Chapter-2

Mobile Network Layer

 • Mobile IP Basic Issues
Outlines
• How Mobile IP works
• Mobile IP entities and Terminologies
• Mobile IP Registration, Tunneling and
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
• Proxy Mobile IP
• How PMIP works
• Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)
• MANET Routing Protocols
2
Introduction to MNL
• Mobile network layers, particularly through protocols like Mobile IP,
and PMIP enable transparent routing of IP packets/datagrams,
allowing mobile devices to maintain their IP address and
communication even when changing networks or locations.

• Transparent Routing: Mobile IP allows mobile nodes to retain their

home IP address, even when roaming or changing networks, ensuring
that applications and services can continue to communicate with them
without interruption.

• Mobile IP/PMIP works b/n network and transport layer.

• Mobile IP provides transparent Routing of IP datagram over Internet.

3
“For efficient delivery of services to the mobile users, the next
generation of wireless networks require new mechanisms of mobility
management, where the location of every user is proactively
determined before the service is delivered.”
Mobility management is the focus of mobile network layer.

Two important points mainly discussed in this chapter.

1. Location Management—enables the serving networks to locate a
mobile subscriber’s point of attachment for delivering data packets.
It deals with how to track subscribers on the move.

2. Handoff Management---maintain a mobile subscriber’s connection as

it continues to change its point of attachment.
Maintaining consistent connections for subscribers during on the
move
What Mobile Users Needs?
----Seamless mobility
---“connect” from any location, at any time 4

---convenience of use (no extra setup, “plug and play”)

---same computing environment, same services, consistent
 What is mobile IP (MIP)?
Mobile IP is a communication protocol that allows users to move from
one network to another network with same IP address.
It was developed to enable computers to maintain Internet connectivity
while moving from one Internet attachment point to another.
When a user leaves a home network and enters in another network
(foreign network) the foreign network uses the mobile IP protocol to
inform the home network of a care-of-addresses to which all packets
for the user’s device should be sent.
How to bind home address to CoA? Mobile IP
Home address is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node,
and mobile node uses this address in its home address.
Care-of address is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it
is moving away from its home network. It is assigned as static IP
address of the visited network from the foreign agent or allocated
dynamically via DHCP server.
Collocated- care-of-addresses– When the mobile node acting as a foreign
agent, the MN & FA will have the same address which is called collocated
COA.
Example:
Mobile Node (MN): The mobile node has a home IP address of [Link]. 5
CoCoA: While visiting a foreign network, it may obtain an address like
[Link] (assigned via DHCP ).
Communication Path: The mobile node uses [Link] as its temporary
address while in the visited network. Then it communicate directly with its HN.
 What is mobile IP (MIP)?

Situations Where CoCoA Is Used Instead of a CoA???

--No Foreign Agent (FA) Available
--Simplicity and Flexibility in Configuration
--Mobile Node Wants Direct Connectivity
--Network Infrastructure Limitation
--When Foreign Agent or Home Agent Is Not Desired

Use CoCoA when you don’t have access to a Foreign Agent, or if you
want to simplify the network setup without relying on Mobile IP
infrastructure.

Use CoA (provided by a Foreign Agent) when you have a Mobile IP

network with agents that can manage routing and mobility, typically
in more complex environments where seamless roaming is needed.
6
What is Handoff (handover) in mobility mgt
• In cellular communications, handoff is the process of
transferring an active call or data session from one cell
in a cellular network or from one channel to another.
• In satellite communications, handoff is the process of
transferring control from one earth station to another.
• Handoff is necessary for preventing loss of
interruption of service to a caller or a data session
user. MSC/APs usually adopts a channel assignment strategy
that prioritizes handoff calls over new calls. Handoffs may be
prioritized; new calls may be queued.

7
• Situations for triggering Handoff
• Handoffs are triggered in any of the following
situations:−

1. If a subscriber who is in a call or a data session

moves out of coverage of one cell/AP and enters
coverage area of another cell/AP, a handoff is
triggered for a consistent service. The tasks that
were being performed by the first cell are delineating
to the latter cell.

2. Each cell has a pre-defined capacity, i.e. it can handle

only a specific number of subscribers. If the number
of users using a particular cell reaches its maximum
capacity, then a handoff occurs. Some of the calls are8
transferred to connecting cells, provided that the
subscriber is in the overlapping coverage area of both
the cells.
Situations for triggering Handoff
3. Cells are often sub-divided into microcells. A handoff
may occur when there is a transfer of duties from the
large cell to the smaller cell and vice versa.

