear sky) and low precipitation due to subsiding winds.

3. Temperate regions: Low salinity

4. Polar Regions and Mid-latitudes: Lower salinity due to influx of glacial meltwater.

5. In general, salinity gradually decreases towards the poles.

Dr. Shweta Rani, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College, DU

 6. Land-locked Sea (Red sea): High in land-locked Sea (Red sea) as there is not much
mixing of water, and in hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high.

7. Salinity decreases in the western parts of the northern hemisphere because of the
influx of melted water from the Arctic region.

Regional Distribution of Salinity Across Oceans

• Indian Ocean: The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 parts per thousand
. The low salinity is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to the influx of river
water by the river Ganga. On the other hand, the Arabian Sea shows higher
salinity due to high evaporation and a low influx of freshwater.

• Pacific Ocean: The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its
shape and larger areal extent.

• Atlantic Ocean: The salinity in the Atlantic ocean varies between 20 to 37 parts
per thousand according to the location.

o For example, Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, high relative
humidity, cloudiness and calm air of the doldrums.

o Whereas, The polar areas experience very little evaporation and receive
large amounts of freshwater from the melting of ice. This leads to low
levels of salinity, ranging between 20 and 32 parts per thousand

• The Mediterranean Sea: The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to
high evaporation. Surface waters average about 38 parts per thousand in this
sea

• The Baltic Sea: Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in
large quantity, averaging around 35 parts per thousand

• The Black Sea: Salinity in the Black Sea is very low due to the enormo us
freshwater influx by rivers, averaging around 13–23 parts per thousand.

• North Sea: in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to
more saline water brought by the North Atlantic Drift.

• Red Sea: has high salinity due to high evaporation and limited freshwater input.

• Bay of Bengal: has low salinity due to the influx of river water.

Dr. Shweta Rani, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College, DU

 o On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high
evaporation and low influx of fresh water.

Inland Seas and Lakes

• The salinity of the inland Seas and lakes is very high because of the regular supply of
salt by ‘ the rivers falling into them.

• Their water becomes progressively more saline due to evaporation.

• For instance, the salinity of the Great Salt Lake , (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea and
the Lake Van in Turkey is 220, 240 and 330 respectively.

• The oceans and salt lakes are becoming more salty as time goes on because the rivers
dump more salt into them, while fresh water is lost due to evaporation.

Cold and Warm Water Mixing Zones

• Salinity decreases from 35 – 31 on the western parts of the northern hemisphere because
of the influx of melted water from the Arctic region.

Sub-Surface Salinity

• With depth, the salinity also varies, but this variation again is subject to
latitudinal difference. The decrease is also influenced by cold and warm currents.

Dr. Shweta Rani, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College, DU

 • In high latitudes, salinity increases with depth. In the middle latitudes, it
increases up to 35 metres and then it decreases. At the equator, surface salinity
is lower.

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY

1. Surface Salinity: Salinity at the surface increases with the loss of water to ice or
evaporation or decreases with the input of fresh water. Lower salinity water rests
above the higher salinity dense water, leading to stratification by salinity.
2. Vertical Variation: Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon
the location of the sea.
3. Salinity at depth is fixed as neither water nor salt can be added in it.

4. There is a marked difference in the salinity between the surface zones and the deep
zones of the oceans.

5. The lower saline water remains above the higher saline dense water.

6. Halocline: Salinity generally increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called
the halocline (compare this with thermocline), where salinity increases sharply.
7. High latitudes: Increases with depth.
8. Middle latitudes: Increases up to 35 metres and then decreases.
9. Equator: Surface salinity is lower due to high precipitation and low evaporation
due to cloudiness.
10. The increasing salinity of seawater causes an increase in the density of water.

11. High salinity seawater, usually, sinks below the lower salinity water. This leads to
stratification by salinity.

Dr. Shweta Rani, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College, DU

Dr. Shweta Rani, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College, DU