• For example, there is a traveling user moving within the

authority of a large cell. If the traveler stops, then the
authority is transferred to a microcell to relieve the
load on the large cell. We may have microcells for load
balancing purpose within a large cell.

4. Handoffs may also occur when there is an

interference of calls using the same frequency for
communication. 9
There are two types of handoffs based on execution
• Hard Handoff − an actual break in the connection
occurs while switching from one cell to another. The
radio links from the mobile station to the existing cell
is broken before establishing a link with the next cell. It
is generally an inter-frequency handoff. It is a “break
before make” policy.
• Soft Handoff − at least one of the links is kept when
radio links are added and removed to the mobile
station.
• This ensures that during the handoff, no break occurs.
This is generally adopted in co-located sites. It is a
“make before break” policy.

10
Therefore, mobile IP operates on top of IP

the permanent identifier for the

mobile node.

allowing the mobile node to send and receive packets

while away from its home network.

11
Fundamental issues ion Mobile IP
• Mobile IP was developed as a means for transparently dealing
with problems of mobile users.
– It enables hosts to stay connected to the internet regardless
of their location
– It enables hosts to be tracked without needing to change
their ip address
– It requires no changes to software of non-mobile
hosts/routers
– It requires addition of some infrastructure
– It has no geographical limitations
– It requires no modifications to ip addresses or ip address
format
– It supports security
• Could be even more important than physically connected12
routing
• IETF standardization process is still underway
Mobile IP entities and Terminologies
You should have to be familiar with the following
mobile IP terminologies.
 Mobile node
 Correspondent node
 Home network
 Home agent
 Foreign network
 Foreign agent
 Home addresses
 Care of addresses
 Collocated- care-of-addresses
 To make a change of addresses transparent to the 13

Internet we use two agents. FA and HA.

Mobile IP Entities
Mobile Node (MN)
– The entity that may change its point of attachment from network to
network in the Internet without changing its IP address
• Detects it has moved and registers with “best” FA
– Assigned a permanent IP called its home address to which other hosts
send packets regardless of MN’s location
• Since this IP doesn’t change it can be used by long-lived applications
as MN’s location changes.
Home Agent (HA)---
– System/device in the home network of the MN, typically a router
– Registers the location of the MN, it tunnels IP datagrams to the CoA or
packet delivery towards the MN is done via a tunnel.
– Located on home network of MN
– Does mobility binding of MN’s IP with its CoA
– Forwards packets to appropriate network when MN is away
• Does this through encapsulation 14

• The encapsulated packet is then forwarded to the Care-of Address

(CoA), which is the location of the mobile node in the foreign
network.
Mobile IP Entities contd.
• Foreign Agent (FA)
– Another router with enhanced functionality
– If MN is away from HA then it uses FA to send/receive data to/from HA
– Advertises itself periodically
– Forward’s MN’s registration request
– Decapsulates messages for delivery to MN
– If the mobile node is using a Foreign Agent (FA), the Foreign Agent receives the
encapsulated packet and decapsulates it. It then forwards the original packet to
the mobile node’s home address.
– If the mobile node is using a co-located Care-of Address (CoA), the encapsulated
packet is tunneled directly to the mobile node. Then the mobile node receives the
packet, decapsulates it, and processes the original packet.
• Care-of-address (COA)--The Foreign Agent (FA) provides (CoA) for MNs.
– CoA = temporary address that represents the mobile node’s current location.
– Sent by FA to HA when MN attaches during registration
– Usually the IP address of the FA
15

– Actual location of the MN from an IP point of view, The Foreign Agent (FA) is also
responsible for routing packets to the mobile node's current location.
Mobile IP Entities contd.
• Two types of Care-of Address (CoA)
1. Foreign Agent Care-of Address (FA-CoA)
 The CoA is the IP address of the Foreign Agent.
 The Foreign Agent receives the tunneled packet from the Home Agent.
 The Foreign Agent decapsulates the packet and forwards it to the Mobile
Node.
2. Co-located Care-of Address
 The CoA is the IP address assigned directly to the Mobile Node in the
foreign network (often via DHCP).
 The packet is tunneled directly to the Mobile Node.
 The Mobile Node decapsulates the packet itself.

• Correspondent Node (CN):-

– End host to which MN is corresponding (e.g. a web server) or
Communication partner 16
17
18
 We get the answer these 3 problem
from the working phase of mobile I

Deals how mobile IP works of the 3 phases

19
How Mobile IP Works
Mobile IP has three main phases, to communicate with remote host to
mobile node. Or it needs the 3 steps for network integration
1. Agent discovery:- A mobile node has to find a foreign agent when it
moves away from home network during discovery. To solve this problem
mobile IP uses two methods: agent advertisement and agent solicitation
which are in fact router discovery methods plus extensions.

Agent advertisement: Learning of CoA or Home address

‐ Foreign agents are expected to issue agent advertisement messages
periodically.

---MN’s listen for advertisement and then initiate registration.

---HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their
subnets via ICMP. MN reads a CoA from the FA advertisement messages
Agent solicitation: sending a message for the near by Routers for CoA.
-If no agent advertisements are present or the inter arrival time is too high,
and a MN has not received a CoA, the mobile node must send agent
solicitations. 20

Is there anybody who will help me to get services from the near-by routers?

These solicitations and advertisement are again bases on RFC 1256

2. Registration:-purpose to inform HA, the current location
of MN.
‐ MN requests the forwarding service by sending a registration request to
the foreign agent (FA) that it wants to use
‐ FA conveys this request (with CoA) to the mobile node’s home agent (HA)
‐ HA either accepts or denies the request and sends a registration reply to
the FA and FA relays this reply to the MN
‐ Registration operation uses two types of messages carried in UDP
segments:
‐ Registration request message and Registration reply message

21
22
Mobile IP Registration …

23
Mobile IP Registration ….

24
3. Tunneling (data transfer):-
‐ Tunneling:- routing the packets to the mobile node where ever it is located.
Or Delivery of packets to the mobile node. A reciprocal tunnel is set up by
the Home Agent to the care-of address (current location of the Mobile Node
on the foreign network) to route packets to the Mobile Node as it roams.
Encapsulation – attaching CoA to the packet with Home address

Decapsulation – Detaching CoA to the packet with Home address

25
Tunneling…….

26
27
Here’s a step-by-step breakdown of how indirect routing works in Mobile IP:
1. Home Agent (HA): When a mobile device connects to a foreign network, it
registers its new care-of address (CoA) with a Home Agent, which is a server
located in the device’s home network.
2. Correspondent Node (CN): The device's Correspondent Node, which wants to
communicate with the mobile device, sends data to the mobile device's permanent
IP address (home address).
3. Tunneling: The Home Agent intercepts the data intended for the mobile device at
its home address. The HA then encapsulates or tunnels the packets and forwards
them to the device’s current CoA in the foreign network.
4. Foreign Agent (FA): In some Mobile IP implementations, the Foreign Agent in the
foreign network assists by decapsulating the packets and delivering them to the
mobile device.
5. Return Path: When the mobile device replies to the Correspondent Node, it
28
usually sends the reply directly to the CN, not through the Home Agent (to optimize
routing).
Key Characteristics of Indirect Routing:
Inefficient routing (Triangle routing): Packets take a bypass
through the Home Agent, which may cause longer delays.

Home Agent Dependency: The process relies on the Home

Agent to forward packets to the mobile device, which can
create a single point of failure or bottleneck.

There are problems also on direct communications between

CN and MN. Determine those problems… 29
Optimization of packet forwarding
• Triangular Routing
– sender sends all packets via HA to MN
– Triangular routes longer, higher latency and network load
• “Solutions”
– HA informs a sender about the location of MN
– sender learns current location of MN
– direct tunneling to this location
– big security problems!
• Change of FA
– packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost
– new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss
– old FA forwards remaining packets to new FA
– Update also enables old FA to release resources for MN 30
Encapsulation and Decapsulation in Mobile IP
• In Mobile IP, encapsulation and decapsulation are
crucial to ensure that data packets can be delivered to
a mobile device even when it moves between different
networks.
• Encapsulation is the process where the Home Agent
(HA) wraps the original packet intended for the mobile
device in an additional IP header.
• This is necessary because the mobile device may not
be in its home network and might have a temporary
address called a Care-of Address (CoA) in a foreign
network.
• Decapsulation is the reverse process where the
Foreign Agent (FA) (or the mobile device itself)
removes the outer IP header added during 31

encapsulation, revealing the original packet. The

device can then process the original packet as if it had
Encapsulation and Decapsulation in Mobile IP...
• Steps in Encapsulation:
• A Correspondent Node (CN) sends a packet to the mobile
device’s Home Address (the permanent IP address of the mobile
device).
• The Home Agent intercepts the packet, recognizing that the
mobile device is not in its home network but has moved to a
foreign network.
• The Home Agent encapsulates the entire packet into another IP
packet. The original packet, including its headers, becomes the
payload of this new packet.
• The new outer IP header contains:
– Source Address: Home Agent's IP address.
– Destination Address: Mobile device’s current Care-of Address
(CoA) in the foreign network.
– Done using IP-in-IP tunneling or GRE (Generic Routing 32

Encapsulation).
Encapsulation and Decapsulation in Mobile IP...
• Steps in Decapsulation:
• The encapsulated packet arrives at the Care-of Address (CoA) in
the foreign network.
• The Foreign Agent (or the mobile device itself if it has its own
CoA) receives the packet.
• The outer IP header (containing the Home Agent as the source
and the CoA as the destination) is removed.
• The inner, original packet (which has the Correspondent Node
as the source and the mobile device’s home IP as the
destination) is extracted.
• The mobile device processes the original packet as if it had
been directly sent to its home address.
– Encapsulation: Done by the Home Agent, where the original packet is
wrapped with an additional IP header to tunnel it to the mobile device’s
Care-of Address. 33

– Decapsulation: Performed by the Foreign Agent or mobile device itself,

where the outer header is removed, revealing the original packet to be
processed by the mobile device.
 Advantages of using Mobile IP
• It allows fast, continuous low‐cost access to corporate networks
in remote areas where there is no public telephone system or
cellular coverage.
• It supports a wide range of applications from Internet access
and e‐mail to e‐commerce.
• Users can be permanently connected to their Internet provider
and charged only for the data packets that are sent and received.
• Lower equipment and utilization costs for those requiring
reliable high‐speed data connections in remote locations
worldwide.
• A user can take a palmtop or laptop computer anywhere without
losing the connection to the home network.
• Mobile IP finds local IP routers and connects automatically. It is
phone‐jack and wire‐free.
• Other than mobile nodes/routers, the remaining routers and 34

hosts will still use current IP. Mobile IP leaves transport and
higher protocols unaffected.
 Advantages…..
• Authentication is performed to ensure that rights are being
protected.
• Mobile IP can move from one type of medium to another
without losing connectivity.
It is unique in its ability to accommodate heterogeneous mobility
in addition to homogenous mobility.

Disadvantage of Mobile IP
• There is a routing inefficiency problem caused by the “triangle
routing” formed by the home agent, correspondent host, and the
foreign agent.
• Security risks are the most important problem facing Mobile IP.
Besides the traditional security risks with IP, one has to worry
about faked care‐of addresses. 35
• Another issue related to the security is how to make Mobile IP
coexist with the security features coming in use within the
Internet.
 Proxy Mobile IP
• What is Proxy Mobile IP (PMIP)?
 Proxy Mobile IP (PMIP) is a network-based mobility
management protocol where the network handles mobility on
behalf of the mobile device.
 The mobile node does not need to participate in mobility
signaling.
 PMIP is standardized by the Internet Engineering Task Force in
RFC 5213 and is widely used in 4G/5G and Wi-Fi mobility
systems.
 In Mobile IP, the mobile node manages its mobility.
 In Proxy Mobile IP, the network manages the mobility for the
node (proxy).
 Proxy Mobile IP (PMIP) allows a mobile device to change
networks without updating its IP address, using network-based
entities to manage mobility, thus avoiding client-side software. 36
 The process involves a Mobile Access Gateway (MAG)
detecting the device, registering its location with a Local
Proxy Mobile IP
 PMIP introduces two major network elements:
 1. Local Mobility Anchor (LMA)
 Similar to a Home Agent in Mobile IP
 Maintains the mobile node’s home network prefix
 Acts as the anchor point for routing

 2. Mobile Access Gateway (MAG)

 Located at the access router
 Detects when a mobile node attaches or detaches
 Sends Proxy Binding Update (PBU) to the LMA
 Establishes a tunnel with the LMA

37
How Proxy Mobile IP Works
1. Mobile Node (MN) Attachment
 A mobile device (MN) connects to a new access network
(e.g., Wi-Fi, LTE).
 The MN itself does not run mobility software; it simply
attaches like a normal IP client.
2. Detection by the Access Router (MAG)
 The Mobile Access Gateway (MAG) detects the MN’s
attachment.
 MAG is responsible for signaling mobility events to the core
network.
 It identifies the MN using credentials (e.g., subscriber ID,
SIM, or device MAC).
3. Registration with Local Mobility Anchor (LMA)
 MAG sends a Proxy Binding Update (PBU) message to the
Local Mobility Anchor (LMA). 38

 The LMA acts as the "home agent," maintaining the MN’s

permanent IP address and routing state.
How Proxy Mobile IP Works
4. Binding Acknowledgment
 LMA responds with a Proxy Binding Acknowledgment
(PBA).
 This establishes a tunnel between MAG and LMA.
 The MN’s original IP address is preserved, even though it is
now in a new network.
5. Data Forwarding
 All traffic destined for the MN is routed through the LMA.
 The LMA tunnels packets to the MAG, which delivers them
to the MN.
 Uplink traffic from the MN follows the reverse path: MN →
MAG → LMA → Internet.
6. Seamless Mobility
 As the MN roams across different MAGs, each new MAG
repeats the registration process with the LMA. 39

 The MN continues using the same IP address, ensuring

session continuity (important for VoIP, streaming, or VPN
How Proxy Mobile IP Works
 Proxy Mobile IP works by shifting mobility management from
the device to the network, using MAGs and LMAs to maintain IP
continuity across roaming events.
 This makes it ideal for telecom operators who want to provide
seamless mobility without requiring special software on user
devices.
 Proxy Mobile IP provides:-
 No client software needed on the MN (simplifies
deployment).
 Seamless handovers across heterogeneous networks.
 Preserves IP address for ongoing sessions.
 Network-controlled mobility (operators manage mobility
centrally).

40
What are Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)?
 A Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configuring
wireless network of mobile devices that communicate without
any fixed infrastructure such as routers, base stations, or
access points.
 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) are decentralized, self-
configuring wireless networks where nodes act as both hosts
and routers.
 A MANET is a collection of mobile nodes connected via
wireless links without fixed infrastructure.
 Characteristics
 Infrastructure-less – no centralized administration
 Dynamic topology – nodes move frequently
 Multi-hop communication – packets may pass through
several nodes
 Limited resources – bandwidth, battery, processing 41

power
 Decentralized control
 Classifications of MANET Routing Protocols
• Proactive (Table-driven)---Maintain routes continuously
• Proactive protocols continuously maintain routing tables for
all nodes.
• Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV)
• DSDV is based on the distance vector routing algorithm.
• Each node maintains a routing table containing:
• destination node
• next hop
• hop count
• sequence number
• Sequence numbers prevent routing loops.
• Routes with higher sequence numbers are
considered newer.
• Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
• OLSR is an optimization of traditional link-state 42

routing.
Classifications of MANET Routing Protocols
• Reactive (On-demand)-------Create routes only when needed
• Reactive protocols discover routes only when needed.
• Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV)
• AODV creates routes only when a node needs to send data.
• Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
• DSR uses source routing.
• The entire route is stored inside the packet header.
• Hybrid------------------Combination of proactive and reactive
• Hybrid protocols combine proactive and reactive methods.
• Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
• ZRP divides the network into zones.
• Each node defines a routing zone radius (in hops).

43
MANET Routing Protocols
1. Reactive Protocols (AODV, DSR, TORA)
 Route Discovery: Initiated only when a source needs to send
data.
 Flooding: Route request (RREQ) messages spread through the
network.
 Route Reply: Destination or intermediate node responds with
route info.
 Maintenance: Broken links trigger route error (RERR)
messages.
2. Proactive Protocols (OLSR, DSDV)
 Periodic Updates: Nodes maintain routing tables
continuously.
 Immediate Availability: Routes are ready when needed.
 Trade-off: Higher bandwidth consumption due to constant
updates.
3. Hybrid Protocol (ZRP) 44

 Zone Definition: Each node defines a local zone proactively.

 Inter-zone Routing: Reactive discovery used for destinations
outside the zone.
THANK YOU

45